What is ‘Research’

 “Researchis what i’m doing when I don’t

know what I am doing” ” (W. Von Braun)

 “If we knew what it was we were doing, it

would not be called research, would it?”
(A. Einstein)
 It’svery important to understand the value of
doing things that you don't understand fully in
order to ensure that you understand them
better.
 Ifat first you don’t succeed, search and
search again. That’s why we call it
success
COURSE DESCRIPTION

1. Description
This course is an introduction to research methodology.
Its aim is to help the students develop a thorough
understanding of the fundamental steps of the research
process.
1. Objectives
Drawing on practice and readings, the course prepares the students
for the following:
1. To be aware of the characteristics and format of a good piece of
research.
2. To choose a topic, formulate a title, formulate a hypothesis and
address research questions.
3. To write the review of the literature
4. To determine the right approach for a given research project.
5. To determine the research variables and the population sample.
6. To design data collection instruments
7. To write an outline.
8. To be able to establish a relevant bibliography
and choose the appropriate references and list
them.
9. To be aware of different bibliography and in text
citation styles.
10. To be able to analyze data.
11. To be aware of the ethical issues in research.
1. Course methodology
a. Discussions of the readings assigned
b. In class practice
1. Course requirements
a. Regular attendance is advised
b. Active participation is advised
4. Materials
 Class materials will be assigned by the Professor.
Weekly schedule
 Week 1. -Introduction to the course
- Research: definition, objectives,
motivation, types and significance
 Week 2. Topic choice and title formulation
 Week 3. Outlining and Research Proposal
 Week 4. The research process 1
 Week 5. The research process 2
 Week 6. The research problem, objectives, research questions,
hypotheses, research variables and sampling 1
 Week 7. The research problem, objectives, research questions,
hypotheses, research
variables and sampling 2
 Week 8. Research ethics and Documentation Styles (MLA &
APA)
 Week 9. Review of the literature and critical thinking
 Week 10. Data collection instruments: quantitative and
qualitative
 Week 11. Data analysis: quantitative and qualitative data
 Week 12. Review and mock exam
References
 Creswell , John W. 2014 Educational Research: Planning,
Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative
Research. Pearson Education Limited.
 Kothari, C.R. 2004. Research Methodology: Methods
and Techniques. New Delhi : New Age International (P)
Limited, Publishers
Meaning of Research
 Research in common parlance refers to a search for
knowledge. Once can also define research as a
scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an
art of scientific investigation.
 Research is “a careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
 Research is also defined as a “systematized effort to
gain new knowledge.”
 Some people consider research as a movement; a
movement from the known to the unknown. It is
actually a voyage of discovery.
 We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitiveness for,
when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our
inquisitiveness makes us probe and attain full and
fuller understanding of the unknown.
 Research is an academic activity and as such the term
should be used in a technical sense. According to
Clifford Woody research comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions; collecting, organising and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
 In short, the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a
problem is research.
 ‘Research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of
enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and
reaching certain conclusions either in the form of
solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

 What makes people to undertake research?

 Thepossible motives for doing research may be either one
or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems,i.e.,concern over practical problems initiates
research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
 Many more factors such as directives of government,
employment conditions, curiosity about new things,
desire to understand causal relationships, social
thinking and awakening, and the like may as well
motivate (or at times compel) people to perform
research operations.
Types of research
Choosing and refining a topic
Your research starts with choosing
a topic
 Choose a topic that sustains your interest over a
long period (sth that you are passionate about)
- look for a rich topic: A research that you can
find a finite variety within
- Some students run out of the stream before
the end and their research becomes
tedious or they abandon it altogether.
 Choose a topic that is intrinsically worthwhile- a
topic that you can feel some pride in and that the
outsiders will appreciate the significance of.
(though the notion of ‘worthwhile’ is relative)
 Checkwhat has been done or said about
the topic by others. Your goal is not to
avoid a topic already researched, but to
find a niche for your own particular
approach to this subject.
Practically, you start your
research within a broad field of
study from which you will
choose a ‘topic’
As you read about the topic,
your aim is to refine it into a
specific research or problem.
After refining your topic, you
should be able to state what
your research is about in a
short sentence or a question.
It’s a circular process- reading,
that shifts your thinking, that
sends you to more reading, that
further shifts your thinking
Develop the ability to think
critically about your own topic
of research.
Ask yourself:

