Diploma in

Translations Studies
DTS-04
Socio-Cultural Contexts of Translation

Rewriting English
Adaptation

Transcreation
Translation
अनवुद त

Refrection
भाषा

¼k»kk ¼k»kktŒh
y™w‚so™

िह ी y™wðkË
„wshkŒe Langunge
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 Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Open University
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Diploma in Translation Studies

Paper-04
Socio-Cultural Contexts of Translation

Unit No. Unit Name Page

No.
Unit-1 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN MULTILINGUALSOCIETY 1

Unit-2 CULTURAL CONTEXT IN TRANSLATION 8

Unit-3 SOCIAL CONTEXT OF TRANSLATION 14

Unit-4 TRANSLATING PHRASES, CLAUSES AND SENTENCES 28

Unit-5 LOSS AND GAIN IN TRANSLATION 41

Unit-6 TRANSLATION AND EDUCATION 47

Unit-7 TRANSLATION IN DISTANCE EDUCATION 57

Unit-8 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE 64

Unit-9 TRANSLATION AND EMPLOYMENT 71

 UNIT-1 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN MULTILINGUAL
SOCIETY

:: STRUCTURE ::

1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 INDIA AS A MULTICULTURAL SPACE
1.3 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETY
1.4 CONCLUSION
1.5 SUGGESTED READINGS

1.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we will learn to understand
 the importance of multilingualism in translation
 the importance of multicultural space in India
 the role of translation in Indian Literature
 the role of translation in multilingual society

1.1 INTRODUCTION
One day a mother mouse and a baby mouse were walking outside.
Suddenly a cat appeared and was about to jump on them. The mother said, “Bow-
wow.” The cat got frightened and ran away. The mother then turned to the baby
and said: “See the advantage of knowing an extra language.” Surely knowing an
extra language has many advantages but everybody cannot have that privilege and
that is why translations are useful as well as essential.
Translation is an activity of enormous importance in the modern world and
it is a subject of interest not only for linguists, professionals, translators and
language teachers, but also for electronic engineers and mathematicians as well. In
the present context of national development, translation is considered to be an
important component of language learning. As the world has become a „global
village‟ and „Internet‟ has facilitated the communication system, the role of
translation has become crucial. At the national level, translation helps in bringing
about national integration. At the international level, it helps in developing good
relations among neighbouring countries. In a way, translation helps the people in
their effort at nation building and establishing national identity.
In a multi-lingual and multi-cultural country like Indian, translation is of
paramount importance for exchange of ideas and thoughts among people
belonging to different regions, languages and culture. The importance of
translation lies in the fact that translation brings the readers, writers and critics of
one nation into contact with those of others, not only in the field of literature; but
in all areas of human development: science and philosophy, medicine, political
science, law and religion, to name but a few. With the “indeterminacy of meaning”
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of a “text” (Das, 7), the need for translation in the modern world is now greater
than ever before.
Translation allows different cultures to connect, interact, and enrich one
another. In the Indian situation, the role of translation is very significant as it is the
home to people speaking 22 recognized languages and hundreds of mother
tongues and dialects.
India is a linguistic galaxy of unparalleled richness. Few contexts could be
better suited than the Indian for a discussion of the processes of translation within
a spectacular stellar setting. How does one common „idea of India‟ make itself
available to a Bengali, Gujarati, Tamil or a Marathi in any way save that of
translation? Translation provides a cognitive map of India‟s linguistic world in all
its interrelatedness as well as estrangement. All texts and all readers are both
monolingual and multilingual. A text, obviously written literally in one language
in a given manifestation faces a multi lingual reader and thus reaches out to a
much larger base, unifying experiences and opinions as it expands.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

1. Write a brief note on the importance of translation.
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2. Briefly define multilingualism.
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1.2 INDIA AS A MULTICULTURAL SPACE

Translation plays a significant role, explicit or implicit, deliberate or
spontaneous in the inter-lingual, intercultural communication between the people
of India, as well in the construction of multilingual, multicultural Indian
Literature. It negotiates the power relations between various cultural formations
and different linguistic mediums as a means of communication and as a language
of translation, contributing to the egalitarian process by countering the hierarchical
relationships between languages and cultures, reclaiming disappearing texts and
cultures, and releasing knowledge from the control of a few. The paper addresses

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these complex interconnected issues of Indian Literature, multiculturalism and

translation.
India is a multicultural space accommodating many races, castes,
languages, religions and cultures. These exist paradoxically as distinct and, at the
same time, interconnected, even overlapping, identities, at multiple levels. India
can be described as a nation of nations, a land of many India, variously imagined
by these communities/collectivities through various cultural forms and
expressions. Out of this scenario emerge multilingual forms of Indian literature,
and in this translation plays a role that can be explicit or implicit, deliberate or
spontaneous. The aim of this discussion is to discuss how translation participates
in these complex interrelations and negotiates the power relationships between
these various socio-cultural forces and different linguistic mediums, such as the
choice of bhashas vis-a-vis English as the language of translation.

Role of Translation in Indian Literature

Indian literature is an expression of the vital plurality and productive diversity of
our nation. Community-states in India have no well-defined boundaries; they cross
each other‟s frontiers. In many cases, languages are not confined to the
geographical boundaries of particular states; languages contain many variations
and dialects and share a number of features. States have a mixed population
speaking different languages. When members of these communities communicate
with each other, they often have to speak different mixed varieties of languages, so
people inside their state as well as outside are constantly engaged in translation.
India, thus, is a land of “translating consciousness” (Devy, 135)
A literary trend in a particular language can go beyond the boundaries of
the given language to establish historical, thematic, and stylistic correspondence
with literatures in other Indian languages. The Bhakti Poetry movement at one
time spread across the regional and linguistic barriers of the country. There are
writers who speak and write in many languages and readers who understand and
enjoy literatures in more than one language. In a single text there can be
multilingual situations, or polyphony, or the use of many languages. In the plays
of Kalidas Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Magadhi were used with ease and naturalness and
the audience could understand and enjoy the linguistic shifts within a single work.
Literary creations have been appropriated and transformed into new incarnations
in geographically and temporarily distant spaces. Texts have been transcreated,
translated, adapted, imitated, and sometimes, interpreted and circulated in new
literary constructs. Following the decline of Sanskrit as the central language of
creative expression the languages of various regions of India emerged as the
mediums of knowledge, and literature. Knowledge that until then had been
confined to a few individuals was liberated, to be made available to common
people. Translation played a significant role in the diversification and
dissemination of knowledge and also in the evolution and enrichment of Indian
languages and literatures. A number of Sanskrit texts were translated into regional
languages, and 120 Indian Literature, took different interpretations and forms. The
linguistic and cultural heterogeneity of Indian society as both a reality and the
norm was recognized and established. Translation helps expose Indian writers
writing in one language to the styles, techniques and experimentations in the
literatures of other languages, so that they can use these creatively in their own
writings. New trends in literature have been facilitated by translation activities.
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1.3 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN MULTILINGUAL SOCIETY

The role of translation can hardly be over-emphasized in a multilingual
country like India with 22 languages recognized in the eighth schedule of the
constitution, 15 different scripts, hundreds of mother-tongues and thousands of
dialects. One can very well say that India's is a translating consciousness and the
very circumstances of their real existence and the conditions of their every day
communication have turned Indians bilingual if not multilingual. One can even
add without exaggeration that India would not have been a nation without
translation and we keep translating almost unconsciously from our mother-tongues
when we converse with people who use a language different from ours.
Our first writers too were translators. Indian literature is founded on the
free translations and adaptations of epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata. Up to
the nineteenth century our literature consisted only of translations, adaptations,
interpretations and retellings. Translations of literary works as well as knowledge-
texts discourses on medicine, astronomy, metallurgy, travel, ship-building,
architecture, philosophy, religion and poetics from Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Persian
and Arabic had kept our cultural scene vibrant and enriched our awareness of the
world for long. Most of our ancient writers were multilingual: Kalidasa's
Shakuntala has Sanskrit and Prakrit; poets like Vidyapati, Kabir, Meerabai, Guru
Nanak, Namdev and others each composed their songs and poems in more than
one language.
Importance of multilingualism:

There are so many languages in this world and in daily bases people use in
its daily life. Researcher says there are over 7,000 languages spoken in the world
today. English is known as an international language and so many people speak it
and few are learning English due to achieve a specific goals in our lives. They
learn English as a second or foreign language. Psychologist says speaking more
than one languages increase your cognitive ability such as problem solving,
creativity and memory. Those person are multilingual they enjoyed many benefits
in our lives because they easily adjust in another culture, find good jobs and easily
communicate from others and express our feelings and message according to our
own wills. Multilingualism is not a problem it‟s a gift those gave to many benefits
in daily life. Learning a language keeps the brain active and fresh. Language
training makes the brain stronger and more efficient.

Importance of multilingualism in translation:

Multilingualism is also play a specific role in translation. Translation is not

purely on inter-linguistic process. It is more complex because replacing of source
text language with target language text is not easy because it is transferring of
language and our culture from one to another. Translation performs a fundamental
role in our understanding of the other culture. Translation helps to understanding
the other culture norms and values. With the help of translation we know the other
culture development issues. With the help of translation we know that how global
and human rights issue can be conveyed and communicated.

Remarkable progress has been made in Translation Studies since mid-

sixties. It continues to grow in spite of the new theories of languages and the
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MU LT I LIN GU AL S OC I ET Y

question of translatability of 'literal texts' raised by theoreticians in our time. The

need for translation is palpable than ever before because we thrive in a
multilingual and multi-cultural society. Interaction among people from different
linguistic groups and cultures is highly necessary. Translation fulfils the ultimate
goal of putting across the view of the cross-cultural people in a multi-lingual
society. Thus, translation has carved a niche for itself in the highly-sophisticated
techno-electronic age and as a discipline it is firmly rooted in practical application.

Multilingualism helps in deepening one‟s connection to other cultures.

Language is the most direct connection to other cultures. Being able to
communicate in another language exposes us to and fosters an appreciation for the
traditions, religions, arts, and history of the people associated with that language.
Greater understanding, in turn, promotes greater tolerance, empathy, and
acceptance of others—with studies showing that children who have studied
another language are more open toward and express more positive attitudes toward
the culture associated with that language. Translation plays a significant role in
deepening one‟s connection to other cultures.

Translation plays a role as a cross-cultural communication agent.

Translation is not only a linguistic act; it's also a cultural one, an act of
communication across cultures. Translation always involves both language and
culture simply because the two cannot be separated. Language is culturally
embedded: it both expresses and shapes cultural reality, and the meaning of
linguistic items can only be understood when considered together with the cultural
context in which the linguistic items are used. Translators should pay great
attention to differences in kind and degree of conventionalization in the source and
target cultures when transferring a text from one culture to another. One of the
main characteristics of translation is its 'double-bind situation', where the translator
has to link the source text in its cultural context to the target communicative-
cultural condition.

House believes that the local situational context has to do with the question
of who wrote the text, when and why, who is to read it now and for what purpose.
And these different questions are reflected in how the text is written, interpreted,
translated, and read. The context of the situation is then itself embedded in the
larger cultural world. The translator who finds the correct answer to these
questions is successful in cross-cultural communication.

Translation is a process of replacing a text in one language by a text in

another language. A text is never just a sum of its parts, and when words and
sentences are used in communication, they combine to make meaning in different
ways. Therefore, it is the whole text to be translated, rather than separate sentences
or words. A communicative text will carry its cultural features while moving from
one language to another. The translator should be familiar with SL and TL
cultures, know the purpose of the communication and the audience for correct and
on-time decision making to do his/her translation as effective cross-cultural
communication. We ought to keep in mind that, due to differences, there is no
exact translation between any two languages. What one can hope for is an
approximation. The more similar the systems and cultures of the two languages
are, the more efficient the translation in cross-cultural communication.

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It is absolutely necessary for effective and empathetic communication

between different cultures. Translation, therefore, is critical for social harmony
and peace. Translation is also the only medium through which people come to
know different works that expand their knowledge.

In the context of post-colonial era, new perspectives on translation are

presented. New terms emerging to describe translation as an intercultural activity
in post-colonial contexts tend to ascribe a positive value to translation. Translation
scholars speak of renewal, transcreation and vitality instead of loss and
assimilation. In "Philosophy of Translation: Subordination or Subordinating:
Translating Technical Texts from Sanskrit-Now and Then", Kapil Kapoor
examines renewal of codes in cultural communities through translation. He claims
that texts tend to freeze given cultural codes in a community, so that their meaning
lose relevance in a given community. Translation undoes this process, by
modernising the text. (Shanta Ramakrishna ed. P.306)
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2

1. Write a brief note on role of Multilingualism.

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2. Comment on the importance of multilingualism in translation.

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1.4 CONCLUSION
Translation as new writing or creative writing is the literary artefact born
out of multiculturalism and globalization. [Link] has rightly suggested that
"this complex activity is not only an inter-language event but also a cross-cultural
communication because all linguistic signs are part of a larger social system of
values.

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1.5 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Bari Khan, Abdul, et al. THE ROLE OF MULTILINGUALISM IN

TRANSLATION, IJR - Group , International Journal for Social and
Political Science, Vol. 2 Issue 5 May 2016 Paper 8 P 76-84.
2. Chellapan, K. 'The Paradox of Transcreation', Literature in Translation, Ed.
Pramod Talgeri and [Link], Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1988.
3. Das, Bijay Kumar. A Handbook of Translation Studies. New Delhi:
Atlantic Publishers, 2005.
4. Devy, G.N.. In Another Tongue: Essays on Indian Literature in English.
Bangalore: Macmillan India. 1993.
5. House, J. Translation. New York: Oxford UP. 2009.
6. Shanta Ramakrishna ed. Translation and Multilingualism: Post-Colonial
Contexts. Delhi, Pencraft International, 1997. P. 306
7. Bhavesh Borisagar, “A Translation of Select Short Stories of Ramnarayan
Pathak from Gujarati into English with A Critical Introduction.” Ph. D.
Thesis Saurashtra U of Rajkot, 2016. Print. Unpublished Dissertation.
8. Websites / Links:
9. [Link]
10. [Link]
11. [Link]

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 UNIT-2 CULTURAL CONTEXT IN TRANSLATION

:: STRUCTURE ::

2.0 OBJECTIVES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 INTRODUCTION
2.3 APPROACHES TO CULTURAL TRANSLATION
2.4 FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION
2.5 TRANSLATION AND DIFFERENCE
2.6 CULTURAL TURN IN TRANSLATION:
2.7 LET US SUM-UP.
2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit, we shall -
 Understand the significance of cultural context in translation.
 Discuss the close associations between language and culture.
 Get insights into the approaches
 Look at the shifts that took place in translation studies debates and why
postcolonial scholars advocated difference and not exactness or likeness of
cultures of the source and target texts.

2.9 INTRODUCTION
Translation has largely been perceived as an act of transaction between two
languages. However, in recent years, the critics have drawn our attention to an
idea that literary texts are constituted not only of language but also of cultures.
Furthermore, due to the increased attention on bringing diversity and plurality to
the fore, translation studies has seen a paradigmatic shift from translating merely
linguistic aspects to translating cultures. In addition, translating linguistic signs
also require attention to the cultural context, as languages are grounded in cultures.

2.2 IMPORTANCE OF CULTURAL ASPECTS IN TRANSLATION

The term culture is defined by Newmark as “a way of life and its
manifestations that are peculiar to community that uses a particular language as
means of expression” (1988:94). This definition clearly states that each language
has culturally embedded features. Thus it becomes imperative to take into
consideration the cultural context. It is to be noted that language is considered to
be the heart within the body of culture (Bassnett:13). Thus, language and culture
are intrinsically connected to each other and translator cannot evade significance
of any of the two.

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Cultural Aspects to Consider while Translating:

While translating a given text, the translator must be able to decide on the
importance of its cultural context, what the phrase really means, not necessarily
what it literally means, and convey that meaning in a way which makes sense not
only in the target language but also in the context of the target culture. For
example, English is SL and Hindi is TL for the translator. While, translating an
English phrase “as white as snow” into target language culture (Hindi) as “barf
jesa safed” would not produce the desired effect. It is possible that the target
language readers do not get to see or witness snow in day-today life. Moreover,
they are likely not to make distinction between ice or snow. Thus, translators in
such case may choose more culturally appropriate phrase such as “roo (cotton)
jesa safed).
There are many institutions and practices that exist in one culture and don‟t
exist in other cultures. Moreover, belief system, customs, rituals, truth value also
vary from culture to culture. For example, metaphors, sayings, proverbs ETC
reflect culture of a specific group or a community using a particular language.
While translating those metaphors, sayings or proverbs, the translators are required
to take into consideration whether the sayings, metaphors or proverbs peculiar to
SL would be intelligible to TL readers, as these culturally embedded entities are
associated with words that have meanings in one language which are peculiar to
that language and are difficult to be replicated in other languages. If translators
come across such problems, they should accept the untranslatability of the SL
phrase in the TL on the linguistic level. While deciding upon the translation
strategies, they should accept the lack of a similar cultural convention in the TL.
They should pay attention to the range of TL phrases available, taking into account
the presentation of class, status, age, Caste, gender of the speaker, his relationship
to the listeners and the context of their meeting in the SL.

2.3 APPROACHES TO CULTURAL TRANSLATION

We discussed the importance of cultural context while translating text from
SL into TL. Now we shall discuss the possible approaches to translating cultural
aspects peculiar to the languages. The traditional approaches in translation studies
have emphasized equivalence which implies equal value of relationship between
SL and TL. Equivalence asks for sameness on different levels between source text
and target text. Some theorists lay emphasis on equivalence on form, some on the
function whereas some emphasize equivalence in terms of sense or the effect.
VINAY and DARBELNET propose the strategies for “oblique translation” which
also implies liberal translation in order to replicate the effect of the source
language text. their oblique translation strategies include „Transposition‟ i.e.
change of one part of speech for another without changing the sense; „Modulation‟
i.e. change of the semantics and point of view of the source language;
„Equivalence‟ i.e. change of the same situation by using different stylistic or
structural means, useful in translating idioms and proverbs, „Adaptation‟ i.e.
changing cultural references when a particular situation in the source culture does
not exist in the target culture. Thus, these strategies suggest that it is difficult to
establish linguistic and cultural equivalence between two languages. Hence, these
strategies help render the message, situation, cultural context, function and the
effect of the source text into the target text. for example if the SL French text
contains a phrase “Ca va”, it is difficult to find its linguistically and culturally

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CULTURAL CONTEXT IN TRANSLATION

equivalent phrase into English target text. Ca va in French is used in an informal

situation and the close equivalent rhetorical phrases in English “how do you do” or
“how are you?” are used in formal situation. Hence, to replicate the SL situation,
the translator may choose the strategies of transposition or equivalence and
translate the phrase “ca va” as “doing good?” or “fine?” to render the cultural
context of the SL text appropriate for TL readers.
Eugene Nida draws our attention to formal and dynamic equivalence. The
focus of formal equivalence according to Nida is on the message itself, in both
form and content. In such a translation, one is concerned with such
correspondences as poetry to poetry, sentence to sentence, and concept to
concept.‟ Nida calls this type of translation a „gloss translation‟, and its objective
is to allow the reader to understand as much of the SL context as possible.
Dynamic equivalence in Nida‟s view, is based on equivalent effect. That is to say
that the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same
as that between the original receivers and the SL message. For example: if a
translator is translating the Shakespearean sonnet line „Should I compare thee to a
summer‟s day?‟ into Hindi, he or she can translate it in two ways. One possible
translation in Hindi can be “kya me tumahari tulna garmi ke din ke sath karni
chahie?” One can translate it in a different way like : “kya tumahari tulna shardi ke
din ke saath karani chahie?”
The first translation is an example of formal equivalence and the second
translation is an example of a dynamic equivalence. The first translation does not
produce the exact relation between message and the receiver of the message of SL
(English) in TL (Hindi). Summer in England implies pleasant or happy mood.
Summer in India has connotations of barrenness. Hence, the first translation is not
an appropriate translation in terms of cultural equivalence. In the second
translation, changes have been made in order to produce the exact equivalent
effect of the SL line and the attempt has been made to establish the exact relation
between message and the reader of the SL into that of the TL. Thus, dynamic
equivalence suggests to make changes into TL taking into consideration the
cultural context of the SL as well TL. It should be noted that the translator
according to Nida‟s theory is under no obligation to reproduce the cultural
underpinnings of the original. The translator attempts to reproduce the text in such
a way that the Target Language reader can relate to it in a different cultural
context. This does give considerable freedom to the translator.

