A

TERM PAPER

ON

GLASS AND GLAZING

BY

AKINTARO AYANFEOLUWA DORCAS

125/20/2/0009

SUBMITTED TO

DR. K.P. OLAYENI

THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING AND QUANTITY SURVEYING,

FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES AND MANAGEMENT, ABIOLA AJIMOBI
TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, IBADAN, OYO STATE, NIGERIA.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (B.SC.)HONS. DEGREE IN ARCHITECTURE.

APRIL, 2025.
Table of Contents
1.0 DEFINITION..............................................................................................................................3

2.0 PRODUCTION OF GLASS.......................................................................................................5

3.0 APPLICATION IN BUILDING.................................................................................................9

4.0 TYPES OF GLASS AND GLAZING......................................................................................10

5.0 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GLASS.......................................................11

ADVANTAGES OF GLASS IN CONSTRUCTION..........................................................................11

DISADVANTAGES OF GLASS IN CONSTRUCTION...................................................................12

REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................................14

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1.0 DEFINITION

GLASS

Glass is known for its fragility as well as firmness that make it typical of a solid. At the same
time, it can be qualified as a liquid, owing to its somewhat fluid nature. But, scientifically, glass is
what is called an amorphous solid – a state between two states of matter. In terms of conductivity,
glass has neither thermal nor electrical, since it has no reaction with the commonly known chemical
compounds. Glass is an inorganic, non-crystalline solid material typically made by melting silica
(sand) with fluxes like soda ash (sodium carbonate) and stabilizers like lime (calcium oxide) at high
temperatures, then cooling it rapidly to prevent crystallization (ASTM C162-23, 2023).

 The Oxford English Dictionary defines glass as: "A hard, brittle substance, typically
transparent or translucent, made by fusing sand with soda, lime, and sometimes other
ingredients, and cooling rapidly. It is used for windows, bottles, and other utensils."(Oxford
University Press, 2023).
 Ching & Adams (2023) describe glass in Building Construction Illustrated as: "A hard,
amorphous material made by melting silica sand with fluxes and stabilizers at high
temperatures, then cooling it to form a rigid structure without crystallization."(p. 145).
 According to Encyclopedia Britannica (2023), glass is: "An inorganic solid material that is
usually clear or translucent, made by the fusion of silica, alkali, and lime. It can be molded,
blown, or drawn into various shapes when molten."
 Schittich (2021) emphasizes its structural applications: "Glass is a versatile building material
characterized by its transparency, strength (when tempered or laminated), and ability to
transmit light while providing thermal and acoustic insulation." (Glass Construction Manual,
p. 12).
 Scientifically, glass is defined as a non-equilibrium, non-crystalline state of matter that
appears solid on a short time scale but continuously relaxes towards the liquid state.
 In building and construction, "glass" typically refers to the transparent or translucent
material used for windows, doors, and facades, providing light transmission and visibility.

GLAZING

Glazing refers to the installation of glass in architectural openings such as windows, doors, and
curtain walls.

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 The Oxford English Dictionary (2023) defines glazing as: "The act of fitting windows,
doors, or other openings with glass, or the glass itself used in such an application."
 The ASHRAE Handbook (2022) provides a technical perspective: "Glazing is the
installation of glass or other transparent materials in building envelopes to allow daylight
while controlling heat gain, loss, and UV transmission." (HVAC Systems and Equipment, p.
34.5).
 Ching & Adams (2023) describe the process in Building Construction Illustrated: "Glazing is
the process of securing glass in frames, sashes, or panels to form windows, curtain walls, or
skylights, often using sealants, gaskets, or mechanical fasteners." (p. 178).
 The International Building Code (IBC, 2021) defines glazing in a regulatory context:
"Glazing refers to any glass or transparent material used in building façades, including
windows, doors, and structural glass assemblies, which must meet safety and energy
performance standards." (Section 2403).
 Wigginton (2019) expands on the structural aspects in Glass in Architecture: "Glazing
encompasses not only the glass panes themselves but also the systems that hold them in
place, such as mullions, gaskets, and structural silicone, ensuring weather resistance and
structural integrity."(p. 56).

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2.0 PRODUCTION OF GLASS

The primary raw materials in glass are sand, soda, limestone, clarifying agents, coloring and
glistening glass. Glass sand is about ¾th of the entire glass composition.