- What, exactly, am I trying to find

out about my topic?
There must be a great deal
written about whatever topic
you choose; a lot of research
has been done in the ‘field’.
So, to refine your broad topic,
consider these questions:
- What am I trying to find about
this topic?
- Why do I want to find it out?
More specifically,
- am I interested in the past or the
present (of my topic)?
- Do I want to restrict myself to a
single country or region or do I want
to make comparisons between
several?
 - Do I want to restrict myself to a
particular period or do I want to
compare more than one?
These questions, and, of course, many
more others help to sort out a ‘topic’
from within a ‘field’
Asyou read around your subject,
you can revisit and constantly
return to the topic and refine it
so that your ‘topic’ becomes ‘a
question’ that can guide your
research.
Researcheable vs unresearcheable
topics
A research topic is a specific
part of study in a broader area of
study. It is a topic within a
research field
It’sa remarkably challenging task
to conduct a kind of detailed
enquiry necessary to arrive at
fresh insights of your own on such
broad subjects.
Exerciseand health
(Too broad!!!!)
The broad topic about exercise can be
narrowed down as follows:
- Regular exercise and depression
relief
From which the following research
question may stem:
R. Q:
Does regular exercise relieve
depression?
Indeed, a researchable topic is a
specific research question that can be
logically researched and tested using
the scientific method.
A researchable topic should have the
following qualities:
• Can collect data and analyze those data
• Topic is a piece of a larger scientific arena of
study
• Topic does not address an opinion, but rather
states a hypothesis that can be tested with
those data that we just talked about
For the research to be
productive, your research topic
should be well focused and
manageable.
It should address aspects of the
subject (issues and questions) that
your readers will consider worth
your attention and theirs.
 Field

Topic

Research question

Hypothesis
Non-researchable topics

Non-researcheable topics include

explanation of how to do something,
vague issues and propositions and
value-based concerns.
 Examples of non-researchable topics:
- Is democracy the best form of government?
- Is it possible to prevent crime?
- How to be a successful student
- What happens to people’s consciousness
after death?
 Topic formulation

-A study of ….. -The use of ……. -Attitudes

-An investigation -The impact of …… towards
of ….. -The relationship -Perceptions of
-A comparison between ….. -A ……………
between …. -The representation An approach to
-An analysis of of …….
…….
- ………………As a Case Study
- The Case of …………
- With Special Reference to ………..
 FORMULATING THE TITLE OF YOUR RESEARCH
PAPER (PRACTICE)

ICT in Moroccan Education System

Child labor

The use of body language: A case study of

students
Single parents
Students’ participation in class

Sexual harassment

Classroom management

The difference between language of

school and university
Developing an outline
 An outline is:
1. A logical, general description
2. A schematic summary
3. An organizational pattern
4. A visual and conceptual design of your writing
5. An outline reflects logical thinking and
correct classification
Functions of an outline
The outline helps you in the process of writing,
particularly it:
1. Helps organize your ideas
2. Presents your material in a logical form
3. Shows the relationship of ideas in your writing
4. Constructs and ordered overview of your
writing
Process
 Before you start:
1. Determine the purpose of your paper
2. Determine the thesis of your paper
3. Determine the audience you are
writing for
Then
1. Brainstorm- List all the ideas you want to include
in your writing
2. Organize- Group ideas together that are related
to each other
3. Order – Divide this material into groups arranging
from the general to the specific or from abstract to
concrete
4. Label – Create main and subtopic headings and
write coordinate levels in parallel form
• Negative effects of divorce on adolescents
I. Adolescents and familial conflicts
A. depression among adolescents
B. adolescents and the painful experience of divorce
II. Financial problems
A. Lower standards of living
B. unqualified divorced mothers and the job market
1. Poor neighborhood
2. changing schools for children
III. Adolescents and peer problems
A. Adolescents lose friends
B. adolescents’ problems towards the opposite sex
Writing an Introduction
An introduction is the first passage in
a scholarly research study. It sets the
stage for the entire study.
 “The introduction is the part of the study
that provides readers with the
background information for the research
reported in the paper. Its purpose is to
establish a framework for the research,
so that readers can understand how it is
related to other research.” (Wikinson,
1991, p.96).
 “Setting the stage for a study, the
introduction establishes the issue or
concern leading to the research by
conveying information about a research
problem. Because it is the initial passage
in a study or proposal, special care must
be given to writing it.” (Creswel, 2003,
p. 82)
The introduction is very challenging
to write
 Think of the introduction as map that answers
the following questions:
1. What am I studying?
2. Why is this topic important to investigate?
3. What other experts discovered about the topic
4. How will my research advance new knowledge
or new ways of understanding?
 The introduction consists mainly of Five parts:
1. The research problem
2. Studies that have addressed the problem,
3. Deficiencies in the studies,
4. The importance of the study for an audience,
5. The purpose statement and
6. Significance of the study
The research problem
 “When researchers begin their studies, they
start with one or more paragraphs that convey
the specific research problem or issues. They
also present, in the first sentence, information
to create reader interest. In the sentences
that follow the first sentence, authors identify
a distinct research problem that needs to be
addressed.” ‘Creswell, 2003, p. 88)
This section states and explains, in
about a paragraph, the problem or
issue that gave rise to the research
and pushed to undertake it.
 Topresent your research problem, you’ll need
to make it clear what exactly is missing in the
current literature and why this is a problem.
You can split this section up into two sections:
 Section 1 - State the problem