2.4 FOREIGNIZATION AND DOMESTICATION

Another approach that addresses the issue of translation and culture is that
of foreignization and domestication. According to Lawrence Venuti foreignization
aims at retaining the culture-specific items of the source language and text.
Domestication focuses on minimizing the cultural strangeness of the source text
by substituting them with the domestic cultural norms that are in keeping with the
target language culture and society. He posits that translators in order to make the
translated text more fluent to the target language readers, render the foreign
elements of the source text invisible by replacing them with the norms suitable to
the target readers. if the target language readers are not familiar with the cultural
norms of the source language, they grapple with it and it eventually disrupts the
readability.

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2.5 TRANSLATION AND DIFFERENCE

It is to be noted that critics like Lawrence Venuti have problematized the
approaches that focus on achieving the same relation between the text and the
readers in source text into the target text by modulation, dynamic equivalence or
domestication. In Venuti‟s view, domestication does not allow foreign elements to
be assimilated into translated text. He argues that it is the task of a translator to
make the difference of source text visible in the target text by retaining the
foreignness of the culture in which the source text is embedded. Foreignization
thus helps target language and culture evolve and expand by introducing the norms
and elements of the foreign culture. The readers may grapple with it, may
encounter disruption. However, this disruption may help them imbibe new ideas,
ideology or the norms and learn to embrace the difference. The assimilation of
foreign elements thus helps enhance plurality.

2.6 CULTURAL TURN IN TRANSLATION

The developments that took place post nineteen seventy shifted their focus
from linguistic aspects of translation to interaction between translation and culture,
contexts, politics, histories and conventions. Bassnett and Lefevere used the term
“cultural turn” to refer to the approach that studies translation in order to analyze
translation in its cultural, political, and ideological context. With postcolonial
studies gaining currency, the concept “cultural translation” has drawn attention of
translation studies, culture studies, anthropology, and ethnography studies scholars
and theorists. In anthropology, cultural translation implies translating and
interpreting a particular group‟s or community‟s ways of interpreting the world
and their place in it. In cultural studies, it implies how do negotiations take place
when individuals, groups or communities are displaced from one into the another
cultural context. In cultural translation, translation” moves beyond translations as
restricted (written or spoken) texts; its concern is with general cultural processes
rather than finite linguistic products. In cultural translation, there is no start text
and no fixed target text. The focus is more on the process rather than on the
product. The focus of cultural translation is on the movement of people, subjects
rather than on the texts or the objects. It analyses the intermediary position of the
translator, the cultural hybridity that is likely to characterize that position, the
crosscultural movements that form the places where translators work, and the
problematic nature of the cultural borders crossed by all translations.

2.7 LET US SUM-UP

In this unit, we tried to understand the relation between language and
culture. We further tried to understand how language and culture are closely
associated and understood the proposition that languages are culturally embedded.
Translation is not merely a linguistic transfer of the text from SL into TL.
Moreover, while translating, the translators have to pay attention to the contexts in
which words or phrases or texts are grounded. We also discussed different
approaches proposed by translation theorists who proposed different strategies to
deal with untranslatability caused by the absence of equivalent concept, idea or the
object in TL. We further discussed how debates in translation studies shifted from
establishing cultural equivalence or cultural universalization to promoting plurality
and difference in cultures. At the end, we made an attempt to understand the
cultural turn in translation and how it encouraged interdisciplinarity.

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CULTURAL CONTEXT IN TRANSLATION

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

 STUDY ESSAY TYPE QUESTIONS:

Q1. Discuss the significance of cultural context in translation.
………………………………………………………………………………
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Q2. What are the challenges that the translators phase while translating cultural
aspects of the SL text?
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Q3. Discuss different approaches to cultural translation proposed by translation
studies scholars.
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Q4. What is cultural turn in translation? Explain. Cite appropriate examples.
………………………………………………………………………………
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 OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS:

Q1. How are language and culture associated?
Q2. What is cultural equivalence?
Q3. Explain the term formal equivalence.
Q4. What is dynamic equivalence?
Q5. Is there any similarity between the concept of dynamic equivalence and
domestication?
Q6. How does foreignization influence the reading process?
Q8. Why is context important for translation?
Q9. Explain the concept of difference in translation.
Q10. What is cultural turn in translation?
Q11. How does foreignization help promote plurality and difference?

2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

1 Bassnett, Susan. (1980) 2002. Translation Studies. London: Routledge.
2 Bassnett, Susan. 1993. Comparative Literature: A Critical Introduction.
Oxford: Blackwell.
3 Bassnett, Susan and Andre Lefevere. 1998. Constructing Cultures: Essays on
Literary Translation. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
4 Bhabha, Homi. 1994. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.

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 CULTURAL CONTEXT IN TRANSLATION

5 Catford, J. C. 1965. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied

Linguistics London: Oxford University Press.
6 Gentzler, Edwin. (1993) 2001. Contemporary Translation Theories. Clevedon:
Multilingual Matters.
7 Lahiri, Jhumpa. 2000. “My Intimate Alien.” Outlook (New Delhi), special
annual issue on “Stree” [Woman], pp. 116-20.
8 Niranjana, Tejaswini. 1992. Siting Translation: History, Post-Structuralism
and the Colonial Context. Berkeley: University of California Press.
9 Ranasinha, Ruvani. 2001. Hanif Kureishi. (Writers and their Work series).
London: Northcote House.
10 Rushdie, Salman. 1991. Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981-91.
London: Granta Books.

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 UNIT-3 SOCIAL CONTEXT OF TRANSLATION

:: STRUCTURE ::

3.0 OBJECTIVES
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 NEED OF TRANSLATION IN SOCIETY
3.3 THE FUNCTION OF CONTEXT IN TRANSLATION
3.4 TRANSLATION AND ITS SOCIAL NATURE
3.5 THE ACTOR NETWORK THEORY
3.6 THE IMPACT OF TRANSLATORS DURING THE GOLDEN AGE
3.7 SOCIAL BARRIERS OF TRANSLATION
3.8 ELIMINATING SOCIAL HINDRANCE TO TRANSLATION
3.9 LET US SUM UP

3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we shall
 Understand the relationship between Society and Translation
 Understand the need of translation in the society
 Overcome from the social barriers of translation

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the twenty first century translation is one amongst the requirements of the
society to determine intercultural communication harmoniously. Social context of
translation plays very significant role to establish that harmony
between two different socio-cultural texts. According to Derrida there are no longer
stable meaning cores (deep structures), but “only contexts without any center of
absolute anchoring” (320). Language is a necessary apparatus for socio-cultural
development. This actually intends that at the center of correspondence is language.
May be apart from Translation Studies other discipline may not represent the varieties
of range of settings that are utilized, their significance for various examinations.
Indeed, even external deconstruction system of conversation, considering
its knowledge domain, Translation Studies has relied on methods -
and connected settings-related to such different areas of explorations pragmatics,
social and scholarly examinations among various others.
There is an outflow of social qualities and cultural convictions. Translation has
likewise been portrayed as a way to cultivate change in social orders and societies. As

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 SOCIAL CONTEXT OF TRANSLATION

the "social turn" during the 1990s sees the object of translation concentrates as "text
inserted inside its organization of both source and target social signs" (Bassnett and
Lefevere 1990, p. 12), the humanistic turn of translation concentrates on convicts that
translation is a social practice.
As per social science of translation, any translation is definitely bound up
inside friendly settings in light of the fact that from one viewpoint, the demonstration
of deciphering is obviously done by people in a social framework; and then again, the
translation peculiarity is undeniably ensnared in friendly organizations, which
enormously decide the choice, creation, and dissemination of translation, and, thus, the
techniques embraced in the actual translation.
These methodologies are utilized to assist with investigating the systems basic
translation in bigger social settings overall and the social idea of translation
specifically. The new conceptualization of translation as a social practice has achieved
an assortment of exploration fields which so far have been under-investigated, for
example, foundations of interpreters‟ preparation, proficient establishments and their
effect on translation works on, working circumstances, inquiries of morals in
translation, political parts of translation, and some more.

3.2 NEED OF TRANSLATION IN VARIOUS AREAS OF SOCIETY

Translation could be a profitable job across the world with different sediments.
In the 21st Century the world becomes a worldwide village and there is an irresistible
demand for translation from one language to another. Due to the Indian economy's fast
globalization, MNCs are moving quickly into the nation, resulting in an increased
demand for translation services in industries like higher education, publishing, market
research, tourism, and publishing houses. entertainment, public relations and mass
communication, international organizations, embassies, diplomatic service, and now
translation and interpretation services are provided by many organizations that also
provide training and placement services for people working in the field of translation.
All government ministries, including the Ministry of External Affairs
(MEA),RBI,Agriculture, Science and Technology, Textile, and Education, among
others, require junior and senior translators, subject experts, and assistant directors (for
official languages). Language experts can also find work at private companies like
Oracle, Samsung, Hyundai, and LG.
Translation has evolved from just mere words to the transformation of
intentions and meanings. The level of experience might not limit you to alter the entire
paragraph‟s formulation however retain the authentic meaning. Let‟s Discuss the role
of translation in the society.

 TRANSLATION IS AN INSTRUMENT OF DEMOCRATIZATION:

By providing all languages equal significance and eliminating linguistic
supremacy, it strengthens democracy. The speakers of the language or dialect can read
and comprehend the literature and large body of information available in English when
a text from one language, for instance English, is translated into it. Thus, when a work
is translated into a regional language or dialect, the ideas, emotions, and feelings of the

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SOCIAL CONTEXT OF TRANSLATION

original author in English are conveyed. This not only broadens the target
demographic's knowledge base but also improves their confidence in them and their
ability to perform everyday tasks. Most significantly, it provides a chance for the less
fortunate,

 THE MEDIA BUSINESS & NEWS COVERAGE

Media enterprises use translation to convey different projects that were
introduced in several dialects. Have you ever asked yourself is it conceivable that
would be without interpretation? It feels ideal to get news from abroad, however it
feels far improved to get it from your language and interpretation. Data is power, so
we depend on interpretation to get what's going on near and about. Getting that
understanding according to an alternate point of view drives out obliviousness. Other
than opening up your comprehension, it is likewise a key to decisive reasoning and
offers different parts of critical thinking.

 TRAINING AREA
Training is a social viewpoint that cuts across the lines when students get data
all over the planet. An instrument for rich information reinforces conversations and
choices. Coordination in nations with numerous unfamiliar tongues because of
movement must be worked with interpretation. Take a gander at that trial where you
end up in an unfamiliar nation where neither you nor your folks grasp the local
language. Having books converted into your language can help in the change to the
new climate. The interpretation might be obsolete with regards to language learning, it
is as yet a show-stopper in language abilities.

 BUSINESS & THE TRAVEL INDUSTRY

Translation is the fuel of flourishing organizations across the globe. This
implies absence of it could bring about an incapacitated economy. This basically
intends that from small to large agreements and agreements are reliant upon
interpretation. Translation and Interpretation is consequently required in the travel
industry to make simple correspondence and understanding.

 EDUCATION & OUTER UNDERTAKINGS OF A COUNTRY

Education could be a social facet that cuts across the borders once learners get
information from different corners of this world. it is a tool to enrich knowledge that
enable one to acquire knowledge from multiple languages as well as societies. With
the help of translation Integration in countries with several foreign languages and
dialects can be possible through immigration. Having books translated into your
language can help us to have transition to the new environment. The data ought to be
conveyed such that brings common figuring out between the gatherings. Worldwide
discoursed vigorously depend on interpretation for legitimate correspondence. At this
point one must have a profound sense that interpretation is to be sure crucial in a
general public. So, a lot is tied around it, and for that reason social context of
translation is an incredible solution.

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3.3 THE FUNCTION OF CONTEXT IN TRANSLATION

Language does not exist in isolation from situational and cultural settings.
Language itself comprises co-text, often known as linguistic context. Language and
context are inextricably linked and interdependent. Context is created and influenced
by language choice. On the one hand, language, as a framework - its lexical items and
syntactic categories - is linked with its cultural environment. On the other hand, the
specific text and its component pieces are linked with their context of situation. To be
specific, setting of culture is linked to kind, setting of situation is linked to register,
and co-text is linked to the real conversation.
The setting of circumstances includes three perspectives: field, tenor and mode.
Field refers to what is going on, to the concept of social activity that is taking place. It
responds to questions such as what the member is involved in. Tenor refers to who is
participating, to the idea of the members, their status, and jobs: what kind of job
relationship acquire among the members, including extremely long-lasting and brief
connections of some sort, both the kinds of discourse job that they are taking on in the
exchange and the entire group of socially significant connections in which they are
involved. Mode refers to the role that the language is playing and what the members
expect the language to do for them in that: the representational association of the
message, the status that It possesses, and its capability in the specific scenario,
counting the channel and moreover the explanation method, what the text achieves in
terms of classifications such as appealing, interpretive, instructive, and so on. The
three components of situational context are commonly referred to as register.
Context of situation is strongly related to different texts. Accurate situational
context asks for accurate text and in return, this accurate text creates accurate context.
In the process of communication, the meaning system is mostly determined by the
three aspects of situational context: ideational meaning by field, interpersonal meaning
by tenor and textual meaning by mode (Baker, 2000: 9). Studies in register analysis
are important to translators.
In the translation process, first, however the analysis of the linguistic feature of
the SLT, its register can be identified and therefore the determination of its context of
situation is possible. Second, in the production of the TLT, the proper words and
expressions in the TL should be chosen in order to correspond the context of situation
that can be re-established in the TLT.
In search of the equivalence of meaning is in fact seeking the equivalence of
situational context. In translation, equivalence should not be based on one aspect of
meaning (say ideational meaning); the translator must follow equivalence of three
aspects of meaning all at once. Since the complete identity of situational context and
meaning system between cultures is impossible, the complete equivalence is
impossible in the same way. “Texts in various languages can be equivalent in many
ways, such as context, semantics, syntax, lexis, and so on, and at different levels, such
as word-for-word, phrase-for-phrase, sentence-for-sentence.” This may have forfeited
its dignity in the process.

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The translator is bounded to take these register variables into consideration in

the process of translation rather than make decisions randomly or according to his/her
personal favour. This concept throws new lights to the age-old debate about the
translator‟s priorities: “literal” versus “free”, “form” versus “content”, “formal” versus
“dynamic” equivalence, “semantic” versus “communicative” translating,
“domestication” versus “foreignization” and translator‟s “visibility” versus
“invisibility”.
To answer the above question, the translator must include cultural context,
because what is crucial to translation is not just situational context but also cultural
context. “Language is not only a significant but only a partial representation of
culture.” (Newmark 1991:73) It reflects our society‟s culture not just in its language
choices, but also in its syntax and organisational style. In a single context universe, the
author converses with readers of the source material who have the same cultural
background as him/her, as a result, they can converse in a truly harmonious manner.
However, the act of translating frequently disrupts this balance. “Translation is
disjointed, displaced communication.” (Neubert, 1992:10) The original text is stripped
of its context during translation, and the information it contains is encoded in a whole
other language with a completely different context. The reader may be unable to match
the author's expectations, resulting in an information gap. The translator‟s task is to
bridge the communication gap and harmonise it.
According to Nida (1998:308), “biculturalism is even more crucial than
bilingualism for really good translation.” When cultural variables are incompatible
with the target cultural context, the translator must employ a variety of ways to deal
with this. Li Yunxing (2001:123) generalised many theories for cultural factor
translation: (1) the go-ahead model, which transplants them directly to the target text;
(2) the block model, which abandons them; (3) the annotation model, which provides
adequate explanation on cultural factors; (4) the integration model, which integrates
the expressing modes of both cultures to create a new language form; and (5) the
adaptation model, which replaces expression in the source culture with expression in
the target culture at the expense of cultural meaning.
To pick which model to use, the translator must first consider the sociological
characteristics, which in turn determine the discourse parameters (the register
variables), including the participants, the context, and the goal of translation. The
sections that follow will provide further information explanation of two distinct
translation processes with regard to situational circumstance (or register).