1. Batching of raw materials

The main components, comprising silica sand, calcium oxide, soda & magnesium are weighed and
mixed into batches to which recycled glass (cullet) is added. The use of ‘cullet’ reduces the
consumption of energy. The materials are tested and stored for mixing later under computerized
control. The superior clarity offered by Saint-Gobain Clear Glass, is a result of purity in raw
materials, precision in composition and strict adherence to high quality standards in the
manufacturing process. The company has a dedicated sand beneficiation plant in Tada where silica
sand (to be used in manufacturing) is purified, and excess iron content is removed from the material.

2. Melting of raw materials in the furnace

The batched raw materials pass from a mixing silo to a five-chambered furnace where they become
molten. Temperatures in the furnace reach upto 1600°C.

3. Drawing the molten glass onto the tin bath:

The molten glass is then "floated" onto a bath of molten tin at a temperature of about 1000°C. It
forms a “ribbon” which is normally between 5 and 6 mm. By suitably drawing the glass through a
complex process involving top roll machines, ribbon thickness in the range of 1.9mm to 19mm can
be achieved. The glass, which is highly viscous, and the tin, which is very fluid, do not mix and the
contact surface between these two materials is perfectly flat, giving the term “flat” glass to the final
product.

4. Cooling of the molten glass in the annealing lehr:

On leaving the bath of molten tin, the glass - now at a temperature of 600°C - has cooled down
sufficiently to pass to an annealing chamber called a lehr. The glass is now hard enough to pass over
rollers and is annealed, which modifies the internal stresses, enabling it to be cut and worked in a
predictable way ensuring flatness of the glass. As both surfaces are fire finished, they need no
grinding or polishing

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 5. Quality checks, automatic cutting, and storage:

After cooling, the glass undergoes rigorous quality checks. It is then cut into sheets of sizes
varying upto a maximum of 6000mm x 3660 mm which are, in turn, automatically stacked,
stored and ready for transport.

The Fours Steps for Manufacturing of Glass (obtained from sciencedoze.com)

1. Collection of raw materials

The raw materials such as silica (in the form of sand or quartz SiO2), soda ash (Na3CO3), limestone
(CaCO3), and cullet (broken glass) are collected separately and mixed in a proper proportion. The
fusion of cullet (broken glass) is added to bring down the melting point of the charge.

2. Preparation of Batch

The raw materials, cullet, and decolourisers are finely powdered in grinding machines. These
materials are accurately weighed in correct proportions before they are mixed.

The mixing of these materials is carried out in mixing machines until a uniform mixture is obtained.
Such a uniform mixture is known as batch or frit. It is taken for further process of melting in a
furnace.

3. Melting or heating of the charge

The glass batch is melted either in a pot furnace or in a tank furnace. It is made of fireclay or
platinum. The heating is continued until the evolution of carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulfur dioxide, and
other gases stops.

(a) Pot furnaces

Pot furnaces are used mainly in the manufacture of optical glass, art glass, and plate glass and in
small scale units. The pots are crucibles made of selected clay, high alumina fire clay as mullite
(3Al2O3.2SiO2), or platinum.

(b) Tank Furnace

In a tank furnace, both materials are charged into one end of a large 'tank' built of refractory blocks.
The tank has a capacity of 1400 tons. The glass forms a pool in the heart of the furnace across which
the flames play alternately from one side to the other.

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Heating is done by burning producer gas mixed with air over the charge. The cullet (broken glass)
melts first and helps in the fusion of the rest of the charge. A high temperature of 1500-1800 C is
maintained to reduce the viscosity of glass melt and to obtain a homogenous liquid.

The chemical reaction of the formation of glass in a furnace

Heating is continued till the glass melt is free from gas bubbles like CO2, SO2, etc. Undecomposed
raw materials and impurities form a scum called glass gall which is to be skimmed off.

The clear liquid is now allowed to cool after the necessary decolorizers or coloring agents. It is
cooled to 700-1200 C so that it will have the proper viscosity for shaping.

4. Processing of Glass

(a) Shaping

The molten glass is run into molds and automatic machines turn them into desired shapes such as
sheets, tubes, rods, wires, etc.

The molten glass is given proper shape according to our need. It can either be done by hand or by
machine. Hand fabrication is adopted for small scale production and machine fabrication is adopted
for large scale production.

(b) Annealing

After shaping, the glass articles need to be cooled down gradually and slowly. Rapid cooling may
cause fracture and crack. Annealing is carried out in special chambers, where the temperature is
brought down slowly.

The entire process of annealing may require a few days. This whole process of slow and
homogenous cooling of glass articles is known as the annealing of glass.

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Why Annealing is important?

The annealing of glass is a very important process. If the glass is allowed to cool down rapidly then
the superficial layer of the glass cools down first and interior portions remain comparatively hot and
therefore remain in the state of strain.