Start with what’s already well-established in the

literature, in other words, the current state of research.
Then, state what’s missing in the literature (in other
words, the research gap). This then forms the foundation
for the research problem.
 Section 2 - Justify the problem
Just because there is a problem (a gap) in the
current literature doesn’t mean that it needs to
be studied, so you’ll need to explain why this is a
problem. Specifically, you’ll need to answer the
question: “why does this research gap need to be
filled?”.
 1: Establish the problem or issue you want to
research:
• Highlight the importance of the problem/issue,
and/or
• Make general statements about the
problem/issue, and/or
• Present an overview on current research on the
issue or problem.
2: Provide an overview of existing
thinking about and/or research into your
research problem.
 3: Identify a gap, problems in the existing
knowledge/research that your research can
fill or identify a research focus that will be
useful:
• “The previous research has mistakenly assumed
that….” or “Although most experts in
the field believe …., they have overlooked …”
• “None of the previous research has examined
……”
• “Despite prior observations of voter behavior in
local elections in urban Detroit, it
remains unclear why do some single mothers
choose to avoid....” and/or
•“Consequently, these factors need to examined in
more detail....” or “Evidence suggests an
interesting correlation, therefore, it is desirable to
survey different respondents....”
Rationale
 Now that you’ve stated and justified the
research problem, in the rationale section your
goal is to explain what you’re going to do about
the research problem.
 This is where you will present the “golden
thread” of your research study, which is made
up of your research aim(s), research
objective(s), and research question(s). These
three dimensions of the golden thread will
determine the focus and boundaries of your
study.
 Research aim(s)

The research aim is the main goal or the

overarching purpose of your study. It’s a high-
level statement of what you’re seeking to
achieve. Research aims will typically look
something like this:
 “This research aims to…
 “This research sought to…
 “The aim of this study…
 “This study planned to…”
 Here’san example of a research aim:
“This research aims to assess the effects
of Virgin Atlantic organizational culture
on business profitability”
As you can see, it clearly states what the
main goal and purpose of the study will be.
Research objective(s)
 As opposed to the research aims, the research
objectives (RO) are a bit more practically
oriented, looking at specific things you’ll be
doing to achieve your research aim(s). They
break down the research aims into more
specific, actionable tasks.
 Foryour own research, start with your research
aim(s), then break it down into the key aspects
that need to be addressed to achieve that aim.
Importantly, your research objectives need to be
SMART (i.e. Specific, Measurable, Achievable,
Relevant and Time-bound).
 The following research objectives would facilitate the achievement
of this aim:
1. Analyzing the nature of organizational culture at Virgin Atlantic by
September 1, 2022
2. Identifying factors impacting Virgin Atlantic organizational culture
by September 16, 2022
3. Analyzing impacts of Virgin Atlantic organizational culture on
employee performances by September 30, 2022
4. Providing recommendations to Virgin Atlantic strategic level
management in terms of increasing the level of effectiveness of
organizational culture by October 5, 2022
The Purpose of the Study
 The purpose of this ______________________ (experiment?
Survey?) study is (was? Will be?) to test the theory of
_______________ that __________ (compares? Relates?)
the _______________ (independent variable) to
___________ (dependent variable), controlling for
_________________ (control variable) for ____________
(participants) at _____________ (the 11 research site). The
independent variable (s) _______________ will be
generally defined as _________________________ (provide
a general definition), and he control and intervening
variable (s), _______________________, (identify the
control and intervening variables) will be statistically
controlled in the study.
Positioning your knowledge claim/thesis
 “The previous research suggests an interesting
correlation between A and B; therefore, my
research will....”
 “Although most experts in the field believe ….,
they have overlooked …. My research will ….”
 “Despite the intense focus on X, few
researchers have examined Problem Y ……My
research will …”
Significance of the study
 Stress
the value and relevance of your research.
Why is your research relevant?
What will it contribute to the field (and beyond)?
Why should we care about your research?
SOURCES:
 Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in
English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison
between
 Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for
Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250.
Introductions. The Writing Center. University of
North Carolina.
 Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles:
Variations across Disciplines.” English for Specific
Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17.
Research questions and Hypotheses
“The formulation of a problem is often more
essential than its solution, which may be merely
a matter of Mathematical or experimental skill”
Albert Einstein
Researchers place signposts especially
in the introduction.
The first signpost is the purpose
statement, which establishes the
central direction for the study.
“From the broad, general purpose
statement, the researcher narrows
the focus to specific questions to be
answered or predictions (i.e.,
hypotheses) to be tested.” (Creswell,
2003)
The second signpost is the research
questions and hypotheses.
The purpose of the research
questions.