3.4 TRANSLATION AND ITS SOCIAL NATURE

3.4.1 THE SOCIAL IDEA OF TRANSLATION
The accomplishments that have been seen in the improvement of a translation
that has human science drawn on by employing different methodologies inside
translation studies are remarkable. The vast majority of these methodologies were
stirred by the „social turn‟ which thought about a large number of the issues grew later
in additional unequivocally friendly settings and foregrounded doubts concerning

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power, legislative issues, philosophy, morals, or individual agency. Over the course of
translation studies, various definitions have been given to this subject. As a general
rule, primary turns that have been distinguished by the scholars as far as translation
studies is concerned can be recognized including the phonetic turn, the social turn, and
the humanistic turn. Munday contends that translation “has moved from the
investigation of words to text to sociocultural setting to the functioning acts of the
actual interpreters” (Munday: 2016:27). This study coordinates a spotlight on the
humanism of Translation with the goal that we will look at Translation as a social
activity. By this demonstration, the social science of translation “focuses on the social
idea of translation, targeting advancing correspondence among translation and
society”. (Qingguang Wei: 2014:88).
It is worth focusing on that the social idea of translation has, for quite some
time, been ignored considering the etymological methodologies which center around
text, regarding translation as a straight activity and keen on tracking down to normality
to place the importance in the source language into target language. Generally, it has
been expected that translation is a lingual errand which disregards any friendly or
social points of view. Along this logic, the mentality which can be followed through
Catford‟s (1965) meaning of translation is that translation is considered as the
substitution of text-based materials in a single language for identical materials in
another dialect. As per Gutt (2002), translation has been generally seen as an
interpretive movement: the importance of translation stays in educating recipients
regarding what another person has said, composed or thought. (Gutt: 2000: 166)
According to a humanistic point of view, it is broadly contended that translation is a
social action which can never be divisible from our general public gave that the goal of
translation is to convey information and culture. As Gutt (2000) notices, the term
translation at present is progressively utilized for correspondence that is an illustrative
utilization of language. In addition, translation exercises are performed by people who
continually exemplify a few social relations.
Alluding to human science of translation, any translation is bound up inside
friendly settings in light of the fact that the demonstration of deciphering is done by
people in a social framework and the translation peculiarity is embroiled in friendly
foundations, which extraordinarily decide the determination, creation, and conveyance
of translation, and, thus, the methodologies embraced in the actual translation. That is
what Bassnett and Lefevere express when they say that “there is dependably a setting
in which the translation happens, consistently a set of experiences from which a text
arises and into which a text is rendered”. (1990:11)

3.4.2 TRANSLATION AND BELIEF SYSTEM

The previously mentioned shift in center from printed to logical in translation
concentrates on features the basic pretended by specialists of translation in either
molding philosophies or presenting new points of view through translation. By the
means of supporting this, specialists of translation are seen as friendly entertainers
who are vigorously engaged with the elements of translation creation. As interpreters
have a place with a social and culture-bound climate, translation ought to be the
consequence of different cycles of intervention and exchange of social contrasts.

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It is contended that during the entire course of translation, the interpreter has a
huge number of choices accessible for translation, for he ends up in struggle and
choice checked circumstances during which he continually pursues decisions between
options. In any case, any decision includes the interpreter as a problem solver and
change (Ayachi: 1987:76). Therefore, philosophy directs Translation decisions and is
profoundly compelling in the two interpreters‟ dynamic cycle and gathering of the
objective texts.
By and large, philosophy, frequently in its appearance as power, has become
progressively significant in translation studies. The idea of philosophy is as such
bantered as it is uncovered with various subtleties and explored according to different
hypothetical points of view, reflecting the singular creators‟ inclinations. Along these
lines, philosophy supposedly establishes “and support relations of force which are
methodicallly topsy-turvy” (Thompson: 1990: 7) and as the information, convictions
and worth frameworks of the people and the general public where the singular has an
influence (Van Dijk: 1998). Translation of texts are considered to be as emblematic
structures, set specifically friendly, transient and geographic strategies (re) build
meaning. This importance might possibly vary between either supporting existing
beliefs systems or oppose them. Numerous researchers underline that there are diverse
connections among translation and philosophy. Fawcett, for example, illustrates,
“Translation, essentially due to its presence, has forever been philosophical”
(1998:107). One might say that any translation is philosophical since the decision of a
source text and the utilization of the deciphered text not entirely set in stone by the
interest and goals of gatherings.
As indicated by Lefevere (2004), the two interpreters‟ determination of source
texts and translation methodologies are simultaneously controlled and constrained by
three components inside the abstract framework. The primary component could be
called experts including pundits, commentators, instructors and interpreters. The
subsequent one is benefactors outside the abstract framework like the powers
(individual and foundations) that can further or obstruct the perusing, composing, and
reworking of writing. The third component is the prevailing poetics which balance the
connection between artistic gadgets and other social frameworks. Philosophy goes
head to head with this large number of components and assumes a vital part in
scholarly and, surprisingly, social-verifiable life. (2004:15). It is contended that we
ought to dismiss universalist suppositions and spotlight rather on the social implanting
of texts if the ideas of standards and poly-systems created by Toury (1995) are to be
conveniently applied to grasping translation comparable to philosophy.
As opposed to searching for laws of translation, the thought is to demonstrate
the way that „sufficiency‟ and „worthiness‟ can join in a translation to offer a
scrutinize of the prevailing philosophy. Conservative‟s thought of standards is
perceived as a critical idea in the investigation of translation as philosophy since the
translation is pervaded with organization in the dynamic cycle, from the determination
of texts to be meant the techniques utilized. In this manner, a translation is a piece of a
complicated organization of relations laid out with texts in the source text culture, as
well as any remaining texts, firsts and translation, in the objective culture. In general,
philosophy assumes a crucial part in the translation practice, and it very well may be

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followed in various levels and in various ways like text choice, translation procedure,
subject of the text, and so forth. There are different approaches to decide philosophies
in translation. For Hatim and Bricklayer, philosophy envelops “the unsaid
presumptions, convictions and worth frameworks which are shared by and large by a
social group” (Hatim & Munday: 2004: 102). They make a stipulation between what
they call „the philosophy of Translation‟ and „the Translation of belief system‟. While
the previous alludes to the fundamental direction picked by the interpreter working
inside a social and social setting, in the translation of philosophy, they investigate the
degree of intercession provided by an interpreter of delicate texts. „Intercession‟ is
characterized as “the degree to which interpreters mediate in the exchange cycle,
taking care of their own insight and convictions into handling the text”. (103).

3.5 TRANSLATION AND THE ACTOR- NETWORK THEORY

The Actor- Network Theory is progressively consolidated in various fields of
sociologies and most as of late in translation Studies. Actor- Network Theory is made
by Bruno Latour and Michelle Callon as an endeavor to get a handle on the cycles of
mechanical development and logical information creation (Latour: 1987). A type of
constructivism dismisses the possibility of a social assurance of logical information.
This hypothesis addresses the inconceivability of presence of entertainers outside the
net. Geels (2005) is of the opinion that “any entertainer cannot act in the event that it
does not take position in a greater setup that likewise acts together”. While Bourdieu
(1984) hypothesizes that society must be made sense of by breaking down rehearses
and relating them to their creators‟ situations in the public eye as well as their own
pattern in the field, Latour stresses that to comprehend a general public one should
examine the way people and non-humans cooperate. Latour holds that the significant
errand of social researchers is to give a stage to social entertainers to be heard. He
concurs with Bourdieu in separating the subject/object dualism. However, Latour
rejects both the possibility of a „view from wherever‟ as well as Bourdieu‟s case that
logical objectivity can be accomplished by articulating social positions and
positioning. For Latour, entertainers make specific types of information by uprightness
of participating in the exercises related and relevant to their creation.
Actor- Network Theory is recognized from other organization speculations in that it
contains not only individuals, however, articles and associations. These are altogether
alluded to as entertainers, or now and again actants. As per this hypothesis, an
entertainer is all that in some causal manner influences the creation of logical
proclamations and speculations: Specialists of Translation are any generally
independent substance ready to set off social development and change or change a
situation by having an effect or showing an outcome (Milton and Bandia :2009: 1). In
the most natural sounding way for Latour, “whatever changes a situation by having an
effect is an entertainer- or on the other hand, in the event that it has no figuration yet,
an actant” (Latour :2005: 71). Accepting that translation is a ceaselessly evolving
process, Callon (1986) has separated translation into four principal stages:
1- Problematization, in which the central entertainer sets up a good foundation for
itself as a required entry point between the bigger organization and the entertainers
that it, tries to address.

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2- Interessement, is the stage in which entertainers‟ inclinations are stirred and in

which the conditions of their contribution in the entertainer network are arranged. As
of now, the central entertainer additionally endeavors to „decipher‟ the organization,
or, to put it in an unexpected way, to persuade different entertainers that the trades it
has characterized for them are adequate. The motivation behind the interessemnt stage
is to build up the connections and the interests of entertainers corresponding to the
problematization.
3- Enrolment is the third stage in which the entertainers acknowledge the jobs that
have been characterized for them.
4- Activation of partners, a stage where the central entertainer keeps up with its
urgent situation as well as the responsibility of the entertainers it professes to address.
The reality deeply concerns with the entire world comprising of organizations, and
that each association, cycle or practice can in this way be depicted in network terms.
(Latour: 1997) In this manner, the principal motivation behind ANT is investigating
how „networks‟ advance, how „affiliations‟ are settled and how „associations‟
disintegrate. To put it plainly, ANT targets investigating the world and how people
and non-people cooperate.
Embracing Latour‟s methodology in translation studies, translation is a
heterogeneous organization wherein human and non-human entertainers collaborate
with one another. As to interpreters, they are bound up in interpersonal organizations
which permit them to be seen as socially developed and building subjects. In other
words, translation exercises have never been acted in the „vacuum‟ including the
assurance of translation reason, inspiration of interpreters, sending off translation task
and the permission of translation items into society.

3.6. THE IMPACT OF TRANSLATORS DURING THE GOLDEN

AGE
Taking on humanistic methodology, interpreters are considered to be socially
built and building subjects. They are engaged with the course of translation as a
problem solver and to change it. Be that as it may, interpreters according to ANT are
not by any means the only entertainer, they collaborate with other human and un-
human entertainers engaged with a similar organization. Also, the extent of the The
Actor- Network Theory is to campaign the connections between these entertainers and
how they communicate with one another. In this segment, translation movement
during the Abbasid Era in network terms will be presented. We manage translation
practice as an action confined and impacted by encompassing variables. Other than we
investigate interpreters‟ situation in the public arena during that period and their
functioning circumstances.
Translation was the most unmistakable social action in the Abbasid period
(750-1258) as it acquired extraordinary interest from the Caliphs.
An immense Translation development had been financed and upheld during
that period from Greek and Persian, eminently subject to three of the early Abbasid
Caliphs Al Mansour, Harun Rachid and al Mamoun. This prompted the formation of

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what became known as the place of shrewdness in Baghdad in 217 AH/832 Promotion
to act as a library and foundation of translation. This scholarly establishment pulled in
notable researchers who were exceptionally participated in the translation development
and many books from a wide cluster of disciplines were delivered into Arabic.
The Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mansur (Promotion 754 - 776) was the chief who
supported the people who were able to deliver Arabic Translations of works in Greek,
Syriac and Persian. He was especially keen on translating space science books into
Arabic; notwithstanding, the rule of Al Mamoun (Promotion 813-833) saw the peak of
this translation development. He put forth an exceptional attempt to enlist well known
researchers to come to the „Place of Shrewdness‟. Also, he put away tremendous
measures of cash and given motivators to interpreters so they set best in class
information and talented up to get advanced. On the reasonable level, translators as
entertainers assumed a critical part during the Abbasid time. They effectively added to
the indication of this logical insurgency. Yet, they should not be viewed as the sole
entertainer engaged with the Translation cycle. Conversely, the Abbasid Caliphs can
be considered as the central entertainer in the laid out net. There would be no
translation development without the Caliphs support. To show, translation became
subject to Abbasids crafted by the country and not a singular undertaking. For
example, it was not the interpreter‟s place to pick what to make a translation of and
what not to decipher contingent upon his own advantage. The selection of texts to be
deciphered was in many cases directed by the Caliph. Translation development arrived
at its pinnacle thanks to the Abbasid rulers‟ adoration and their supporting of the
translation development. For example, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, quite possibly of the most
extraordinary interpreter, was paid by Al Mamoun in gold matching the heaviness of
the books he deciphered (Dough puncher, 1998 : 320). Truly, they did not remunerate
the translators just for their gigantic work, yet they likewise gave high positions in the
organization of the state to the polymaths.
Utilizing Bourdieu terms, Translation turned into a type of social capital
(Bourdieu: 81). At the end of the day, for researchers and outstanding families to
accomplish social and political portability, translation was one of the apparatuses
through which they could keep their special situations with to the Caliphs (Al Khalili:
46) Then again translation helped Al Mamoun to acquire authenticity and more power
in connection with the general population. He was known for his energy for learning
and information. His picture as an erudite person, a benefactor of translation and the
place of Shrewdness, and a member in philosophical discussion was very influential.
This mirrors the intuitive connection between the organization substances. As it has
been referenced before, advances possess a crucial spot in the ANT. Essentially, the
development of new innovations connected with printing made a fruitful space for
creating information through the translation of Greek, Persian and Indian legacy
during the brilliant age. It is broadly contended that the rise of new innovations
connected with printing remarkably the paper plants was a critical component for the
sign of a logical upset under the Abbasis line. (Al khalili: 44).

23
SOCIAL CONTEXT OF TRANSLATION

Two principal procedures have been approached during that period. The first is „in
exactly the same words‟ while the second is „sense for sense‟. Bread cook (1998)
depicted the two Translation techniques:
[… ] the principal strategy, related with Yuhanna Ibn al-Batriq and Ibn Naima al-
Himsi, was exceptionally exacting and comprised of deciphering every Greek word
with an identical Arabic word and, where none existed, acquiring the Greek word into
Arabic. (Cook, 321)

She (1998) added:

…the subsequent strategy, related with Ibn Ishaq and al-Jawahari, comprised of
interpreting sense for-sense, making familiar objective texts which conveyed the
importance of the first without twisting the objective language. (Cook, 321)
Embracing the subsequent strategy, Middle Easterner interpreters did not just
decipher the extraordinary works of Greek scholars yet in addition reconsidered,
remarked and expanded them. The facts confirm that Bedouins interpreted the show-
stoppers of Greek, Indian and Persian works for science and information, and entered
through translation into a desultory relationship with the past. However, they
safeguarded their Arabic personality and Islamic soul. Benisson contended that “the
Muslim human advancement came to draw on the legacy of different countries yet
showing its own different and shimmering Islamic soul” (Bennison: 2009: 3). Middle
Easterners, once in a while, assumed the part of the creator as they created some
distance from the first text and began to convey their own perspectives. (Hala Khalidi
and al: 2015: 569-576) This apparently nourished the innovative part of Translation
while moving different countries information.
Clearly, the new humanistic turn in translation studies has urged researchers
and interpreters to investigate the connection between the specialists associated with
the translation cycle, item and capability which can possibly impact the creation and
gathering of Translations. Besides, the break of the human science of translation with
solely text-focused approaches has urged researchers to move their consideration from
translation as an etymological activity, to translation as the unmistakable result of
intelligent social specialists and occasions. Obviously humanistic methodology Actor-
Network Theory (ANT) has been embraced to unite the possibility that nothing exists
in disconnection and that the importance of anything not entirely settled by its unique
situation. With regards to the worldwide translation development which had been
performed by Middle Easterners, one might say that during the Abbassid time frame,
Bedouins fostered the translation interaction and made a compelling calling and they
created and transformed it from the phase of individual interpreters to the institutional
stage.

3.7 SOCIAL BARRIERS TO TRANSLATION

Translation is an important tool nowadays for the literary production by which
the book of one language can be translated into another language. However, a literary
translation would be a difficult task as a literary translator must also be skilled enough
to translate feelings, cultural touches, humour and other delicate elements of a piece of

24
 SOCIAL CONTEXT OF TRANSLATION

work. However, we can say for the translation that: “translation is to pour meaning
from one vessel to another that is equivalent to the first”. The subject, Translation
studies was not given much importance earlier but now people‟s mentality seems to be
changing. Octavio Paz abridges the case of „Translation Studies‟ saying that “all texts
are translations of translations of translations” as they are element of literary systems
that are not only slide down from other system but also connected with them. Here, in
this perspective, his views are similar with that of Terry Eagleton who supposed that,
“every text is a set of determinate transformations of others”. Some scholars gave an
example of criticism to clear the concept of translation as a creative writing. They are
of the opinion that if criticism has become creative, because it not only interprets the
text but also extend the meaning of it, then translation is creative for it re-creates an SL
text in a new way in the target-language. Translation is a reader, an Translator and a
creator-all in one. In ancient India translation was regarded as a new writing. Sri
Aurobindo is quoted to have said that, “a translator is not necessarily bound to the
original he chooses, he can make his own poem out of it, and that is what is generally
done”.
Prema Nandkumar reminds us of the ancient Indian literary tradition and
totally suggests that translation in this century was always given the status of new
writing. Our literary tradition of writing commentaries on „The Upanishads‟, „The
Gita‟ or the translation stories from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata enables us to
take translation as a creative writing. Old classics in our country have undergone
translations into several regional languages and in each case the translation has been
regarded as new writing. For Example: „The Ramayana‟ and „The Mahabharata‟ have
been turn into a number of regional languages in India and all these turns have been
considered as „new writing‟.
Nonetheless, there are obstructions that Translation should scale through to be
successful, some of which are social and social. Social and social contrasts exist
between and among countries. By and large as well, we find a nation having a few
social/social varieties. These distinctions block, in without a doubt, viable Translation
due to fluctuating originations of reality occasioned by dialects. This article looks at a
portion of the boundaries that emerge throughout Translation because of social/social
variables. Carrying these boundaries into the invasion of conversation will likewise act
as an approach to staying away from them.
Culture uses colossal impact on man as it is the underpinning of his reality,
since an individual is naturally introduced to a culture. Each people, group or country
has its own native culture; this culture characterizes and shapes a group‟s viewpoint
about each fragment of life. For this reason, culture is viewed as “the lifestyle of a
group, including their perspectives, values, convictions, expressions, sciences,
methods of discernment and propensities for thought and movement” (Blackburn,
2009: 86). There is a social point to culture; each culture consequently takes into
comprehension the social aspect and lives and co-operations of a group. In any case, a
culture is drilled inside the vibe of an assortment of individuals. In this way, since
there is a general public, there must be need of a social territory. To this end, social
realities are pockets of the consciousness of a group‟s lifestyle.

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SOCIAL CONTEXT OF TRANSLATION

Social/Social Aspect to Translation since Translation is a human action, and

people are social/social creatures, then Translation should have a social/social aspect.
People impart in words and text; subsequently language is a mode of correspondence
imagined by man to encourage amicable social relationship and concurrence. To this
end, there is a requirement for dominance of language; and this includes not just the
capacity to see right away, an endless number of completely new sentences, yet in
addition the capacity to distinguish freak sentences and, every so often, to force an
understanding on them. To Chomsky, subsequently, the focal reality to which any
huge semantic hypothesis should address itself as under,
A mature speaker can produce a new sentence of his language on the
appropriate occasion, and other speakers can understand it immediately, though it is
equally new to them. Most of our linguistic experience, both as speakers and hearers,
is with new sentences. (Chomsky, 1964: 50)
The social/social aspect to Translation additionally moves the capability of
Translators to successful Translation and skill in view of the profundity of information
on the language to be uncovered. This is on the grounds that, “interpreting includes
two dialects, yet an exchange starting with one culture then onto the next” (Hervey and
Higgins, 2007: 28). It hence follows that since Translation has a social/social point, as
it has been laid out, it turns into an essential condition this social/social aspect to be
contemplated and appropriately contextualized. Assuming this is finished, it becomes
simpler for the boundaries that will thwart successful Translation to be eliminated; and
this should be the focus.