Hence, if annealing is not done then glass articles may break into pieces under very slight shocks or
disturbances.

(c) Finishing

After annealing the glass articles are subjected to finishing such as cleaning, grinding, polishing, cutting,
etc.

Certain decolorizing agents such as cerium oxide, neodymium oxide, etc. are added to neutralize an
undesired color present in the glass.

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3.0 APPLICATION IN BUILDING

1. Windows and Doors: Glass allows natural light and ventilation, improves aesthetics, and
provides views to the outside.
2. Curtain Walls: Large glass panels form non-load-bearing exterior walls, enhancing
aesthetics and energy efficiency
3. Spandrel Glass: Used to conceal structural components like columns and HVAC systems,
often with opaque finishes
4. Skylights: Installed in roofs to bring daylight into interior spaces, reducing energy costs and
enhancing comfort.
5. Glass Floors and Staircases: Used for modern, open designs, allowing light penetration
between levels.
6. Facades: Glass facades provide a sleek look, thermal insulation, soundproofing, and weather
resistance.
7. Other Applications: Glass is also used for balustrades, partitions, and decorative features in
buildings.

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4.0 TYPES OF GLASS AND GLAZING

Type Description Common Uses

1 Float Glass Basic flat glass, made by floating molten Windows, mirrors, doors
glass on tin
2 Laminated Two or more layers bonded with an Skylights, floors, facades,
Glass interlayer for safety and security safety glazing
3 Tempered Heat-treated for strength; breaks into blunt Doors, windows, partitions,
Glass pieces shower enclosures
4 Double Glazing Two panes separated by air/gas for Energy-efficient windows,
insulation facades
5 Triple Glazing Three panes with air/gas gaps for superior High-performance windows in
insulation cold climates
6 Tinted Glass Colored or coated to reduce glare and heat Windows, facades
7 Smart Glazing Glass that changes properties (e.g., tint, Sustainable buildings, energy
opacity) in response to stimuli management
8 Spandrel Glass Opaque glass for concealing structural Curtain walls, facades
elements
9 Glass Blocks Thick, often patterned glass blocks for light Walls, partitions
and privacy
10 Shatterproof Treated or laminated to prevent dangerous Safety applications
Glass shards

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5.0 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF GLASS.

Glass is a crucial material in modern construction, offering aesthetic and functional benefits but also
presenting challenges. Below are some advantages and disadvantages in building applications,

ADVANTAGES OF GLASS IN CONSTRUCTION

1. Natural Light & Energy Efficiency

- Maximizes daylight, reducing artificial lighting needs.

- Low-emissivity (Low-E) glass improves thermal insulation.

2. Aesthetic & Design Flexibility

- Enables sleek, modern façades and open spaces.

- Available in tinted, frosted, and smart glass variants.

3. Structural Strength & Safety

- Tempered and laminated glass resist impacts and wind loads.

- Resistant to corrosion and chemical degradation

- Fire-resistant glass enhances building safety.

4. Sustainability & Recyclability

- Infinitely recyclable without quality loss

- Reduces carbon footprint compared to concrete and steel.

5. Noise Reduction

Laminated glass is effective in urban areas for sound insulation.

6. Hygienic & Easy to Clean

- Non-porous surface prevents bacterial growth.

- Preferred in hospitals and food industries.

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DISADVANTAGES OF GLASS IN CONSTRUCTION

1. High Cost & Maintenance

Specialized glass (e.g., tempered, laminated) is expensive compared to traditional materials. It also
requires frequent cleaning and coatings. Installation and maintenance costs are higher than
alternatives (WRAP, 2023).

2. Thermal Inefficiency (Single-Pane Glass)

Poor insulation of glass leads to heat loss/gain and it also increases HVAC energy consumption

3. Safety & Security Risks

Glass is Vulnerable to breakage (earthquakes, vandalism)

4. Weight & Structural Support Needed

Glass is heavy and it requires reinforced frames

5. Glare & UV Exposure

Excessive sunlight can cause discomfort for people.

6. Brittleness & Fragility

Glass is prone to cracking under stress and also has a high risk of breakage in earthquakes.

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 SPANDRE
L GLASS
FLOAT
GLASS

GLASS
TINTED
BLOCKS
GLASS

LAMINAT
ED GLASS

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American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers. (2022). HVAC systems
and equipment. ASHRAE.

Asdrubali, F., et al. (2022). Sound insulation properties of laminated glass for building applications.
Applied Acoustics, 185, 108403.

ASTM International. (2023). Standard terminology of glass and glass products (ASTM C162-23).

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