Meera P Shirolkar

Types of timber
 Timber sold commercially is divided into two types; hardwoods
and softwoods.
 However, the terms bear no relation to the softness or hardness of
the material.
 Softwoods come from coniferous, or cone-bearing trees, many
of which have needle-like leaves and are mostly evergreen, eg
pines and yew.
 Hardwoods are produced from broad-leaved trees which
produce seeds contained in an enclosed case, or ovary, such as
acorns or walnuts.
 some trees which produce soft wood

some trees which produce hardwood

 The botanical names of timber species are those of the trees from
which the timber is produced. The features used by botanists for
distinguishing individual species may appear in the flowers or
leaves.
 Thus the timber from closely related tree species may be
similar or in some cases indistinguishable. For example
English oak is made up of two species of the genus Quercus.
 It is important to use the proper species name when a particular
timber is required.
 Different species of the same genus can produce timbers with
significantly different features, eg sapele with its significant stripe
figure and utile, which is quite plain, are different species of the
genus Entandrophragma.
European oak sapele

utile
 Hardwood Softwood
Examples of Pine, spruce, cedar, fir, larch, douglas-
Aspen, Poplar, Birch, Elm, Maple, etc.
trees: fir, etc.

Used for furniture but less frequently Widely used as woodware for building
Applications:
than softwood. and furniture.
Lower density thereby most varieties
Density: higher density thereby harder
are softer than hardwood.

Trees supplying hardwood are found

throughout the world from the Boreal
Found in regions: and Taiga forests of the North to the Found in the northern hemisphere.
tropics and down into the far South,
excluding antartica.

Trees that are conifer and have

Comes from deciduous trees that drop
Definition: needles, and normally do not lose
their leaves every year.
needles.
Broad leaves; enclosed nuts; higher Less dense; less durable; high calorific
Properties:
density. values.
Type: Mostly deciduous. Evergreen.
Cost: Expensive. Less Expensive.
 The natural purpose of wood is to provide a framework which
supports the foliage and fruits of the tree and which is
resistant to lateral wind forces and gravity loads.
 These natural structural properties make it an ideal
construction material.
 The trunks of trees and branches are essentially linear
elements able to resist tension, compression and
bending. They are highly elastic and the mechanism of
resisting loads involves bending (sway under wind
loads).
 As the cross-section of members increases so does their
strength and resistance to bending.
A Beech
tree with its
different
parts
 The logs of many trees show a darker coloured area in
the centre of the trunk. This is the heartwood. Its
function is almost entirely to provide mechanical
support. Around this is a ring of sapwood which
conducts sap from the roots to the leaves.
 Sapwood generally has a low resistance to fungal or
insect attack; the resistance of heartwood varies
considerably depending upon the species.
 Many of the softwoods used for structural purposes eg
European redwood, will contain a significant amount of
sapwood as the trees are harvested whilst relatively
small in diameter.
 The trunk

Distinguished sapwood and

heartwood
 The characteristics of wood are used to distinguish between
hardwoods and softwoods and between different species.
Characteristics which can be seen with the naked eye include:
 Knots: the remains of branches which originate in the centre of
the tree and become embedded in the trunk as the tree grows.
 Grain: the general direction of the fibres relative to the axis of the
tree.
 Texture: depends on the structural character of the wood.
Timbers with small cells produce fine textured timber, those with
large cells produce a coarse texture.
 Figure: refers to the markings seen on the cut surface of the
timber formed by the structural features of the wood.
  Hardwood being kiln dried

Wood which is thoroughly air dried will attain a

moisture content of around 18 - 20%. To achieve
moisture contents lower than this, kiln drying will be
necessary.
 Timber which increases in
moisture content can swell
resulting in for e.g lifting of
floor boards.