3.8 ELIMINATING SOCIAL/SOCIAL HINDRANCES TO

TRANSLATION
Since the words or texts to be deciphered are arranged or housed in a culture
which has social importance, it becomes basic for the Translator to have sufficient
information on the way of life through whose language of which he/she wants to work.
Since language is a profoundly perplexing peculiarity created by staggeringly complex
people, Shastri‟s averment beneath turns out to be truly informative:
It is complicated at every one of the levels like sounds, words, semantics and
pragmatics. Intricacy increments with the utilization of phrases, similitudes, precepts
and the profoundly adapted language of writing on account of wonderful permit that
the journalists take. Plus, the creator works captivated of motivation, which the
Translator needs to make falsely. Subsequently, deciphering is more troublesome than
the first composition (Shastri, 2012: ix)
The different levels of social rendering should be visible as focuses along a
scale between the limits of exoticism and social transplantation. In deciphering names
for instance (place-names and legitimate names) should the name be taken over
unaltered from the ST to the TT, or could it at any point be adjusted to adjust to the
phonic/realistic shows to the TL? We have a little issue as presented by Hervey and
Higgins “how a name is spelled out might be completely up to the Translator, in the
event that there is no settled point of reference for deciphering the name being referred
to, or it might require keeping a guideline literal Translation made by before

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Translators” (Hervey and Higgins, 2007: 29). A further option in deciphering names is
social transplantation; this is the outrageous level of social rendering. SL names are
supplanted by native TL names that are not their exacting counterparts, but rather have
comparable social undertones. Social rendering isn't without its hazardous choice also.

3.9 LET US SUM UP

It has been expressed that there are social/social hindrances to Translation.
These social/social hindrances encroach on successful Translation since the last option
is a cooperative movement which includes the texts to be deciphered and the person
who does the Translation. The article additionally battled that the word social is
demolished by the word culture since social relations or activities occur inside a
culture. Over the conversation through consistent examination, clearly compromise is
an integral part of Translation. This has suggestions for successful or wonderful
Translation which is by all accounts an exterior. The article reasons that control or
split the difference in Translation uncovered a hole that remains exceptionally wide
leaving, in its path, a serious weight on Translators not due to their ineptitude towards
Translation in essence, but since of social varieties of words and language,
consequently the proposal that the closer than Translation is to the first words or text
even with equality, the better.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) What is the function of social context in translation?
2) Translation “has moved from the investigation of words to text to sociocultural
setting to the functioning acts of the actual interpreters” explain it in detail.
3) How has social activities influenced translation?
4) How can translation be an agent of social development? Explain with examples
5) How can translation help translators desirous of joining the tourism industry
and Business and Commerce?
6) Discuss the role of translators with reference to The Actor Network Theory.
7) Discuss any three examples of social barriers in Translation.
8) Discuss How to overcome from the social barriers of translation.

*****************

27
 UNIT-4 TRANSLATING PHRASES, CLAUSES AND SENTENCES

:: STRUCTURE ::

4.0 OBJECTIVE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 PHRASE
4.3 CLAUSE
4.4 SENTENCE STRUCTURE

4.0 OBJECTIVES:
In this unit we will learn to translate Phrases, Clauses and Sentences in
English, Gujarati and Hindi languages

4.1 INTRODUCTION
While translating from one language into another one needs to take care of the
grammar of both, the source and the target text languages. This is because every
language has its own list rules and regulations as far as its grammar is concerned.
Coming to Phrase, Clause and Sentence Structure of the three languages,
namely English, Gujarati and Hindi, each one has its own pattern and order. For

example:
English Gujarati Hindi

One and one/ makes/ two. એકને એક /ફે / થાઈ एक और एक / दो / होते है

Subject / Verb / Object Subject/Object/Verb Subject/ Object/ Verb

While translating a text of one language into another, one should be aware of
its pattern. In all the three languages there are three types of sentences –Simple,
Compound and Complex. The three use phrase and clause as per the need. Let us first
see the uses of phrase.

4.2 PHRASE
A Phrase is a group of words which makes sense but not a complete sense.
Examine the following pairs:

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OF GUJARATI, ENGLISH AND HINDI

English Gujarati Hindi

1a. The king was worried 1a. યાજા ચ િંતાતુય શતો. 1.a. राजा चिंतातूर था।

b. The king was full of b. યાજા ચ િંતાથી આતુય શતો. b. राजा चिंता से आतुर था ।
worries

2a He was a man of wealth 2a. તે ધનલાન ભાણવ શતો. 2.a. वह धनवान आदमी था।

b. He was a man of wealth b. તે ધનથી બય઩ ૂય ભાણવ શતો. b. वह धन से भरा आदमी था।

[Link] Minister is a kind 3a. ભંત્રી દમાળુ ભાણવ શતો. 3a. मंत्री एक दयावान आदमी है।
man

b. The Minister is a man with b. ભંત્રી દમાથી બય઩ ૂય ભાણવ શતો. b. मंत्री एक dदयावान स्वभाव वाला
kind nature आदमी था।

4a. It was midnight then 4a. ત્માયે ભધ્મયાત્રત્ર શતી. 4a. तब मध्यरात्रत्र थी।

b. It was middle of the night b. ત્માયે યાત્રીનો ભધ્મ પ્રશય શતો. b. तब रात्री का मध्य प्रहर था।
then

The underlined groups of words in the above sentences are phrases.

There are three types of phrases: Adjective Phrase, Adverb Phrase and Noun Phrase.
4.2.1 ADJECTIVE PHRASE:
it plays the role of an Adjective and qualify the noun.
Let us try to translate a few sentences using Adjective phrase and study the difference:

English Gujarati Hindi

1a. She is a tall girl. 1a. તેણી રાંફી છોકયી છે . 1a. वह लंबी लड़की है।
b. She is a girl with great b. તેણી લધુ ઊં ામ લા઱ી છોકયી b. वह ज़्यादा लंबाई वाली लड़की है।
height.
છે .
2a. Get me a blank page 2a.ભને એક કોયો કાગ઱ આ઩ો. 2a. मुझे एक कोरा कागज़ दीत्रजए ।
b. Get me a page with no b. ભને એક રખાણ ત્રલનાનો કાગ઱ b. मुझे एक त्रबना कु छ त्रलखा हुआ कागज़
writing on it. दीत्रजए ।
આ઩ો.
3a. We saw a deserted village 3a. અભે એક ત્રનર્જન ગાભ જોયુ.ં 4a. हमने एक त्रनजजन गााँव देखा।
b. We saw a village without b. અભે એક લસ્તી ત્રલનાનુ ં ગાભ b. हमने एक त्रबना बत्रस्तवाला गााँव देखा
any inhabitants ।
જોયુ.ં
4a. A white tiger attacked the 4a. એક વપેદ લાઘે વોનેયી શયણ 4a. एक श्वेत बाघने सुनहरे त्रहरण पर
golden deer हमला ककया।
઩ય હભ
ુ રો કમો.

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OF GUJARATI, ENGLISH AND HINDI

b. A tiger with white skin b. એક વપેદ ભમલા઱ા લાઘે વોનેયી b. एक श्वेत िंमजवाले बाघने सुनहरे
attacked the golden deer िंमजवाले त्रहरण पर हमला ककया।
ભમલા઱ા શયણ ઩ય હભ
ુ રો કમો.

 OBSERVE THE DIFFERENCE:

English structure is: Noun + Adjective Phrase
Gujarati and Hindi structure is: Adjective Phrase + Noun
While translating, one cannot ignore such differences
Exercise: Translate the following sentences into Gujarati and Hindi:
a. Only person with great wealth can buy a house of such a beauty and grandeur.
b. Those who brought us freedom were full of hope and free from fear.
c. She is a person with a bad temper.
d. Asking him for is of no use.
e. It is difficult to be a person without fear.
f. I have passed days and nights without sleep.
g. We were given a plate made gold and a spoon made of silver.
h. In his hands was a sword stained with blood.

4.2.2 ADVERB PHRASE:

It answers the questions like ‘how’, ‘when’, ‘where’, etc.
Let us try to translate a few sentences having Adverb Phrase:

English Gujarati Hindi

1a. They are doing their 1a. તેઓ ઩ોતાનુ ં કાભ ફેદયકાયીથી 1a. वे अपने काम लापरवाही से कर रहे
carelessly. है।
કયી યહ્યા છે .
b. They are doing their work b. તેઓ ઩ોતાનુ ં કાભ કોઈ જાતની B . वे अपने काम त्रबना कोई परवाह
without any care. ककए कर रहे है।
દયકાય લગય કયી યહ્યા છે .
2a. She is reaching now. 1a. તેણી શભણાં જ ઩ોંશ ે છે . 1a. वह अभी पोंहिं जाएगी।
b. She is reaching at this very b. તેણી આજ ક્ષણે ઩ોંશ ે છે . b. वह इसी क्षण पहोिं जाएगी।
moment
3a. The aero plane had 3a. ત્રલભાન અશીં ત ૂટીયુ ં શતુ.ં 3a. हवायजहाज यहीं टू टा था।
crashed here.
b. The Aero plane had b. ત્રલભાન આ જગ્મા ઩ય ત ૂટીયુ ં B . हवायजहाज इसी जगह पर टू टा था।
crashed on this spot.
શતુ.ં

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 PHRASE CLAUSE AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE
OF GUJARATI, ENGLISH AND HINDI

4a, The actors walked 4a. કરાકાયો ચ ત્તાક઴મક ાલ્મા. ---

gracefully.
b. The actors walked in a b. કરાકાયો આક઴મક ળૈરીથી ---
graceful style.
ાલ્મા.
5a. come soon. 5a. જલ્દી આલો. 5a. जल्दी आना।
b. Come before very long b. ભોડુ ં ના થામ તે ઩શેરાં આલો. b. देर हो उससे पहले आना।

Check the structure of the sentences. In Gujarati and Hindi sentences, as like
Adverbs, the Adverb Phrase too precedes the verb. Whereas, in the English
sentences mostly the Adverb and the Adverb Phrase follow the verb.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS. 1

Translate the following sentences into Gujarati and Hindi;

a) Let us stop quarrelling from this very moment.
b) No one would dare to answer him in an impolite manner.
c) The tsunami washed out the city in a terrible manner.
d) I saw them all there for certain.
e) The Rajputs fought against Moughals in a brave manner.
f) You shall win in the long run.
g) The injured man shouted at the top of his voice.
h) My teacher called me at that very moment.

4.2.3 NOUN PHRASE

It is a group of words that does the work of a Noun. It mostly answers the question
‘what’.
Let us try to translate a few sentences with Noun Phrase into Gujarati and Hindi:

[Link] hope to stand first 1.અભે પ્રથભ આલલાની આળા 1. हम प्रथम आने की आशा रखते है।

યાખીએ છીએ.
2. Sita prefers sitting in the 2. વીતા સ ૂમમપ્રકાળભાં ફેવવુ ં ઩વંદ 2। सीता सूयजप्रकाशमें बैठना पसंद करती
sunlight. है।
કયે છે .
3. Early to bed is good habit. 3. ઩થાયીભાં લશેરાં જાવુ ં તે વાયી 3. ---

આદત છે .
4. I know what to do. 4. ભને ખફય છે શુ ં કયવુ.ં 4.क्या करना मुझे पता है।
5. To become a doctor is my 5. ડોક્ટય ફનવુ ં ભાયો ધ્મેમ છે . 5. डॉक्टर बनाना मेरा ध्येय है।
goal.
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PHRASE CLAUSE AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE
OF GUJARATI, ENGLISH AND HINDI

Here too mostly the pattern changes.

Exercise: Translate the following sentences into Gujarati and Hindi:
a) He performs like a born actor.
b) I should like to watch the movie.
c) Travelling in summer gives me no pleasure.
d) She wanted to speak to the Prime Minister.
e) The poor man intended to pay back all his debts.
f) Your waking up till late night surprises me.
g) Do you promise to stand by me?
h) They deny stealing money.
i) I don’t remember anything.

4.3 CLAUSE

A group of words which forms part of a sentence, and contains a Subject and a
Predicate is called a Clause.
Look at the words underlined:
a) He has a pen which is made of real gold.

-તેની ઩ાવે એક એલી ઩ેન છે જે વોનાની ફનેરી છે .

-उसके पास एक ऐसी कलम है जो सोने की बनी है ।

b) I think that you should come early.

-ભને રાગે છે કે તભાયે લશેરાં આલવું જોઈએ.

-मुझे लग रहा है की आपको जल्दी आना िंात्रहए।

-The underlined part is a group of words with one more verb having its own
Subject and Predicate. It is a Clause.

4.3.1 ADJECTIVE CLAUSE:

A Clause which works as an Adjective to the Principal Clause is an Adjective
Clause.

For example:

English Guajarati Hindi

1. The book which is lying 1. જે ઩ુસ્તક ત્માં ઩ડેલ ું છે તે ભારું 1. जो ककताब वहा पड़ी है वह मेरी
there is mine. है।
છે .
2, i remember the house 2. હુ ં જમાં જન્ભેરો તે ઘય ભને માદ 2. मेरा जहां जन्म हुआ था वह घर
where I was born, मुझे याद है।
છે .
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 PHRASE CLAUSE AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE
OF GUJARATI, ENGLISH AND HINDI

3. I tried to collect money 3. ભેં ઩ૈવા બેગા કયલાની કોત્રળળ 3. --

which was badly needed.
કયી જે ખ ૂફ જરૂયી શતુ.ં
4. He gives excuse that 4. તે એલા ફશાના આ઩ે છે જે 4. --
sounds lame.
઩ાંગ઱ા રાગે છે .
5. The one who digs falls 5. જે ખાડો ખોદે તે ઩ડે. 5. --

Gujarati sentences use words જે and તે in the Adjective Clause.

Now let us see the difference between Adjective Phrase and Adjective Clause:
a. The people on the terrace could not hear.

-અગાવી ઩યના રોકો વાંબ઱ી ળક્તા નથી.

-छत पर लोग सुन नहीं पाते ।

b. The people who were stnding on the terrace could not hear.

-અગાવી ઩ય ઉબેરા રોકો વાંબ઱ીળક્તાનથી

- छत पर खड़े लोग सुन नहीं पाते।

Keeping in mind the above example, try to translate the following:

a) You may purchase anything of your liking.
- You may purchase anything that may be of your liking
b) I have a bag filled with coins.
-I have bag which is filled with coins.
c) His explanation was not satisfactory.
-The explanation he gave was not satisfactory.
d) The life of successful people is generally built of hard work and strong
willpower.
-The life lived by successful people is generally built by hard work and strong
will power.
e) We all admire people of courage.
-We all admire people who are full of courage.

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4.3.2 ADVERB CLAUSE

A group of words which has a subject and a predicate of its own and works
like an Adverb is called Adverb Clause.
Let us try to translate a few sentences with Adverb Clause:

English Gujarati Hindi

1. Where there is a will, there 1. ભન શોમ તો ભા઱લે જલામ. 1. जहााँ िंाह, वहााँ राह।
is a way
2. when I was a child , I 2 . હુ ં જમાયે ફા઱ક શતો ત્માયે એવુ ં 2. में जब बच्चा था, तब ऐसा मानता था।
believed so.
ભાનતો.
3. As you work so you get 3. જેવુ કાભ કયળો તેવ ુ ં પ઱ ભ઱ળે. 3. जैसा कायज करोगे, वैसा फल पाओगे।
the fruits.
4. if it rains we shall not go 4. જો લયવાદ થળે ,તો આ઩ણે 4. अगर बाररश हुई , तो हम बाहर नहीं
out. जाएंगे।
ફાશય નશીં જઈએ.
5. because she is weak, she 5. કાયણ કે તે નફ઱ી છે , તે ત્રલયોધ 5. क्यूंकी वह त्रनबजल है , वह त्रवरोध नहीं
shall not be able to oppose. कर पाएगी।
નશીં કયી ળકે .

In Gujarati we get the pairs of words like jyare-tyare, jyan-tyan, jem-tem, jo-to,
etc.
See the difference in translating sentences having Adverb Phrase and Adverb
Clause:

Adverb Phrase Adverb Clause

1. English: The price is high for an old car. The price is high to buy an old car.
Gujarati: જૂની ગાડી ભાટે કકિંભત ઘણી લધાયે છે . જૂની ગાડી ખયીદલા ભાટે કકિંભત ઘણી લધાયે છે .
Hindi: पुरानी गड्डी के त्रलये ककमत बहोत ज्यादा है। पुरानी गड्डी खरीदने के त्रलये ककमत बहोत ज्यादा है।
2. English: I will go with you I will go wherever you go.
Gujarati: હુ ં તભાયી વાથે આલીળ. તભે જમાં જળો ત્માં હુ ં આલીળ.

Exercise: translate the following sentences into Gujarati and Hindi as per above

Examples:
a) They fought like heroes.
- They fought as heroes do.
b) On his uttering these words all stood up.
- When he uttered these words, all stood up.
c) I selected him on your recommendation.

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- I selected him because you recommended him.

d) The family is poor but of noble birth.
- The family is poor though of noble birth.
e) Due to ill health, he remained home.
- As he was not well, he remained home.
e) I have not been well since I returned from Delhi.
f) The Principal is such a good person, that we all respect him.
g) She is not as intelligent as you think.
h) It all happened as we had expected.
i) Who knows the facts better than you do.

4.2.3 NOUN CLAUSE

A Noun Clause is a group of words which contains a Subject and a Predicate
of its own, and works as a Noun of the Principal Clause.
Let us see a few examples and its translations:

English Gujarati Hindi

1. It was good that you did વારું થયુ ં કે તભે ઩યીક્ષાભાં ફેઠા अच्छा हुआ की आप परीक्षा मे नहीं बैठे।
not sit for the examination.
નશીં.
2. I expet that you shall stand હુ ં અ઩ેક્ષા યાખુ ં છં કે તભે પ્રથભ मैं अपेक्षा करती हाँ की आप प्रथम क्रमांक
first. पर आए।
ક્રભાંક ઩ય આલો.
3. what he said was a lie. તેણે જે કહ્ું તે જૂઠાણુ ં છે . उसने जो कहा वह जूठ है।
4. I fear that they may not ભને ડય છે કે તેઓ વશભત નશીં मुझे डर है की वे सहमत नहीं होंगे।
agree.
થામ.
5. We are happy that you અભે ખુળ છીએ કે તભે આવ્મા हम खुश है की आप आए ।
came.

Now let us see the difference between the sentences using Noun Phrase and
Noun Clause: (in the below given table every ‘a’ Noun Phrase and every ‘b’ has a
Noun Clause)

English Gujarati Hindi

1a) I hope to reach in time a) હુ ં વભમવય ઩શોં લાની આળા a) मैं समय पर पहुाँिंने की आशा
रखती हाँ।
યાખુ ં છં.
b) I hope that I shall reach in b) હુ ં વભમવય ઩શોં ી ળકુ ં તેલી b) में समय पर पहुाँिं पाऊाँ ऐसी
time. आशा रखती हाँ।
આળા યાખુ ં છં.

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2a) Who can doubt the truth a) આ રખાણની વત્મતા ઩ય કોણ

of this writing?
ળક કયી ળકે ?
b) Who can doubt that this b) આ રખાણભાં વત્મતા નથી તેલી
writing may not be true?
કોણ ળંકા કયી ળકે ?
3a) We hoped for his success a)અભે તેની વપ઱તાની આળા
યાખતા શતા.
b) We hoped that he would b)અભે તે વપ઱ થામ તેલી આળા
succeed
યાખતા શતા.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS. 2

Try to translate the following sentences:

a) The young man told us the direction of the wind.
-The young man told us in which directiothe wind blew.
b) Everyone believed him guilty.
-Everyone believed that he was guilty.
c) His departure was unexpected.
That he departed was unexpected.
d) He confessed his crime.
-He confessed that he had committed the crime.
e) He described how the soldier marched.
f) There is no meaning in calling her.
g) Why you are not here is a question.

4.4 SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Commonly all the languages have three sentence structures- Simple, Compound
and Complex. At times there is also a compound-Complex sentence.
4.4.1 SIMPLE SENTENCE:
A Simple sentence has one Subject and one Predicate-
-My/ mother/ bought/ me/ a/ dress.
Attribute/ Subject/ Verb/ Indirect Object/ Attribute/ Direct Object
Let us see the same one in Gujarati:
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ભાયી / ભાતાએ / ભને / લસ્ત્ર / ખયીદી આપયુ.ં

Attribute/ Subject/ indirect Obj. / Direct Object/ Verb

In English the word order of a Simple sentence is: Subject+ Verb+ Object,
whereas in Gujarati and Hindi it is: Subject+ Object+ Verb.
Now let us try to translate a few Simple sentences:

(1) a) Raju / bought/ few/ books/ for/ his/ sister/ today.

-Subject/ Verb/ Adj./ Obj. / Prep. / Attribute/ Obj. / Adverbial

Qualification

b) યાજુએ / ઩ોતાની/ ફશેન /ભાટે /આજે /થોડા ઩ુસ્તકો / ખયીદ્યા.

-Sub. / Attribute/ Obj. / Prep. / Adv. Qual./ Obj. / Verb

c) राजुने अपनी बहन के त्रलये आज कु छ पुस्तके खरीदी।

(2) a) That old man / looks very happy since last one year.

b) તે વ ૃદ્ધ ભાણવ છે લ્રા એક લ઴મ થી ખ ૂફ ખુળ દે ખામ છે .

c) वह बुजुगज आदमी त्रपछले एक साल से बहोत खुश कदखता है।

(3) a) His words / filled us with joy.

b) તેના ળબ્દોએ અભને ખુળીથી બયી દીધા.

c) उनके शब्दने हमे खुशी से भर कदया।

4.4.2 COMPOUND SENTENCE

A Compound sentence has more than one Main Verb. Hence, it has more than
one Principal Clauses joined using Conjunctions. For example:
God/ created/ man/ and/ man /made/ religions.
-Sentence1/ Conjunction/ Sentence2
Both the sentences have their individual meanings and a together one more
meaning when joined by a conjunction. Let us try to translate it into Gujarati:

બગલાને ભાણવનુ ં વર્જન કયુું /અને/ ભાણવે ધભમ ફનાવ્મા.

भगवानने मनुष्य का सजजन ककया/ और /मानुषयने धमज बनाया।

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PHRASE CLAUSE AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE
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Like ‘and’, અને and और are conjunctions in Gujarati and Hindi. A Compound
sentence can be of more than two Principal sentences too. In the following
sentences the underlined words are the Conjunctions:
-He is intelligent, but lazy and naughty too.

-તે બુદ્ધદ્ધળા઱ી છે ઩યં ત ુ ં આ઱સુ અને તોપાની ઩ણ છે .

- vh budhhdhhishali hai,parantu aalsi hai, aur shaitan bhi hai

The above sentence has three Principal Clauses, with a common Subject (He).
Let us try to translate a few Compound sentences:

(1) He /is hardworking/, therefore/ he/ will succeed.

Sub.1/ Verb1 / Conjunction/Sub.2/ Verb2

-તે / ભશેનતુ છે / તેથી / તે / વપ઱ થળે.

Sub.1/ Verb1/ Conjunction/ Sub.2/Verb2 Similarly Hindi sentence:

-वह महेनती है इसी कारण वह सफल होगा।

(2) Come/ quickly/, or else/ you/ will miss/ the/ scene.

Verb1/Adverb/Conjunction/Sub2/Verb2/Object

-જલ્દી/ આલો/ નકશતય/ તભે/ નજાયો/ ચ ૂકી જાળો.

Adverb/Verb1/Conj./Sub.2/Obj./verb2

(3) We/ wanted to see /the movie/, but/ we/ did not have/ enough/ money.
Sub.1/ Verb1/ Object1/ Conj. /Sub.2/ Verb2/ Adjective/ Object
-અભાયે / રચ ત્ર / જોવુ ં શત,ુ ં / ઩યં ત ુ ં / અભાયી ઩ાવે / ઩ૈવા /નશોતાં.
Sub.1 / Obj.1/ Verb1/ /Conjunction/ Subject2/ Obj.2/ Verb2

(4) She/ was/ happy/ therefore/ she/ was singing/ and /dancing.
Sub.1/Verb1/Complement/Conjunction/Sub.2/verb2/Conj.2/verb3

-તેણી /ખુળ / શતી / તેથી / તે /ગાતી /અને /ના તી શતી.

Sub.1/Comp./Verb1/Conj.1/Sub.2/Verb2/Conj,2/ Verb3
We have split the sentences so as to understand the positions of every category of
the sentence.

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4.4.3. COMPLEX SENTENCE:

A Complex Sentence has one Principal Clause and one or more Subordinate
Clauses. Hence it may have more than one Main Verbs. For example:
-I am satisfied with/ what I have.
Principal Clause/ Noun Clause
Let us try to translate the same:

-ભાયી ઩ાવે જે છે તેનાથી / ભને વંતો઴ છે .

Principal Clause/ Noun Clause

-मेर पास जो है /उस से में सन्तुष्ट हाँ।

Let us try to translate a few more Complex sentences:

(1) Do the work/that’s the nearest- Principal Clause + Adjective Clause

-તે કાભ કયો / જે વૌથી નજીક શોમ .

वह काम करो /जो सबसे करीब हो।

(2) He told us/ that he had read Mahabharat/ when he was ten.

PrincipalClause/ Noun Clause/ Adverb Clause

-તેણે અભને કહ્ુકં ે / જમાયે તે દવ લ઴મનો શતો ત્માયે / તેણે ભશાબાયત લાં ેલ ું શતુ.ં

-उसने हमे कहा की /जब वह दस साल का था /तब उसने महाभारत पढ़ा था।

(3) Tell me/ where is your father. Principal Clause + Noun Clause

-તભાયા ત્ર઩તા ક્ાં છે / તે ભને કશો.

आपके त्रपताजी कहााँ है /ये मुझे कहे। Noun Clause + Principal Clause

(4) God takes birth on the earth, /whenever the burden of sins increases on
the earth
PrincipalClause with Adverb Phrase +Adverb Clause

-જમાયે જમાયે ઩ ૃથ્લી ઩ય ઩ા઩નો ફોજ લધે છે / ત્માયે ત્માયે બગલાન

઩ ૃથ્લી ઩ય જન્ભ રે છે .

-जब जब पृथ्वी पर पाप का बोज़ बढ़ता है, /तब तब भगवान पृथ्वी पर जन्म लेते है।
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PHRASE CLAUSE AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE
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 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3

Translate the following sentences using the given Phrases and Clauses:
a) To drive a car requires skill and practice.
b) We called him Superman. (Simple)
c) As my elder sister was called a scholar, I determined to surpass her in sports.
(Complex)
d) One earns to live, not to show. (Compound)
e) She took her lunch and ate it all alone. (Compound)
f) People elected him the Prime Minister of the country. (Simple)
g) I have read Shakespeare much and other playwrights little. (Compound)
h) Nothing can describe the fear I felt when I saw the house on fire. (Complex)
i) History says that when Mira was given the glass of poison, she drank it with a
smiling face. (Complex)
j) Time and tide waits for none. (Simple)
k) We like theater, play various instruments and enjoy singing. (Compound)
l) I tried to convince him that his arguments were baseless. (Complex)
m) Elders fear death as children fear dark. (Complex)
n) Neither can he speak, nor can he hear. (Compound)
o) One should take care of the self, once he crosses fifty. (Complex)

*****************

40
 UNIT-5 LOSS AND GAIN IN TRANSLATION

:: STRUCTURE ::

5.0 OBJECTIVE
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 THE FACTORS INFLUENCING TRANSLATION PRACTICE
5.3 EQUIVALENCE AND THE LOSS IN TRANSLATION
5.4 GAIN IN TRANSLATION
5.5 PROVIDES ACCESS TO DIFFERENT LITERATURES TO
MONOLINGUAL READERS
5.6 FACILITATES COMMUNICATION
5.7 DISSEMINATES KNOWLEDGE:
5.8 PRESERVES LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES
5.9 EXPANDS LITERARY SPHERE
5.10 ENHANCES BUSINESS
5.11 SUGGESTED READINGS
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

5.0 OBJECTIVE
In this Unit, we will learn to understand

 the debates on the loss and gain that translation practice and
translated texts offer.
 that loss and gain of translation are contingent upon various factors
and they are dependent upon the motifs that translators intend to
serve through translation.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
An act of translation has been perceived as a secondary one. The translated
works struggle in receiving due recognition, as they are subsumed by the
hierarchical classification of original and translated works. The traditional debates
in translation studies have focused more on the loss than on gain in translation.
The loss and gain in translation are determined by various factors. In this chapter,
we shall first try to understand these factors and then try to understand how these
factors render the translated works to be perceived in different ways.

5.2 THE FACTORS INFLUENCING TRANSLATION PRACTICE

Translation practice and theories are contingent upon the relationship
between relative autonomy of translation, equivalence and the function.
Equivalence can be understood in terms of accuracy," "adequacy," "correctness,"

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LOSS AND GAIN IN TRANSLATION

"correspondence," "fidelity," or "identity". The functionality of translation can be

conceived as the effects produced by translated work. For instance, translation
performs the function of communication, production of a response and so on.
Functions of translation also include introduction of new literary movements,
development and evolution of languages, introduction of social activism, catering
to economic, social, political agenda. Let us attempt to understand the concept of
equivalence and try to figure out how the insistence on achieving equivalence
leads towards loss in translation.

5.3 EQUIVALENCE AND THE LOSS IN TRANSLATION

Translation is conceived of as rendering of source language text into target
language text so as to ensure that the surface meaning in both SL and TL remain
approximately similar and the structure of the SL in the TL remains closer to the
SL. Moreover, the translator has to ensure that while ensuring the faithfulness to
the source language text, the target language structures do not get distorted. The
traditional approach to translation puts emphasis on ensuring faithfulness to the
original. As per the approach, the translator while translating the text from source
language into the target language should remain faithful to the form and content of
the original text. The inability of transferring the meaning and the form of the
original text into the translated text is perceived as the loss. According to Sapirr,
No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the
same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds,
not merely the same world with different labels attached.. Different translation
theorists have come up with prescriptive models to mitigate the loss. Jacobson
argues that since each unit contains a set of nontransferable associations and
connotations, achieving complete equivalence in terms of synonymy or sameness
is not possible. This assumption leads him to conclude that poetry is
untranslatable. Jacobson suggests to translate the message of the source language
into target language text by adopting strategies such as circumlocution. Jakobson
gives the example of the Russian word syr (a food made of fermented pressed
curds) which translates roughly into English as cottage cheese. In this case,
Jakobson claims, “the translation is only an adequate interpretation of an alien
code unit and equivalence is impossible”. To make it clearer, let us look at another
example. It is difficult to get the exact equivalent word for “bhakhari” which is
consumed as staple food in many regions of India. Translating it as bread does not
convey its cultural connotations. If we take into account the strategies suggested
by Jacobson, we can translate the verbal sign “bhakhari” into other alternative
verbal signs such as a round thick whole wheat chapati served with sabzi (curri) or
by providing footnote or providing glossary. Thus, according to Jacobson one can
choose to devise transposition as a technique to solve the daunting problem of
translation. However, one can here notice the loss in terms of formal and stylistic
features. Stylistic features are integral part of the literary genres and the translators
while translating them into target language fear to lose the stylistic and ornamental
aspects of the original Source language text. It is to be noted that paying attention
to only the formal or stylistic aspects of a source language text does not resolve
the problems of text. The decoding of the source language message and translating
into the target language codes that convey the same message do not offer solution
to the problem of untranslatability. As discussed above, each language constitutes
different social reality and replicating the same is a difficult task. This problem
can be understood through an example. Meanings or the messages encoded in the
words are culturally and contextually embedded. They do not convey anything if

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they are taken out of context. Moreover, the context is also culturally specific and
borrowing the context of the source text in to target text is likely to create
ambiguity for the target text readers. For example, the lines “if winter comes, can
summer be far behind” will fail to produce the same impact of the source text into
target language context where summer is harsh. Here, the translator is left with the
option of translating the message in a befitting context that produces
corresponding effect of the source language. So, in a context where summer is
harsh, the above quoted line can be translated as “if summer comes, can winter be
far behind.” In such translation, the translators are likely to be accused of
unfaithfulness to the original. The changes in linguistic signs are capable of
distorting the poetic effect. Thus, both the methods are likely to cause the loss
either of the form or the meaning of the source text.
The recent developments in translation studies do not consider the
problems of translation practice as loss. They are concerned with the shifts that
take place during the process of translation. Moreover, the hierarchical binary
opposition of the source text as original and translation as secondary has been
challenged by many postcolonial translation theorists. Let us discuss the
advantages that translation offers to different arinas.

5.4 GAIN IN TRANSLATION

Translation is considered to be performing the bridge building task across
cultures. It is translation which brings cultures close to each other. Translator
while translating a particular text may face challenges due to the absence of
linguistically or culturally equivalent words or concepts. However, translation has
played a crucial role in establishing contacts among different cultures at various
historical junctures. We shall now try to understand the gains that translation
offers to different institutions.

5.5 PROVIDES ACCESS TO DIFFERENT LITERATURES TO

MONOLINGUAL READERS
Translation makes it possible for the readers to read literature written in
languages which the readers are not familiar with. The monolingual readers
usually have access to literature written in their respective mother tongues.
Translation provides them with an access to the literature (fiction or nonfiction)
written in foreign languages. For example. India is a multilingual country and is
rich in terms of diversity. Literary texts are being written in different regional
languages. If a Gujarati reader does not know Bangala, he or she can still read
Gitanjali written by Ravindranath Tagore because it has been translated into
Gujarati and several other languages. Thus, translation by providing access to
literature written in different languages serves a great cause.

5.6 FACILITATES COMMUNICATION

Language is considered to be an important tool of communication. We use
both linguistic and metalinguistic codes in order to communicate. In order to
ensure an effective communication, the shared knowledge of linguistic codes is
required. It is difficult to have effective communication between interlocuters who
speak different languages. For example, consider a situation where there are two
interlocuters. One speaks Marathi and the other speaker speaks Spanish. Both of
them will find it difficult to communicate with each other. If there is an interpreter

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who knows both the languages, he or she will facilitate communication between
both of them. It is to be noted that an act of translation involves an act of
interpretation. An act of interpretation is also an act of translation. Thus,
translation by interpretating codes in different languages facilitates communication
among people speaking different languages.

5.7 DISSEMINATES KNOWLEDGE

In today’s globalized world, the cultural boundaries have become blur. The
idea of plurality and diversity have gained currency. One can notice the cross
cultural influence in all the societal, technological, cultural activities and so on.
We in our day today life tend to describe a new object, event or a phenomenon to
others. The traveler travels to different places and describes food, places, and
costumes and so on of the places he or she visits. The cook books or food blogs
come up with a detailed account of culinary practices being observed across
cultures for target language readers or listeners. The nations across the globe
benefit from the scientific and technological innovations done in different parts. It
is to be noted that it is translation that comes into play and plays an instrumental
role in disseminating ideas, concepts or knowledge pertaining to various arenas.
Cultures evolve because of the exchange that take place among them through
translation.

5.8 PRESERVES LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES

Literature holds a mirror to the society. It provides insights into socio-
political and cultural aspects of a society, a community, an ethnic group and so on.
Moreover, literature serves as an alternative historical document for many cultures
which have not been documented in mainstream history. Some great literatures
have been written in languages which have become obsolete or are on the verge of
becoming obsolete. Translation becomes instrumental in preserving and in
documenting cultures. It is through translation that folk songs, customs, rituals are
disseminated and preserved. Moreover, translation keeps languages alive by
promoting literature written in those languages.

5.9 EXPANDS LITERARY SPHERE

Many nations have witnessed that translation has expanded their literary
sphere. The writers through translation are able to read literature written in
different languages in different countries. It further shapes their creativity and
impacts their writing styles. The stylistic aspects of a particular literature
influences another literature and the convergence between the two give birth to a
new literature. For instance, the genre novel was introduced to Indian literary
sphere during nineteenth century through translation. The great novelists such as
Bankimchandra Chattopadhyay, Saradchandra, Govardhanram Tripathi, O’
Chandu Menon read and translated texts from other languages and they eventually
produced novels in Indian modern languages. Thus, translation becomes crucial in
evolving and expanding literary sphere of different nations.

5.10 ENHANCES BUSINESS

Translation facilitates and enhances business among different
organizations. Translators translate the catalogues, manuals, contracts and thus
ensure effective communication between companies, clients and consumers.

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Moreover, translation plays a crucial role in enhancing diplomatic relations among

nations.
Thus, there are numerous advantages that an act of translation offers us.
The translators have to decide the strategies and techniques that are in keeping
with the objectives their translation seek to serve. Translation builds bridge among
cultures, enhances learning, disseminates knowledge, establishes cross-cultural
contacts, evolves languages, expands literary sphere and so on.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. What is equivalence?
2. Define the term circumlocution.
3. What are the problems that translators face while translating poetry.
4. Why it is difficult to find an equivalent word of a source text in target
language?
5. What are the advantages that translation offers?

5.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

1 Donald, James. Chambers’s Etymological Dictionary of the English
Language, London and
2 Edinburgh: W.& R. Chambers, 1872. Print.
3 Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications.
London:
4 Routledge, [Link].
5 Panou, Desponia. “Equivalence in Translation Theories: A Critical
Evaluation”, Theory and
6 Practice in Language Studies, Vol3.1. Web.
7 Venuti, Lawrence ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London and New
York: Routledge,
8 2001. Print.
9 Donald, James. Chambers’s Etymological Dictionary of the English
Language, London and Edinburgh: W.& R. Chambers, 1872. Print.
10 Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications.
London: Routledge, [Link].
11 Panou, Desponia. “Equivalence in Translation Theories: A Critical
Evaluation”, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol3.1.
12 Jakobson, Roman. “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”, Venuti, Lawrence
ed. The Translation Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge,
[Link].

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LOSS AND GAIN IN TRANSLATION

13 Nida, Eugine A “Principles of Correspondence”, Venuti, Lawrence ed. The

Translation Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge, [Link].
14 Panou, Desponia. “Equivalence in Translation Theories: A Critical
Evaluation”, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Vol3.1.