 Moisture content often

increases as a result of timber
being installed in a building
before os too soon after wet
trades have been completed
 The density of timber varies between
different species, between timber
from different trees of the same
species and even within the same
tree.
 The cell structure of a species
determines whether it is inherently Top :Fast grown softwood
where the growth rings are
light in weight or dense and heavy. far apart
The rate of growth of the tree also has Below : slow grown softwood
an influence; fast grown timber will be where the growth rings are
closely spaced.
less dense than slow grown material. Timber of the same species
The strength of timber is broadly will tend to be more lighter
related to its density. and softer the more quickly it
is grown
 The durability of timber is a measure of its
resistance to attack by insects and fungi.
 The most effective means of preventing fungal
attack is to ensure that the moisture content of
timber remains below 22%
 Some woods, such as teak and European oak
have greater natural durability than others.
 However, it is primarily the heartwood which is
protected. The sapwood of most species is
susceptible to attack if above 22% moisture
content.
Timber shed:Timber products
 Resistance to attack by insects and fungi can be which are been dried should be
enhanced by the application of preservative stored under protected
treatments condition until installed in the
building
 Permeability is an important factor in the treatment of
timber with chemicals such as preservatives and flame
retardants. Permeability varies enormously between
species although the sapwood of all species is more
permeable than the heartwood.

Penetration of the creosote into the

sapwood of a softwood [Link]
preservative provides a protective
envelop around the untreated
material.
 Fire resistance is an important consideration
in using timber. Although wood is used as a
fuel, large sections of timber are difficult to
ignite and the charcoal produced on the
surface provides protection for the wood
underneath.
.
 The uncharred parts of timber sections retain
their integrity and mechanical properties -
timber does not melt or expand. Aftermath of a major fire in
a Bordan chemical
 Timber has the unique advantage amongst [Link] residual
structural materials in that fire protection can section of a charred timber
be achieved by additional 'sacrificial' material beam supports the
since the structural integrity of the remaining melted,bent remains of
uncharred section section is not affected. steel I beams .
 The structural strength of timber is a measure of its
ability to resist outside forces, such as compression,
tension and shear. The density is reliable indicator of
many structural and mechanical properties.
 There is a particularly strong relationship between
 density and compressive strength,
 bending strength and hardness and
 density and stiffness.

 Density ranges from an average of 160 kg per cubic

metre for balsa to 1040 kg per cubic metre for
greenheart, with the most commonly used structural
softwoods having a density between 450 and 550 kg
per cubic metre.
Testing a strength of
 There is a marked difference in strength properties
beam at TRADA
depending upon whether they are measured parallel to
technologies laboratories
or perpendicular to the grain of the timber.
 Visual strength grading assesses the size,
frequency and positions of characteristics
such as knots, wane, sloping grain and
other factors which affect strength.
 Visually graded timber is assigned to an
appropriate strength class on the basis of
its species and grade.

The grader has to asses the size and position of knots within
the section by visual assessment of the face Measuring the slope of grain
 Logs sawn through and through produce
wide boards but these tend to cup on drying.
 Quarter sawing produces narrower boards
but these are more stable in drying and in Sawing patterns and their
use. effect on shrinkage

 The figure of some hardwoods, such as oak

and ash, is enhanced by quarter sawing.
 Sawn timber sections have fairly rough and
slightly irregular surfaces which may be
further machined by fine sawing or planing to
improve the smoothness or dimensional
accuracy. The conversion pattern of
the log affects the figure of
the timber
 The majority of hardwoods used by the building
industry are for joinery,
 Some are used structurally where longer lengths,
increased spans, greater durability or their decorative
value are required.

Hardwood beam spans 7.2m carrying office

Air drying of hardwood
loadinds at the TRADA building at Hughenden
 There are many chemicals, used singly or in
combination, which preserve timber against insect
and/or fungal attack

Preservative treatment does not affect the

weathering of timber and for most species, some form  preservation pressure
treatment plant
of surface finish such as a paint, varnish or stain is
needed to maintain the appearance, especially when
timber is used outdoors.

Preservatives fall into three main groups:

Tar oils
Water borne preservatives
Organic solvent preservatives
 Tar oils
Creosote is the most commonly used type. However, its smell, dark colour
and tendency to bleed out of the treated wood, make it generally only
suitable for outside uses such as fence posts and transmission poles.
 Water borne preservatives
The most common are formulations of copper, chromium and arsenic
although new formulations are continually being developed and introduced.
Though toxic to insects and fungi, CCA treated timber is non-toxic to
humans and animals under normal conditions of use. Timber treated with
water-borne preservatives must be redried to an appropriate moisture
content after treatment. Once dried, finishes can be applied and the
chemicals are odourless.
 Organic solvent preservatives
There is a wide range of formulations. They are toxic if ingested by humans
or animals. Widely used for prefabricated joinery since they do not wet the
timber and cause swelling, they can be painted over or sealed.
 Chemicals can be applied to timber using
a variety of methods including pressure
impregnation, hot and cold soaking,
dipping, spraying and brushing.
 Pressure treatment is the most effective
though the pressure vessel imposes
limitations on the size and shape of the
components which can be treated.
 The degree of penetration of the
chemicals into the timber depends upon Degree of preservative
the permeability of the species and the impregnation under
treatment regime. different treatment
 The sapwood is always more permeable regimes shown by staining
than the heartwood.
 Timber is a natural composite which can be used in its
original or sawn sections. It can also be converted into
particles, strands or laminates which can be combined
with other materials such as glues to form timber
composite products.
 The principal reasons for transforming timber into
composite products include:
 to transcend the dimensional limitations of sawn timber
 to improve performance; structural properties, stability or
flexibility
 to transform the natural material into a homogenous product
 to utilise low-grade materials, minimise waste and maximise
the use of a valuable resource
 Adhesives used for timber or timber products in structural applications are
of two types, depending upon their resistance to moisture and heat:
 Type I is suitable for prolonged exposure to temperatures above 50
degrees C or for full exposure to the weather
 Type II is suitable for use inside heated and ventilated buildings, in exterior
situations protected from the weather or for short periods of exposure to the
weather. Synthetic resin adhesives are widely used for the production of
composite materials, including phenol formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde
and melamine formaldehyde.
 Timber composites can be divided into three categories
 Layered composites e.g glulam , plywood

 Particle composites e.g particle board

 Fibre composites e.g fibre board ,MDF .

 Layered composites are used to produce both sections and
sheets. The orientation of the fibres can be optimised and
knots, splits and other irregularities removed or distributed
within the section, to achieve enhanced and consistent
structural performance.
 Layered composites can also be reinforced or interleaved
with other materials, further to increase strength and
dimensional stability. Parallel layered
composites-glulam and
 Layered composites can be classified into three groups: parallel veneered lumber
 Parallel laminates - Glulam
 Cross laminates - Plywood
 Sandwich panels
 Laminated timber comprises several layers of timber
sections glued together. The layers can be thick or thin and
arranged so that the grain of the timber in the layers run
parallel or at right angles (exceptionally at other angles) to
each other.
 Glued laminated timber (glulam) is
formed by gluing together a series of
precision cut small sections of timber to
form large cross section structural
members of long length.
 The timber members are strength
graded before fabrication. The strength
grade or combination of strength grades
used determines the grade and strength
of the laminated beam.
The manufacturerof glulam
 The member can be straight or curved beams After curing under
and can be made with a variable section pressure the excess glue can
according to the structural requirements. be planed or sanded off
 Glulam used to make bridge which spans the Thames at
Hurley
Glulam double curvature arches
 Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) is
manufactured from thin sheets or laminae
which are peeled from the log. The
veneers are glued together to provide the
required thickness and then cut into
structural sized sections.
 A proportion of the laminates within a
section may be laid with the grain at right
angles to balance the movement
characteristics of the section. Standard
sizes of LVL range from 19 - 89 mm thick
x 45 - 900 mm width.
 The most familiar cross laminate is
plywood. The basic characteristics of
plywood are veneers bonded together,
most frequently with synthetic glues. In
most plywoods the grain of the wood in
each veneer is laid at right angles to the
adjoining one.
 Plywood usually contains an uneven
number of veneers so that the
properties are 'balanced' about the
central veneer or core. The core in
some plywood may be a double veneer. Top:Traditional plywood
One of the outer veneers may be a constructions.
decorative hardwood, balanced by a Middle:Four ply
cheaper wood on the back. Bottom:six ply
• Plywood is dimensionally stable and can be used for large uninterrupted
surfaces.
• It is resistant to splitting and can be nailed or screwed close to the edges
of the panel.
• Plywood panels can, within limits, be bent without cracking to form
smoothly curved surfaces.
• Common uses for plywood are sheathing, panelling, floors and structural
diaphragms, concrete formwork, furniture and fittings.
• Many traditional uses of plywood are being taken over by other wood-
based boards.

Plywood used for roof sarking

 Other types of layered composites are produced, for
example cores of timber strips produce boards by the
name of battenboard, blockboard or laminboard,
depending upon the width of the strips used.
 Sandwich panels are built up of layers of different
materials. Normally the outside layers are of high strength
and stiffness with a thicker core of lower strength material.