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 UNIT-6 TRANSLATION AND EDUCATION

:: STRUCTURE ::

6.0 OBJECTIVES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 TRANSLATION TOOLS IN EDUCATION
6.3 TRANSLATION AND NON-FORMAL AND INFORMAL
EDUCATION
6.4 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN THE STUDY OF LITERATURE
6.5 SUMMING UP
6.6 KEY WORDS
6.7 FURTHER READING
6.0 OBJECTIVES
In this unit you will learn:
 What are tools for translation in education
 How translation can help in formal education
 Usefulness of translation in informal and non-formal education
 What is academic translation
 How marketing translation is useful in academics

6.1 INTRODUCTION
The term education denotes many meanings, in a way education is a life-
long process. But we would confine our discussion to limited areas of education –
formal education, informal education and non-formal education; and how
translation can be useful in that very context. We will also discuss role of
translation tools in education.
The main goal of translation in the education system is to ensure that both
teachers and students understand each other on multiple levels. The students
should be able to understand the meaning, concept and context of the subject.

As Allan Duff says, teachers and students now use translation to learn,
rather than learning translation. According to him translation activity from L1 to
L2 enhances understanding of the subject. Use of translation in teaching –learning
process is a natural means of teaching, especially a language. It can be used to
teach as well as reinforce what is taught in form of practice. However best one
tries not to use translation in language class room, the process of translation takes
place, if not directly, then ambiguously. It is a fundamental process for learning a
language. On top of it, translation helps learners to relate newly acquired

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knowledge to whatever was learnt earlier. It develops language awareness and

helps the learner to grasp similarities and differences between the languages. In a
country like ours, where bilingualism or multilingualism is quite common,
translation and habit of translating let the students to maintain respect for their
mother tongue and retain their first language identity. In this context, it would be
worth - while to study how translation can be helpful in the field of education.
We are already aware that translation, by its very nature is a
communicative activity. Teaching-learning process will happen only when proper
communication takes place. When one is not able to convey the meaning or grasp
the meaning properly, activity like translation facilitate to understand the
communication in the right possible context. When it comes to online
communication or referring to online material for study, or gathering formal or
informal information, translation is inevitable and relevant. However, for the sake
of clarity of the topic, we would try to understand the significance and relation of
translation and education in different situations. Before probing deeper into these
areas, we will briefly discuss one of the most useful gifts in this field, made
available to us by the phenomenon called globalisation – translation tools, and
how best they can be utilized.

6.2 TRANSLATION TOOLS IN EDUCATION

By 2022 it was expected that the total internet users in India would grow to
735 million. Owing to the availability of smartphones and cost effective internet
connectivity even in rural areas more and more people are turning to web based
support for their translation requirements. The pandemic in recent past has further
boosted this trend.
Besides learning a language, people across the globe feel a need to access
the large corpus of knowledge/information available in languages other than
theirs. Interestingly, the world of translation has been aided with a new tool in the
last couple of decades. It is called Web-based machine translation (WBMT). The
rising popularity of WBMT sites indicates how learners are depending more and
more on it. At times students use such services to deal with their assignments and
projects. These automatic online translators, which include Babel Fish, Google
Translate, Microsoft Translator and [Link], just to name a few, were
originally designed to give users a basic translation of Web pages or short texts
written in another language. Initially they were focused on the translation of
English texts into other languages. In recent years, however, WBMT has found a
new user in the foreign language student.
Some of the ‘Translator for Education site’ provide free resources, tools,
and how-to guides for live captioning and translation in the classroom. Such
services and sites are very useful these days as many schools enrol students from
diverse background. Teachers have to manage many types of learners, including
students who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) who require assistive technology.
Some of these ‘Translators’ help bridging these communication gaps and support
classroom learning with live captioning and multilingual communication regarding
routine teaching affairs.
With this background, we would study further about the interface between
translation and education.

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 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

1. Why the use of web based translation support is gaining popularity?
2. Name some of the widely used WBMT.
6.2.1 TRANSLATION AND FORMAL EDUCATION:
Formal education refers to the structured and hierarchical education system
that runs from the entry level of the schooling to the graduation, post-graduation or
higher degrees. It also denotes specialised programmes or courses for professional,
vocational and technical training. More often than not, it is imparted by qualified
teachers, specially trained in the art of instructions. The teacher and the taught,
both are aware of the task in front of them and engage themselves in the process of
education.
Translation is particularly useful in classroom activities including teaching
when the group of the students is diverse or bilingual. Teacher adopts translation
to teach vocabulary, grammar and syntax. However, the teacher should be on
guard and use translation activities judiciously. Overuse of translation may hinder
the very objective of teaching – learning process. At the same time, rigid attitude
of not using it at all, may result into restricted communication or lack of
communication. The best approach is to try to integrate translation with different
skills to achieve the objective of teaching in the classrooms.
The advantages of using translation in classrooms is enabling the student to
understand the subject. It enriches their vocabulary, helps to perceive the concepts
clearly and learn technical terms and jargons of the subjects. That apart, sagacious
use of translation instils the sense of confidence in the students as they will not
feel out of place or disadvantageous. The academic disciplines, highly technical,
or areas of knowledge that requires understanding formulas, axioms or abstract
ideas can be better dealt with the help of translation. The same way, students can
express their ideas in a better way when translation activities are permitted in the
classrooms. It is observed that if the learners can first understand something in
their own language and then are taught the same ideas in the new language, the
idea is etched in their memory.

Translation as an activity, can encourage learners to discuss the meaning

and use of language more profoundly as they work through the process of
understanding. It encourages the learners to search for equivalents in another
language, helping them to acquire deeper understanding of the subject. It can be
intra lingual or inter-lingual. Suppose a poem by Shakespeare or Geoffrey Chaucer
is explained in English only, it is an example of intra lingual translation. On the
other hand, when a teacher translates the poem into the language of medium of
education/mother tongue, activity called inter-lingual translation takes place. In
both the instances, translation is inevitable. In the country like India, where
learners are bilingual or trilingual, translation is the easiest way of imparting
education. Moreover, translation can be a support for the writing process,
especially at lower levels. Research reveals that learners are able to acquire more
information in their own L1, which they can then translate. In such situation
translation becomes inescapable.

Similarly, at the level of higher education, open universities and

organizations like NCERT need to translate their syllabus, policies and

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programmes to make them accessible nationwide. This is another facet of

translation in education. Many institutes and organizations in the field of research
publish their journals or research paper in more than one languages. Even while
preparing material for evaluation, like examination question paper, along with the
native language, English translation of the questions has to be provided.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2
1. What is formal education?
2. What are the advantages of using translation in a formal classroom?
3. How translation is useful in formal education?
6.2.2 Translation and Learning a New Language:
Learning a new language can be a part of formal or informal education
process. Nevertheless, it is discussed in this unit under the category of formal
education for the sake of convenience.
Academicians often ask whether translation have a place in the modern
language or literature classroom. The answer is, as long as translation is
recognized as a distinct skill rather than a path to language acquisition it should be
used as a learning tool to earn a new language. In fact, translation is the most used
activity and tool to learn a new language. It facilitates the communication process
by decoding the information received from L1 to L2 or vice versa. Translation, by
its very nature helps to transmit or transfer appropriate meaning of a word or a
sentence. It helps to identify meaning of new words, phrases, idioms, metaphors
and other expressions, especially colloquial terms and culturally loaded linguistic
items. As a group activity, discussion of differences, similarities and specificities
helps the learner to appreciate strength and weaknesses of their mother tongue and
the acquired target language/s. This way, as a tactic for learning a new language,
whether local or regional or international, translation can be used as a valuable and
effective tool for developing the proficiency and communicative skills among the
learners. As one of the most effective strategies to learn any language in general
translation can be used as a medium for developing the learners’ communicative
ability. In short, translation is a key element while learning a language.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3
1. How translation facilitates learning of new language?
6.2.3 TRANSLATION IN ELT
English is a language of international communication. In a globalised,
multilingual world, English has carved a niche at an international level, and is
earning dominance as a world language. In India, it is still the most common
second language as it enjoys the status of an official languages in seven states and
seven union territories. It is in a way an ‘associate official language’. That apart,
worldwide, it is one of the largely used language for internet, science and
technology, social media and online entertainment platforms.
Translation was a significant part of ELT for a long time. However, during the
last decade, it was replaced by communication methodologies. Once again in the
field of pedagogy, it is accepted as a useful tool for communication. Many ELT
theorists and educators are now reverting back to translation as a classroom

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activity. It trains the learners to look for more appropriate expressions. It gives
flexibility as well as accuracy of acquiring proficiency in English.
 CHECK YOU PROGRESS 4
1. Why translation is a useful tool in ELT?
6.2.4 Translation and Study of Comparative Literature:
Study of comparative literature can be a part of formal education or
informal or non-formal education, depending on whether it is the part of academic
curriculum or carried out voluntarily or independently by an individual. But that
does not undermine the inevitability of translation in the study of comparative
literature field.
Relationship between translation and Comparative Literature:
Study of comparative literature cannot happen without translation. The
term comparative literature covers almost everything that exists in the field of
literature, regardless of languages, times, genre or geographical area. Not only the
literature of dominant languages, it takes into account literatures of all the
countries and all the languages, along with folk literature and oral literature. In
order to study the literature of less-spoken languages or minor languages,
translation is the only option available.
In this context, the importance of translation studies in Comparative
literature comes up. Through the translation, literature of the margin shifts to the
core. By the means of the literature language, culture, history and world view of
the respective people come into light; and all the languages, whether oral or
written are treated with equal respect. Owing to comparative study, many
languages and literary traditions have received a new lease of life. Linguistic
diversity is preserved and new avenues of study are opened.
Obviously by translating any work of art, for example the works of
Shakespeare, translator does not assimilate the language or compromises with the
text, but s/he widens its frame and broadens the scope and reach. Through
translation, people get access to literatures of various languages. By comparing,
contrasting and pointing out the differences and similarities, their perspective is
widened.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 5
1. Discuss inevitability of translation in the field of comparative literature.
6.2.5 Translation for bilingual or LEP (Limited English Proficient) students
and parents:

Translators and interpreters support the visual, aural, and oral learning of
bilingual students and their parents. Many a times, the students and/or their parents
are not comfortable with English. In a situation where the medium of education is
English and all most all the activities including parents –teacher meetings are
carried out in English, translators and interpreters are required for proper
communication.
Common necessity for educational translation include school registration
documents, textbooks and study material, question papers for examination and

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assignments, syllabus, learning material, handbooks, documents containing

institutes policies, rules and regulations among the others. Proper translation of all
such documents is required for clear communication between teachers, students
and parents.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 6
1. What is the meaning of LEP students? What role do translators and interpreters
play in the case of LEP students and parents?

6.3 TRANSLATION AND NON-FORMAL AND INFORMAL

EDUCATION
If we consider education as a process of acquiring knowledge, it begins
almost as soon as a child is born. Education, in its simplest sense means helping an
individual to learn how to do things and make him/her understand what s/he has
learnt. Informal education, in other words, is when you are not studying in any
educational institutes or do not use any particular or prescribed method of
learning. Informal education has no set curriculum, teaching plans and timetable.
It is not [Link] is a life-long process that happens to us naturally.
One of the best examples of informal education is a child learning his
mother tongue. It can also be a parent teaching a child to do something. It can be
anything, from how to ride a bicycle to prepare a cup of tea. Have you heard a
poetry, written as a tribute to Chhatrapati Shivaji, titled as ‘Shivaji nu Halradu’ By
Zaverchand Meghani? Is it not an instance of a mother, educating her son right
from his days in cradle? Do you remember your parents or grandparents telling
you stories or singing rhymes and songs to you? Was not that an educative action?
If you are standing in a queue at a bank for the first time, or at a post office to
book a parcel, those experiences are also a kind of informal education.
Precisely, informal education refers to a never ending learning process,
whereby each individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from
various sources and influences in his or her own environment.
Unlike informal education, non-formal education is imparted consciously
and deliberately. It includes adult education, adult literacy programme or school
equivalency preparation. In non-formal education, an individual can learn literacy,
other basic skills or job skills.
In this context, our concern is how translation can facilitate to acquire
informal or non -formal education? You must have noticed that these types of
education can be acquired from various sources such as media, family, friends,
libraries, watching movies, traveling, just to mention a few. As we already know
by now that translation is more than just changing the words from the source
language to the target language. It builds the bridges between cultures, countries,
societies, knowledge systems and languages.
If you are preparing for some competitive exams, information available in
your mother tongue may not be enough. You refer to many books in different
languages and prepare a note in your own preferred language. Translation as a
natural process facilitate you to acquire information from various languages and
process them into your own language. Similarly, when enough study material is

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not available in your language, you search for it in other language and get it
translated in your language through translating tools.
A vast country like India, where number of regional languages exists,
translation is the only way to learn about the people and their literature, religions,
cultures and life style. In such situation, intra lingual translation and inter lingual
translation take place naturally. If you want to know or learn about the literature
being produced in Indian languages or in the other parts of the world, it is possible
only through the translation of those creative works of arts. Same would be case
with other art forms.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 7
1. How translation can be useful in informal education?

6.4 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN THE STUDY OF LITERATURE

Translation plays a vital and pivotal role in the field of literature as the
flavour of classic works can be experienced only by reading them. One cannot
learn all the languages of the world for that purpose. Naturally, one can have
access to world literature or literature written in a language other than one’s own
through translated texts only.

India, having unity in diversity with multilingual and multicultural aspects

has recognized the significance of translation from the ancient time. Right from
the Vedic time, the Vedas, Puranas, upnishadas and classics written in Sanskrit are
translated, retold, adapted and transcribed in various languages of the country.
You must be aware that Rabindranath Tagore was conferred a Nobel Prize in
1913. It would not have happened unless his poems in Bangla were not translated
in English. We would not have read Les Miserables by Victor Hugo or Goethe
would not have felt the ecstasy of reading Shakuntalam. Translation is like a
window to the field of literature, through which a person can peek at the works of
art in different languages.

Here, once again, we should remember that study of literature can fall
under the category of formal or informal education, depending on the case.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 8

1. ‘Translation plays a vital and pivotal role in the field of literature’ – do you
agree with the statement? Give the reasons to support your answer.
6.5.1 ACADEMIC TRANSLATION
This is the type of translation is needed when degrees, course credits, thesis
papers, among the others are required to be translated for validation for further
study or recognition at global level. This is often needed for the admissions
process for higher learning institutions. For example, when a student wants to
apply for a world-class school of university in foreign country, his/her academic
records, credentials and references need to be translated if they in a native
language.
Likewise the output of researchers or work of the students pursuing doctoral
research, and other academics also require translation if it is to be assessed by an
international boards or similar academic bodies. In a country like India, unless the

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outcome is written in English, translation is required for being the part of the
process.
6.5.2 MARKETING TRANSLATION
In the wake of increasing competition for attracting international students,
the universities and schools are engaged in marketing and branding to persuade
new international students. They want translation for their websites, brochures,
flyers, prospectus, students’ handbooks, college magazines and other material
prepared for advertising. Such translations require a localised or transcreated
versions.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 9
1. What is academic translation? Explain in your own words.
2. What do you understand by marketing translation?

6.5 SUMMING UP
In this unit you have studied that translation pervades almost all the areas of
education.
- You have also learnt about different translation tools for education
- We discussed what is formal education and how translation is useful in the
teaching learning process in formal classroom condition
- How translation is useful in learning a new language
- How translation play a significant role in ELT
- Inevitability of translation in the study of comparative literature
- How translators and interpreters can help LEP students and parents
- Relationship of translation and non-formal education
- Significance of translation in informal education

6.6 KEY WORDS

Translation, Formal education: formal education refers to the
education structured and hierarchical education system that runs
from the entry level of the schooling to the graduation,
post-graduation or higher degrees.
Informal education: Informal education is a general term for education that
can occur outside of a structured curriculum.
Non-formal Non-formal education refers to planned, structured
education: programmes and processes of personal and social
education designed to improve a range of skills and
competence outside the boundary of formal class room
scenario.
Academic translation: Any type of translation having to do with academics
Bilingual: Having proficiency in two languages
Multilingual: People who are able to use more than two languages for
communication
Intra lingual Unlike translation proper, intra lingual translation is a
translation: rewriting or paraphrasing within the same language
system.
Inter-lingual It is an interpretation of verbal signs by means of some
translation: other language

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6.7 SUGGESTED READING

1. Laviosa, Maria Gonzalez-Devies. (2019) The Routledge Handbook of
Translation and Education. Routledge. London.
2. Laviosa, Sara. (2014). Translation and Language Education: Pedagogic
Approach. Taylor and Francis. Ebook.
3. Venuti, Lawrence. (2021 ed.) The Translation Studies Reader. Routledge.
London.

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55
 UNIT-7 TRANSLATION IN DISTANCE EDUCATION

:: STRUCTURE ::

7.1 OBJECTIVES
7.2 INTRODUCTION
7.3 TRANSLATION IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
7.4 LET US SUM UP
7.5 KEY WORDS
7.6 SUGGESTED READING
7.1 OBJECTIVES
In this unit we will discuss
 What is distance education
 Different categories online course
 Translation in distance education
On completing this unit, you will be able to discuss
 Significance of translation in distance education
 How translation is used at administrative level in distance education
 How translation can help the learners
 Some of the key concepts pertaining to distance education
 Interface of translation and distance education

7.2 INTRODUCTION
What does distance education mean?
Distance Education in its simplest sense is a practice to design and offer
access to learning when the source of information and the learners are not face to
face, they are separated by time and distance, or both.”

As published on All India Council for Technical Education website :

([Link]
Distance Education, or distance learning, is a field of education that
focuses on the pedagogy and andragogy, technology, and instructional systems
design that aims to deliver education to students who are not physically "on site".
This emerging method of education is fast growing practice to avail education at
different levels, of different kinds in universities and institutions across the globe.
With the recent development in ICT and post- pandemic global world, distance
learning is more in demand than ever before as it caters to the need of
individualized attention and guidance to the students world-wide.
You are aware that however integrated and well structured, the formal
system of education at any level requires the teachers or the instructors and the
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learners face to face, in real time in a class room. Whereas, the distance education
system does not require physical presence of a teacher or a taught. As you have
offered this course, you are not supposed to attend any classes at any particular
time and space. You study from the comfort of your home by using self-study
materials prepared and provided to you for this very purpose. A meeting between a
teacher and learners at a regular time is not required. The material replaces the
teacher, or you may say that the role of a teacher is marginalized.
What you would have learnt in a face-to-face, formal education situation,
you are learning the same content in a distance mode. Distance education, in this
sense, supplements and complements the traditional way of formal education.
Owing to the flexibility of learning, distance education meets the ever increasing
demands of the individuals who wants to learn or upgrade themselves. One of the
reasons behind its growing popularity and demand is it is free of formalities.
Home study, off-campus study, external study, extra-mural study are quite
synonymous to distance study.
Moreover, since, it is an education free from formalities, it is more
accessible to different kinds or types of learners. Some call non-formal education
non-traditional education. There are many terms used to represent or indicate
individualised, off-campus study, learning and instruction. But these terms are
often loosely used as synonymous of distance education or open education. It has
both, potential and scope to grow, as it caters to the need of (1) those who could
not get into conventional education, (2) who are denied the formal / conventional
education, (3) who were forced to discontinue formal/conventional education, (4)
who are in search of employment and want to increase the chances of getting a
job, (5) who are employed but seeking better opportunities, (6) who want to
upgrade their professional skills, (7) who are inquisitive and want to acquire
vocational or professional training. In short, distance education has scope to meet
the requirement of education at different levels.
Another reason that has made these Online Courses recognized is their
being UGC-approved. UGC approved online degree courses in India have made
people more inclined toward these courses. According to one estimate, there exist
more than 150 centres for distance education run by institutes and universities
affiliated to UGC, and this tally may go much higher when it comes to UGC
approved centres.
Before we study translation in distance education, let us have a quick
glance at different categories of distance learning. 1. Synchronous distance
learning that involves live communication through various online or offline
platforms, 2. Asynchronous distance learning having a sort of dead line for the
learners to submit their assignments and projects, 3. Hybrid distance learning that
combines both asynchronous and synchronous learning where learners are
required to meet at a pre-determined time, 4. Electronic learning, also known as e-
learning that provides study material electronically in the form of DVDs, CDs or
on computers through various computer-based tools.
To sum up, within a distance learning scenario, a learner can opt for a
certificate course, diploma course or degree course at graduate or post graduate
level, depending on his/her choice and requirements.

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 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

1. What is the basic difference between formal / conventional education

system and distance education?
2. Distance education is useful to which type of people?
3. What are the different categories of distance education?

7.3 TRANSLATION AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

7.3.1 TRANSLATION AT ORGANIZATION/ADMINISTRATIVE LEVEL
It would be worthwhile to have a look at the functioning of institutes of
distance education. Some of the prestigious institutes or universities like Indira
Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), Indian Institute of Technology
(Madras – Chennai), Amity University, Noida, JSS Academy of Higher Education
and Research, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Bhartiya Vidyapeeth, Dr. Baba Saheb
Ambedkar Open University, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Yashwatrao
C. Maharashtra Open University, National Institute of Open Schooling among the
others are leading in the distance education field. However, the learners should
keep in mind that these names are picked up randomly, and many more
universities and institutes operate successfully in this field. These institutes or
universities do not only offer different course but also provide free reading and
course material. In order to reach out to their prospective clients, they need
prospectus, brochures, flyers, advertisements which cannot be printed in just one
language. They are required to prepare such documents in respective regional
languages and also in Hindi and/or English. Simultaneously, any university or
institute have their own website. They need to upload matter in English, whereas
the same matter is needed in the regional language also. At this level, the
administrators would not prefer to prepare the material again and again. That is not
viable either. Under such circumstances translation is the easiest solution. For
example, more often than not, a university will publish and propagate about the
courses it offers in its website in English. However, when it has a regional centre/s
in some area/s, the same content will be translated and publicized in the respective
regional languages.

Let us have a look at a real instance. If you visit the website of National
Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS), you will come across a link under the title
‘General Instructions for Worksheet’ from which you can download a bilingual
PDF file. It is prepared in English and Hindi. Apart from academic, vocational and
professional courses, this Institute imparts distance education of eleven different
languages like Bengali, Assamese, Kannada, Nepali, Odia, Tamil, just to name a
few. Interestingly, a document containing information about ‘Tutor Marked
Assignment’ is required to be translated in all these eleven languages as it contains
important information regarding how and when to submit the assignments. We
have talked about just one document here. There would be a large number of such
information which is to be produced in different languages. Same would be case of
other universities and institutes.

At the next level, the institutes need to prepare self-learning material. In a

university where the same course is offered in more than one languages, the same
material should be provided to the learners of all the languages. The institute
usually hire translators to carry out such tasks. At times they need to prepare

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handbooks, guideline for the learners, curricular and syllabus in more than one
language. Most of these institutes also have their YouTube channels and handles
and radio streaming or podcasts. Many of their programmes at the secondary level
are found to be bilingual – created in Hindi and English to add to its usefulness
and viability. For the sake of clarity, let us have an example of Dr. Baba Saheb
Ambedkar Open University, Gujarat. It provides a variety of certificate, diploma
and degree programmes. It offers a certificate course in Food and Nutrition (CFN).
If you have a look at self-learning material (SLM) of this course, you will realize
that originally this course is perceived by Indira Gandhi National Open University
framed in English. A team of translators have translated it in Gujarati. Their
names are acknowledged in the SLM. This is just a single instance. Such practices
saves lots of time, money and energy without compromising with the quality of
the content. It surely reiterates significance of translation, doesn’t it?

In this era of competition, the administrative quarters need to hire PROs

and counsellors to establish relationship and guide the clients. They are often
required to translate the information. Likewise the interpreters are also hired for
localizing and facilitating the process at the regional level. The call centres of the
institutes give options of communication in English, Hindi and one or more
regional language. Most of the FAQ.s on their website and recorded script of the
call centres are translated for the sake of convenience.

When it comes to evaluation, not only the institutes of correspondence

courses and distance education, all most all the universities and other Boards of
Secondary and Higher Secondary level, print their question papers in at least two
languages. Here the concern person is supposed to translate the question paper
very carefully and exactly. Moreover, during the examination, at times, learners
with poor hand function and speech and hearing impairments may be provided
amanuensis who can understand their communication including sign language,
which is as you have already learnt, an example of inter-language translation.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2

1. How would an institute of university offering distance learning courses

reach out to people? What role may translation play in it?
2. Why most of the institutes dealing with distance education publish their
prospectus in more than one language?
3. Give an example of inter-lingual translation likely to occur in distance
learning programmes.
4. Why would the institutes of distance learning need translators and
interpreters?

7.3.2 TRANSLATION AND LEARNERS

We have already studied how translation is significant for the

administrative quarters. The same way, we will now try to ascertain how
translation is imperative for the students as well.
More often than not a learner who is not proficient in English feel alienated and
powerless when it comes to self-learning; as most of the websites providing
primary information, brochure and other print outs are not always bilingual but
published in English. In such case, a student, struggling to make a right choice,
needs to visit many websites or go through the brochures and get each of them

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translated for proper understanding. S/he may do so with the help of online
machine translators.

At next stage, the learner has to repeat the same exercise of getting the
information regarding terms and conditions and other requirements of the course.
Once, the registration is done, the learner need to refer to various reference books
or search for the content online for deeper understanding of the subject. And
again, once the learner is thorough with the content, would require to submit
assignments. To comply with that, at times the self-learning material provided by
the institute may not be enough. Again, a learner has to search different websites
and refer to material in print media and get them translated in order to digest it.
Material pertaining to most of the technical, professional and vocational courses
would be available in English and other international languages. Similarly, the
plight of a student aspiring to obtain an online diploma or degree from a foreign
university, would be the same as discussed above. As deliberated earlier, many
universities have e-learning platforms. If the videos or programmes are not
bilingual or in the first language of the learner, s/he will depend on translation to
perceive and digest it. Likewise, in case of online tutorials, the student may need
to request the tutors to explain the subject bilingually. In an international scenario,
where students from different language background are pursuing a special
programme, they are provided by machine translating tools by the university to get
the online sessions translated in their respective languages, either directly or in a
form of subtitles. Such translating tools are in fact, a boon to the academic field.
They are indispensable for the research-students, participating in an international
seminars, conferences or workshops.

Naturally, the student who are not fluent in English (LEP) as their primary
language, and having limited ability to read, write and speak English will depend
largely on translation and would also require interpreters during the counselling
sessions. This situation is not so common in India but in European countries, the
number of such LEP students is usually quite large in prestigious institutes of
distance learning. The same way, a student with disability may need a translator,
who can translate from or into the sign language for him to communicate
effectively in the examinations.

In short, in distance learning, a student would depend on translation to

learn the course content, to widen the horizon of his/her learning by referring to
different online or printed resources, to accomplish his/her assignments or term
work and later for preparing his notes for the final exams.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3

1. Which are the instances when a student would require translation in a

distance learning scenario?
2. How machine translation or translating tools can prove helpful to the
students of distance learning courses?
3. How translation can help LEP students and parents and differently abled
students?

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7.4 LET US SUM UP

In this rush hour of life, attending school or college for 5 to 6 hours
regularly has become a luxury for many. At times constraints of time and money
play a major role for not getting into mainstream formal education system. Many
individual, after getting absorbed in their vocations or professions would like to
hone their skills and knowledge. For that reason many private and public institutes
and university have introduced online certificate, diploma, degree and post
diploma courses. However, their limited proficiency in international and major
mainstream language become a barrier at times to join online or distance learning
course.
As we know, translation permeates most academic fields and everyday
communication practices. When used judiciously, it improves students’
performance. For students and their parents from different cultural and linguistic
backgrounds, translators and interpreters facilitate to build a bridge between these
barriers of language and culture. Consequently, an atmosphere of better
understanding and perception is fostered, resulting in improved student
performance and lower drop out ratio.

7.5 KEY WORDS

Distance Education : A type of process of learning that create and provide
opportunity of learning when the source of education and
the learner need not be face to face in real time.
Pedagogy : The method and practice of teaching, especially as an
academic subject or theoretical concept.
Self-study : Acquiring knowledge of an academic subject without
assistance from any tutor or teacher.
Formal education : Formal education refers to the structured and hierarchical
education system that runs from the entry level of the
schooling to the graduation, post-graduation or higher
degrees.
Non-formal Non-formal education refers to planned, structured
education programmes and processes of personal and social education
designed to improve a range of skills and competence
outside the boundary of formal class room scenario.
Conventional Teacher/ instructor centred traditional education
education :
Synchronous A type of distance education that connects the learners and
distance learning : the tutors/instructors via real time; using online platforms.
Asynchronous It takes place when the learners and the tutors/instructors
distance learning : interact in different time and place frames. The students in
this system are able to complete their work at their own
convenience.
Hybrid distance It is a combination of in-person and remote learning. It is
learning : also called blended learning.

LEP : Limited English Proficient. Students who do not speak

English as their primary language and who have a limited
ability to read, speak write or understand English I LEP

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7.6 FURTHER READING

1. Cummins, J. and Early, M. (2014) Big Ideas for Expanding Minds.

Toronto: Pearson Education Canada.
2. González-Davies, M. (2004) Multiple Voices in the Translation
Classroom. Amsterdam and Philadelphia.
3. Will, Frederic (1993). Translation: Theory and Practice-Resembling the
Tower. The Edwin Mellen Press.
4. [Link]
5. [Link]
courses/translator/interpreters/
6. Cronin, Michael. (2003). Translation and Globalisation. London:
Routedge.

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 UNIT-8 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN
DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE

:: STRUCTURE ::

8.0 OBJECTIVES
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSLATION
8.3 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN INDIAN LITERATURE
8.4 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE
8.5 CONCLUSION
8.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit carefully, you should be able to:

 explain the concept of the term „translation‟

 asses the importance of translation
 highlight the role of translation in Indian Literature
 analyse the role of translation in the development of language

8.1 INTRODUCTION
We are all well versed with the term „Translation‟; it means
communication of meaning of an original language text by means of an equivalent
target language. Translation has its origin in the early Mesopotamian civilization.
There are various evidences which show the prevalence of translation in olden
days. It's seen that Buddhist monks used to translate various Indian scriptures into
Chinese language in ancient times. Later it was observed that ancient Greeks also
translated various texts and scriptures into Roman. The need for translation came
into picture with the advent of religious text and scriptures. With the growth of
religions all across the globe there was an urge among the preachers to spread it
across the world hence it required them to make their religious scriptures available
in multiple languages. The most ancient religious text that was translated is the
Old Testament. It was translated to Greek language in the 3rd century BC.
Religion played a vital role in promoting translation. Saint Jerome, patron saint of
translation created Latin Bible in 4th century AD.

Translation is an activity of enormous importance in the modern world and

it is a subject of interest not only for linguists, professionals, translators and
language teachers, but also for electronic engineers and mathematicians as well. In
the present context of national development, translation is considered to be an
important component of language learning. As the world has become a „global
village‟ and „Internet‟ has facilitated the communication system, the role of

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translation has become crucial. At the national level, translation helps in bringing
about national integration. At the international level, it helps in developing good
relations among neighbouring countries. In a way, translation helps the people in
their effort at nation building and establishing national identity.
Now we come to the term „Translator‟; a person who translates a particular
text from one language to other language is a translator. Translators were present
since the advent of the concept of „translation‟. In the ancient times these
translators were unnamed and they often used to keep their identities secret. This
is because it was dangerous to work as a translator; it would even cost their life.
William Tyndale, a famous translator was executed from Holland in 1536 because
he translated the Bible into English. Chinese monk Xuan Zang was applauded for
translating 74 volumes of Indian Buddhist into Chinese in 645 AD. Garnett was a
famous Russian translator whose works included Chekhov, Tolstoy and
Dostoyevsky. Some of the contemporary translators include Gregory Rabassa,
Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky, Jorge Luis Borge, Edward George
Seidensticker and many more. Jorge Luis Borge translated The Happy Prince by
Oscar Wilde into Spanish for a Buenos Aires newspaper when he was just 9.
Gregory Rabassa translated many works of renowned authors like Gabriel Garcia
Marquez, Julia Cortazar, Jorge Anado and many more. Richard Pevear and Larissa
Volokhonsky, the couple worked on updated translations of Russian literary
classics. Some works include Anna Karenina and The Brothers of Karamazov.
Oprah Winfrey choose Richard and Larissa version of Anna Karenina for her book
club back in 2004.

With the Industrial Revolution machines were invented for translating

texts. As a result, translation became easier and people now did not have to
translate it manually. With the passage of time and advent of technology and
especially internet, translation became easy for everyone. Internet has made it easy
to access various documents and translate them whenever and wherever they want
to. Many instant translation tools and application are available too. They do
metaphase translation; they are able to translate various spoken words and texts
into multiple languages by keeping into account the culture and the relevance of
the receiver.

Translation can be used to aid learning, practise what has been learned,
diagnose problems, and test proficiency. In any case, teachers can't stop students
translating – it is such a fundamental basis for language learning. Translation is
also useful skill in itself. And not just for professional translators and interpreters.

8.2 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSLATION

In this era of globalization, English is the most commonly spoken
language. But there are some people who cannot speak English properly. For these
kinds of people translation is important because we cannot overlook these people
who do not speak this language or do not understand this language well. In a
survey in 2006, 13% of EU citizens speak English as their native language while
38% of EU citizens say that they have the skill to have a conversation in English.
Therefore, only 51% of EU citizens know English. Again in 2012 survey
conducted by European Commission showed that only a quarter of Europeans
were able to understand well enough to follow an English news broadcast.

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Translation plays an important role in connecting the global economy.

After globalization it is important for companies to have foreign associations,
clients and customers. Although English is widely spoken yet people prefer to read
about products and services or engage into contents in their native language. In
this context, translation comes into picture. For small companies‟ translation plays
a critical role because they need to establish a ground in the industry. In order to
grab the attention of the global customers it is important for the companies to have
translators. If their competitors are able to sell their products in foreign languages,
then there are chances of them capturing the entire market and the small
companies running in losses. Keeping in mind this scenario the small companies
have developed multilingual interface. As a result, the clients won‟t face much
difficulties browsing through the website. With more and more small companies
opting for advertising their content in multiple languages the demand of translators
are growing. Hence scope of translators working on various platforms for these
small companies is surely to flourish.

Not only in the field of business but translation also has its importance in
the field of education. In olden days‟ education was restricted to nearby schools,
colleges and universities. But with advancement of time and the urge among
people to learn new things, people are going to different parts of the world.
Students who travel to different countries for education often for them language
becomes a barrier. Although in most of the foreign universities and colleges
English is the medium of teaching but it may happen that there are students who
are not well versed with English; in order to make these students understand the
subject a translator is required. Had education been limited to only books then it
would not have been a problem because books are available in all languages but
since it is not enough to have only “bookish” knowledge translation is important.

Translation also helps in connecting cultures across the world. In order to

translate a particular text into the desired language it is important for a good
translator to have a little knowledge about the background of the language they are
translating to. This would help them to translate better; translation does not mean
just changing a particular text into another language meaninglessly. A translated
text should always have proper meaning.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

1. Briefly explain the concept of the term „translation‟.

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2. Comment on the importance of translation.

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8.3 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN INDIAN LITERATURE

India is a multi-lingual country which is divided into two broad language
families the Indo –Aryan and the Dravidian. According to the Eighth schedule of
the constitution of India, there are 22 languages, 15 different scripts, hundreds of
mother tongues and thousands of dialects. Among the various Dravidian languages
one of the most ancient languages is Tamil followed by Kannada, Telugu,
Malayalam etc. In such a multilingual country the role of translation can hardly be
over emphasized. It can be said that India keeps translating every day and every
moment, which means we keep translating unconsciously from our mother
tongues when speaking with people who use different languages from ours.

Translation played a very important role in developing Indian Literature.

Up to the 19th century the Indian Literature consisted of only translation,
adaptations, interpretations and retellings. Not only literary works but translation
of texts based on astronomy, architecture, metallurgy, travel, religion and poems
from various languages like Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Persian, etc. helped to maintain
the cultural part and enriched people with knowledge of the world. Sanskrit was
the most dominant language of ancient northern India. Most of the ancient Indian
writers were multilingual: Kalidasa‟s Shakuntala in Sanskrit and Pali; poets like
Guru Nanak, Kabir, Vidyapati, Namdev, etc. wrote poems and songs in more than
one language.

In Kalidasa‟s Sanskrit plays it has been observed that the lower caste
women and other characters spoke Prakrit, Sauraseni and Magadhi. At that time, it
was normal to change dialects in the course of the same text. As the medieval
period dawned in India, the influence of Sanskrit declined. With foreign invasions
during that period there was a change in the cultural and linguistic background of
India. Persian became prevalent at that time. At that time the Mughal courts had
scholars who were translators. Baburnama, an autobiography of Babur was
originally written in a language called Chagatay which was translated by
Humayun‟s minister Bairam Khan. Translation of various texts during this time
helped to introduce many new genres in Indian literature like masnavi, qasida and
most importantly ghazal. Mirza Galib, one of the most eminent ghazal writers
wrote in Persian and Urdu. Next came the colonial period; India was under the
British rule. The British at first considered English as the superior language but
soon they realized that it was important for them to learn the local languages in
order to establish their influence. During this time reverse movement of translation
occurred from India to England. Sir William Jones translated Abhijnanasakuntalm
into English. Charles Wilkins first translated Bhagavad Gita into English. During
this time the Bible also came to be translated into various regional languages of
India. The translation of Bible helped to change the translation strategies of Indian

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texts. For the first time the concept of fidelity to the original and notion of
equivalence were introduced to Indian sensibility. Fidelity in translation became a
concern for the first time, because it was felt that the word of God had to be
conveyed accurately and with no improvisations or distortions. Translation helped
to promote the growth of indigenous literature and knowledge by bringing into our
languages the great wealth of other literatures and cultures. Through the
translation of renowned works from other Indian languages as well as foreign
ones, it enriched our Indian literatures. Thus it also raises the writing standards;
this happened especially when works of great writers like Shakespeare, Homer,
Dante, Vyasa, Valmiki, Kalidasa and Bhasa or more contemporary writers from
Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Kafka, Beckett, Lorca, Eliot and Thomas Mann to Gabriel
Garcia Marquez, Mario Vargas Llosa, Orhan Pamuk, J. M. Coetzee, Pablo Neruda,
Octavio Paz etc where translated. This brought about new trends in Indian
Literature.