 There are many possible combinations, most of which are
designed for specialist applications.
 Plywood is an ideal material for use in the outside layers
and has been used with cores of insulating foam for •3-ply
facade panels, paper honeycomb for doors and timber •5-ply
spacers for stressed skin panels. •Laminboard
•Composite or
sandwich panel
 Particle composites can be divided into 3
broad types:
 Particleboards - chipboard, cement-bonded
particleboard
 Oriented Strand Board
 Structural particle composites - Parallel Strand
Lumber
 Types of particleboard are determined
by the size and shape of the particles.
 Chipboard is produced from dried and
graded chips mixed with resin which
are formed into boards by curing in a
heated press. Board thicknesses range
from 6 - 25 mm, although panels up to
70 mm thick can be produced.
 Grades of chipboard are defined in
terms of their suitability for particular The gradation of density can
be achieved by variations in
applications and their resistance to layup of chips during
moisture. manufacturing
 Chipboard has a wide variety of uses in
building, such as flooring and cladding.
 It is widely used pre-painted or faced with
decorative wood veneers, melamine foils or
other surface treatments.
 For purposes such as flooring, panels are often
sold with tongued and grooved edges to facilitate
interlocking and gluing where appropriate
Chipboard flooring
Oriented strand board (OSB) is manufactured from timber
strands at least twice as long as they are wide, bonded
together with synthetic resin. The alignment of the strands is
controlled during manufacture to produce a cross ply effect
emulating plywood and resulting in increased strength and
stiffness

Oriented strand board

 Parallel Strand Lumber (PSL) is a
composite structural product
manufactured from strands of
timber up to 2.4 m long and up to
3 mm thick which have been
peeled from the log.
 The strands are oriented with the
grain parallel and glued together
into a continuous billet which is
then cut into standard structural
lengths.
 Sizes range from 45 - 178 mm
thick x 89 - 406 mm width
 Fibres are produced from chips of wood (mainly from
forest thinnings) which are reduced to a pulp by
mechanical or pressure heating methods.
 In wet process boards the pulp is mixed with water and
other additives, formed on a flat surface and pressed at
high temperature. In most fibreboards the basic strength
and adhesion is obtained from felting together of the
fibres themselves and from their own inherent adhesive
properties.
 Board types are differentiated by the manufacturing
process - whether produced by the wet or a dry process
and their density
 Softboards are the lowest density fibreboards with a density of less than
400 kg per cubic metre.
 Thicknesses range from 9 - 25 mm. It is slightly compressed during
manufacture and is mainly for insulating purposes in walls, ceilings and
floors. When impregnated with bitumen it has good resistance to moisture
and can be used for sarking, floor underlay and sheathing. Softboards have
low structural strength.
 Medium boards have densities between 400 and 900 kg per cubic metre.
They are divided into low and high density types:
 Low density medium boards have a density of 400 to 560 kg per cubic
metre. Thicknesses range from 6 to 12 mm. Uses include panelling, wall
linings, ceilings and pinboards.
 High density medium boards have a density of 560 to 900 kg per cubic
metre. Thicknesses range from 6 to 12 mm. Uses include panelling,
ceilings, sheathings floor underlay, shopfitting and signboards.
 Medium density fibreboard (MDF) is manufactured under a dry process, using a
resin adhesive. Its density is greater than 600 kg per cubic metre and thicknesses
range from 4 to 35 mm. The homogenous cross section and smooth faces of MDF
give high quality surfaces that are ideal for painting and have made it a popular,
relatively recent addition to the range of wood-based boards. It is widely used for
skirtings , mouldings , architraves, joinery and furniture.
 Hardboard is the highest density fibreboard - over 900 kg per cubic metre.
Tempered hardboard is impregnated with hot oil or resin and heat cured.
Thicknesses range from 2 to 12 mm.
 Generally hardboard has a smooth face with a fine mesh pattern on the reverse
although boards with two smooth faces are available.
 Hardboard is strong and stiff, but since it is thin it has restricted spanning
capabilities. It is used as floor and wall linings, for doors, panelling, joinery and
furniture. Tempered hardboard can be used in structural components such as box
or webbed beams. Pre-coated and surface laminated hardboards are available, as
are embossed and perforated boards.
Medium density board is extensively used in interior design since it is easy to work with and
produces smooth finish