8.4 ROLE OF TRANSLATION IN DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE

In order to teach someone any new language translation is taken as an
obvious means. It has many advantages. It can be used as an aid of teaching,
practice what has been learned, diagnose problems and many more. Translation is
the fundamental basis of language learning. It is a useful skill too. We living in a
multilingual society and globalized world come across translation almost every
day: from families, friends, schools, hospitals, courts, clinics, business meetings
etc. Apart from these it allows the learner to understand the differences and
similarities between the existing and the new language.

Since time immemorial teachers, linguists and scholars have agreed that
translation is a way of learning any foreign language. They considered it to be
useful because -

 It enhances vocabulary of students

 Improves verbal skills
 To get an idea as to how languages work
 Know the proper usage of that language

Translation in foreign language classes are no longer considered

ineffective way of learning. Students taught by this method are encouraged to
practice reading, writing, grammar and speaking. But the main target of the
students learning foreign language is to be able to speak fluently in that language.
It has been observed while teaching students that they generally prefer the terms of
foreign languages to be translated to them in such a language that they are strong
in. For example: a student gets enrolled for French classes. When the student first
starts learning the various French words, he prefers to have those French words
translated to him in his native language or any other language he is comfortable
with. This helps the student to learn better and it also helps the teacher to put
forward his ideas more clearly in front of the student. Researchers say that
translation is the fifth and most important social skill because it involves
communication and understanding. Translation helps in developing language
awareness. While translating, one gets a clear idea about the difference in
grammar, structure, vocabulary of the foreign language and has to find a way to
deal with it. The real usefulness of translation in foreign classes lies in comparing

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the grammar, vocabulary, structure and various other points of language in the
target language with their own native language. Translation can be used to develop
three basic skills of any language development – accuracy, flexibility and clarity.
The motive of translation is not only to produce professional translators but also to
help learners enrich their knowledge on English language. In order to get the
students voluntarily involved in the various activities related to translation, it is the
responsibility of the teacher to make the activities interesting. By just distributing
texts for translation will not work. The teacher needs to explain the students the
reason behind the assignment. After this a text is to be given to the students for
translation. Translation activities have two parts – post translation and pre
translation. Pre translation activities involve reading, grammar and vocabulary.
Post translation activities involve writing, reviewing and evaluating. Next the
teacher should discuss the text to be translated with the students and point out the
key words to them in order to make them understand better. These translation
activities have better effect if they are performed in pairs or in small groups. In
this way students can compare their translated texts and understand the difference
between each one„s text. It also encourages students to discuss and correct their
mistakes; in this way they learn better and faster. This type of activities gives the
beginners further practice of grammar, vocabulary and even style of writing. In
this context translation of sentences needs special mention as it is the basics of
translating texts; it can be used as a warm up activity. In a survey it has been
observed that after performing these types of activities students are able to learn
their target languages faster and effectively.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2

1. Write a brief note on role of translation in Indian literature.

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2. Comment on the role of translation in development of language.

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8.5 CONCLUSION
Translation is one of the most discussed topics among researchers,
linguists and scholars. It contributes immensely in development of a particular
language. The skills required to develop a language completely are-

 Vocabulary
 Grammar
 Style of writing
 Reading
 Writing skills
 Speaking skills

Translation brings all these under one roof. Translation is an effective tool
for teaching not only in foreign language classes but also in other subjects in
schools, colleges and universities. But it should also be kept in mind that
translation should not be overused. It should be used at the correct times with the
right kind of students.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3

1. Comment of the various skills required for developing a language.

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8.6 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Ankita Saha, Importance of Translation and Translation as a Means of
Language Development, International Journal of English Learning and
Teaching Skills; Vol. 2, No. 3
2. G. N. Devy, “Literary History and Translation: An Indian View”
3. Bhavesh Borisagar, “A Translation of Select Short Stories of Ramnarayan
Pathak from Gujarati into English with A Critical Introduction.” Ph. D. Thesis
Saurashtra U of Rajkot, 2016. Print. Unpublished Dissertation.

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 UNIT-9 TRANSLATION AND EMPLOYMENT

:: STRUCTURE ::
9.0 OBJECTIVES
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 NEED OF TRANSLATORS IN GOVERNMENT SECTORS
9.3 NEED FOR TRANSLATORS IN PRIVATE SECTORS
9.4 TRANSLATOR AS A FREELANCER
9.5 SALARY AND PAY –PACKAGE FOR TRANSLATORS
9.6 LET US SUM UP
9.7 KEY WORDS
9.8 SUGGESTED READING

9.0 OBJECTIVES
Translation and interpretation offers many career options and provide you job
opportunities. It would be worthwhile to know:
 Which sectors and fields have strong demands for translators /interpreters
 What is the scope for a translator in the market
 What are the skills and qualifications required to get a job opportunity as a
translator
 Have an awareness of what it means to be a professional translator

9.1 INTRODUCTION
Translation has emerged as a major area of employment in the rapidly
changing world as a result of globalization.

With the advancement of communication at global and local level, people

worldwide are connected on social, educational and professional platforms. Under
such situation, translation is a bridge that connects two countries, their languages,
their cultures. That is why translation has an important role in the development of
human civilization and culture.

As you are aware, the field of translation is very vast, having a continuous
exchange of knowledge in hundreds of languages and thousands of subjects
simultaneously. Whether it is translation of government documents, translation of
foreign language books or dubbing of foreign films, translators are needed
everywhere. If you have command over two or more languages, then you can
make a good career in the field of translation. With the increasing presence of
foreign companies in India, the demand for English-Hindi translation as well as
translation in foreign languages has started increasing, in which there are many
employment opportunities in both organized and unorganized sectors.

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In short, if you are expert in translation art then there is no dearth of work
for you. Today thousands of people are earning well by doing freelance translation
work. Such translators are earning well from translation according to their capacity
by associating with various translation agencies and media houses. Usually one to
two rupees per word or 300 to 500 rupees per page is paid for such translation
work. Good media/advertising/PR agencies pay up to Rs 5 per word depending on
the nature of the work. For subtitling and dubbing work of films, translation work
is paid on per minute or per hour basis at attractive rates. Hindi dubbing of foreign
films as well as content from 'infotainment' channels like Discovery and National
Geographic has opened up a huge market. Many websites are providing translation
jobs for freelance translators from all over the world. Immense scope is observed
for a translator in an organized and unorganized sector. We will learn about
opportunities of employment for a translator in the government sector and private
sectors.

9.2 NEED OF TRANSLATORS IN GOVERNMENT SECTOR

Translators are needed in almost all departments of the government who

translate government documents. Under the Official Language Act in India, it is
mandatory for all official documents to be in English and Hindi languages. Along
with this, regional languages are also recognized in the state governments. A
translator is required for the translation of all these documents.

Consequently, a huge demand for English-Hindi translators exists in

various Ministries and Departments of the Central Government for the
implementation of the Official Language Policy of the Central Government and
compliance with various constitutional provisions. In this sequence, under the
Department of Official Language, Ministry of Home Affairs, recruitment is done
on the posts of Junior Translation Officer in the Central Secretariat Official
Language Service Cadre. In this prestigious service, a translator can reach the rank
of Director (Official Language) during his service. On the same lines, there is a
separate cadre of translators under the Ministry of Defence. Also, recruitment is
done for the posts of translators in editing and translation service in Lok Sabha,
Rajya Sabha secretariats.
Additionally, there is also a post of interpreter in the parliament or
assembly, whose job is to translate the words of the leader giving the speech
simultaneously. This work is done in almost all Indian languages like speech is
being given in English and at the same time one translator is speaking in Hindi and
another translator is speaking in some other language.
Moreover, a translator has a very important role in government-run media
houses Doordarshan and All India Radio. You must have seen that all the news
broadcast on All India Radio and Doordarshan is not in any one language but in
many languages. This work is also done by translators only.
All the banks of India employ translators to translate all the policies and rules
related to commerce, apart from this, there are employment options for translators
in the court, who translate legal matters.
Precisely, following Government sectors hire translators: UPSC, ICAR, Delhi
Development Authority, BECIL, Supreme Court, Central Forensic Science
Laboratory, and Staff Selection Commission among the others.

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 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 1

1. Why do you think the Official Language Act in India helps to create
employment in the field of translation?
2. Why English-Hindi translators are the most sought after professionals in
the Government sector?
3. Which Government sectors are major employment providers for
translators?

9.3 NEED OF TRANSLATORS IN PRIVATE SECTORS

There are many areas in the private sector that require translators such as
news and media, advertising, fields of marketing and sales, T.V. and movies,
publishing houses, travel agencies, just to mention a few.
9.3.1 NEWS MEDIA – TRANSLATION JOBS IN MEDIA
It would not be incongruous to say that the field of news and media is
incomplete without translation. Whether it is newspaper or TV, a translator is
useful for sharing the news of the country and abroad to its people, although there
is no doubt that a degree in journalism is also necessary to get employment in the
media. Most of the news agencies employ only journalists and translators.
9.3.2 ADVERTISING INDUSTRY – TRANSLATION JOBS IN MARKETING
AND ADVERTISING:

The globalised world has necessitated spreading information quickly and

efficiently so the demand of translators has increased unprecedentedly in recent
years. Companies dealing in the areas like information service, semiconductor
industries, life insurance, health support and services, computer services and
entertainment need to reach out to their international audience. At the same time
they would tend to minimize their expenses to book more profit. Creating
advertisement of each language of their target audience would not be time
effective and cost effective. Therefore they prefer to hire translators to convert the
content from one language to another. Nowadays, you must have noticed the same
advertisement in many languages. Such tasks fetch quite lucrative packages for the
translators.
9.3.3 FILM INDUSTRY – TRANSLATION JOBS IN MOVIES
Movie translation is also called movie localization service.
In the last several years, the trend of dubbing and remake is on a rise in the
film industries. One can watch and enjoy a movie made in any regional, national
or foreign language with ease owing to the subtitles or dubbing. In the process the
script is adapted according to the preferences and sensibility of the local
audience/target language audience. Likewise, a similar version can be produced in
any language in the form of a remake. An immense scope of employment for a
translator is being found in this field
9.3.4 PUBLISHING HOUSES - TRANSLATION JOBS IN PUBLISHING
HOUSE
The author writes a book in one language and to make that book accessible
to the people of another language, the publisher takes the help of a translator and

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gets the book translated. This book can be in any language or on any subject. Here
the job of the translator is to convert that book into another language.
9.3.5 JOBS AS TRANSLATORS IN TOURISM INDUSTRY
We have already studied in a previous unit that travel is becoming more
accessible to people of almost all the strata of society. Tourism and hospitality
industries have felt the need of translation services to communicate with their
target customers in their native languages. Undoubtedly, communication should be
clear and natural in the highly competitive travel and tourism segment of the
global market. Tourism related sectors use websites, brochures, flyers, magazine
advertisement and more to promote themselves. Travel agencies hire translators to
translate these materials for their prospective clients.
9.3.6 TRANSLATION AGENCIES — TRANSLATION JOBS IN
AGENCIES
Translation agency is a company or organization that provide services and
human resource to translate speeches or any type of written documents into
different languages. Mainly they offer translation of non-literary texts or
documents pertaining to areas like law, medicine, technology, banking and
finance, sales and marketing and advertising. There are many such translation
agencies that hire translators.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 2

1. Identify the major areas in private sector that need to hire translators.
2. Why are employment options for translators increasing in media and
advertisement segment?
3. What type of work is a translator expected to do for film industry?
4. For what purposes a travel agency would hire a translator?
9.4 TRANSLATOR AS A FREELANCER
Translation is such a work that you can also do freelance. That is, sitting at
your home, you can work for the agencies offering translation services. Online
jobs are at times more lucrative. You can apply to work as a full time or part time
professional translator. What you need to have is a personal computer, internet
connection, a printer, may be a webcam, knowledge to handle machine translation
apps, and certain applications suitable to your task.
We have already discussed scope of employment in private sectors, and some
of the areas of opportunity may be overlapping. Nevertheless, for the sake of
clarity, we will identify types of careers as a freelance translator. However, you
should understand that these are the broad categories. One needs to explore at
length for converting opportunity into a job profile.
9.4.1 HEALTH OR MEDICAL INTERPRETERS AND TRANSLATORS
One is required to work in a health care settings. It can be done
independently or for some agency. One is supposed to become a bridge between a
patient and the health care providers like doctors, nurses, para medical staff and
medical technicians. In order to carry out this task, the translators and/or
interpreters have adequate understanding of terminology and procedure related to
the medical field in more than one languages. Their service is required by both, the

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patients and medical staff. The translator is required to translate research articles,
pharmaceutical information, brochures, reports about medical conditions, forms to
be filled by the patients and any other documents of this type with precision and
accuracy. They should be trained to maintain confidentiality of their work and
high ethical standards.
As India is emerging as a spot for medical tourism, career opportunities for the
translators and interpreters will also increase in coming days.
9.4.2 LITERARY TRANSLATORS
Literary translation means to carry literary text from one language into
another. It can be a piece of creative writing, non –fiction like study books or
material, articles from journals and magazines. It can also be a non-literal
rendition of literary texts.
Literary translation can be carried out voluntarily or as a research project or
commissioned work. The translator is supposed to accurately capture the tone,
tenor and verve of the source language text into the target language. In the case of
culture specific text, focus should be more on transfer of thematic details and
linguistic complexities along with the context of the text.
Organisations like Sahitya Akademi, CIIL, Indira Gandhi National Centre for
Arts, regional centres of Sahitya Akademi commission projects for translation to
freelancers and linguists. One can explore their websites from time to time to avail
an opportunity.
9.4.2 LEGAL AND JUDICIAL TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS
Translators are required to translate text pertaining to legal matters such as
court proceedings, hearing, trials, or judgments. They must possess language
proficiency as well as adequate knowledge of legal terminology. Many legal
professionals and lawyers employ translators to translate legal documents for
representation at higher levels where regional language is not accepted or may not
prove effective.
9.4.3 TRANSLATOR-CUM-COMMUNITY INTERPRETERS AND
SIMULTANEOUS INTERPRETERS
This field had limited scope till the recent time but with the rise of public
schools and international schools, as well as NGOs, it has become a vital field of
employment opportunities. Their role is significant as more often than not, they
are required to translate extempore during meetings, conferences, public meetings,
business deals among the others. Understanding of local or regional language and
proficiency in more than one major national languages and English is the prime
necessity. Knowing more than one international languages and excellent
communication skills can be added advantage for employment. It is the best paid
language service industry.
9.4.4 CONFERENCE INTERPRETERS
Their task is similar to that of community interpreters. As the effect of
globalisation penetrate deeper into each area of business and trade, significance of
international meets, trade fairs and conferences have increase. They should have
acquired proficiency in more than one international languages, along with proper
command over a couple of major national languages.

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9.4.5 LOCALIZERS
This category of translators translate texts and/or graphics used in various
websites, products, brochures, manuals, material for promoting products or
services for local users. They are required to give local hues and colours to the
foreign matter and material to make a dent in the local market. For instance, a
localizer would translate the text and graphics of an advertisement, originally
created for a German company for sell of their Volkswagen cars in their country
into English or Hindi to capture Indian market. The localizers should be able to
grasp and understand the technical information, terminology specific to the
product in the local/regional languages.
9.4.6 SIGN LANGUAGE INTERPRETERS:
They facilitate between people with hearing disability and their counterparts who
do not know the sign language. The first and foremost requirement in this field is
proper knowledge of the sign language. Although, in India the scope for
employment in this area is limited, it can emerge as one of the upcoming area for
employment.
 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 3
1. As a freelance translator how can you avail an opportunity to translate
literary texts?
2. How should a freelance translator equip his/her self to meet the
requirements of translation?
3. Who can be hired as a legal or judicial translator?

9.5 SALARY AND PAY –PACKAGE FOR TRANSLATORS

The agencies providing translation service pay handsomely to the
experienced translators and interpreters. More often than not, pay package is
negotiable in such cases. Several surveys regarding salary of a translator,
depending on the job profile reveal it to be approximately Rs. 22,000 to 25,000 per
month in non-organised sectors. The private company may offer more depending
on their requirement and expertise of the candidate. It would be interesting to
know that highest paying cities in India for translators are Pune Noida, Delhi,
Gurgaon, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Chennai, Bengaluru, and Kolkata among the
others.
Salary of a translator/interpreter ranges between Rs. 9.0 lakhs to Rs. 11.5
lakhs per year in Government of India.

 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS 4

1. Which are the highest paying cities for translation service?

2. What are the prospectus in terms of money for a translator in Government
sector?

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9.6 LET US SUM UP

While studying this unit, you must have understood that:
 Interpreter and translators transfer information from one language/medium
to another language/medium.
 They are required to work in settings such as court rooms, publishing
houses, conference settings, meeting rooms, hospitals, courts, educational
institutes and universities.
 They can work as a full time/part time employees or as a freelancer or on a
contract.
 A good translator typically need to have a bachelor’s degree in courses
related to translation or translation studies or a diploma in the same field.
In certain cases, a linguist with a fair command over more than two
languages stand a good chance to be employed as a translator in private
sectors.
 The salary may vary from sector to sector. For that a candidate needs to
refer to the advertisement in the respective fields of their interests.
You should also know that Mandarin Chinese, French, German, Spanish, German,
Arabic and Japanese are very much in demand. According to studies, employment
opportunities in this field is projected to grow by 20% by 2030; which is much
faster than many other areas of occupations.

9.7 KEY WORDS

Interpreters: A person who interprets, especially a professional whose job is
translating and explaining any conversation or written documents from one
language to another.
Simultaneous Interpreters (SI): an SI is a person who translates the messages from
the source language to the target language in real time or extempore.
NGOs: Non-Government Organization
Localizers: A localizer is involved in a process of localization, where instead of
direct translation, focus is placed more on bringing in local effects to cater to the
taste of the target audience.

9.8 SUGGESTED READING

1 McKay Corinne. How to Succeed as a Freelance Translator. Two Rate Press.
2015
2 Chriss, Roger. Translation as a Profession. [Link]. 2006
3 Jenner, Judy and Jenner, Dagmar. The Entrepreneurial Linguist: the Business
School Approach to Freelance Translation. EL Press. 2010

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