- To communicate what will be

studied in clear, concise and
unambiguous terms
Qualitative research questions

In a qualitative study, the researcher

states research questions, not
objectives (i.e, specific goals for the
research) or hypotheses.
These research questions assume
two forms: a central question and
associated sub questions.
“What is the broadest question that
can be asked in the study?”
The researcher can ask a central
question followed by other sub-
questions (2, 3 or even more)

Begin the research questions with the

words “what” or “how” to convey an
open and emerging design.
“Why” suggests cause and effect, an
approach consistent with quantitative
research.
Focus on a specific phenomenon
or domain
Use exploratory verbs that convey the
language of emerging design of research.
These verbs tell the reader that the study
will
- Discover (e.g., grounded theory)
- Seek to understand (e.g., ethnography)
Explore a process (e.g., case study)
Describe the experiences (e.g.,
phenomenology)
Report the stories (e.g., narrative
research)
Avoid words that suggest or infer a
quantitative study, words with a
directional orientation such as
“affect,” “influence,” “impact,”
“determine,” “cause,” and “relate.”
How do Moroccan adolescents receive
television news?

- “wh” word: How

- “receive”: open ended verb (read)
How do Moroccan adults describe the
cultural transformation among
Moroccan citizens?
- How: “wh” word
- Describe: Open-ended
- Cultural transformation
Quantitative research questions
and hyptheses
In quantitative studies, investigators
use research questions and
hypotheses to shape and specifically
focus the purpose of the study.
These questions are used frequently in
social science research and specially in
survey studies.
hypotheses are predictions the
research holds about the relationship
among variables. They are numeric
estimates of population values based
on data collected from samples.
Testing of hypotheses employs
statistical procedures in which the
investigator draws inferences about
the population from a study sample.
Hypotheses are typically used in
experiments in which researchers
investigates the relationship between
variables, compare groups, etc.
Hypothese: Null vs alternative
H0: “there is no difference
(relationship) …”
e.g. There is no relationship
between rewarding and students’
motivation
The alternative hypothesis is the
hypothesis that assumes that there is a
significant difference between two
groups or variables.
In sum, , research questions and
hypotheses are important elements of
the research process.
Research questions and hypotheses
help to guide your research and ensure
that your findings are focused and
specific.
When developing your research
question and hypothesis, be sure to
consider the purpose of your study,
what you hope to learn, and how you
will collect and analyze your data.
Wrap up (Writing an introduction)
General context/background
Provide a broad overview of the
topic area that you’ll be researching
Provide relevant background
information to give the reader a
foundational understanding of
your research area.
Present a brief history of the
topic, recent developments in
the area, key pieces of research
in the area, etc.
A brief overview on what has
been done about the topic
(literature)
Statement of the problem
After setting the backdrop for
the research topic in the
background section
it’s time to narrow down the
focus and highlight the specific
research problem you’ll focus
on in your dissertation
To present your research problem,
you’ll need to make it clear what
exactly is missing in the current
literature
 Why this is a problem. This section
can be split up into two sections:
State the problem
Start with what’s already well-
established in the literature (the
current state of research.)
State what’s missing in the
literature (in other words, the
research gap).
Justify the problem
Just because there is a problem (a
gap) in the current literature
doesn’t mean that it needs to be
studied, so you’ll need to explain
why this is a problem.
Why does this research gap need
to be filled?
Purpose /Rationale
Now that you’ve stated and
justified the research problem,
in the purpose/rationale
section your goal is to explain
what you’re going to do about
the research problem.
This is where you will present
the “golden thread” of your
research study, which is made up
of your research aim(s), research
objective(s), and research
question(s)
“This research aims to…
“This research sought to…
“The aim of this study…
“This study planned to…”
The research aim (s) is the main
goal or the overarching purpose
of your study.

It’sa high-level statement of

what you’re seeking to achieve.
As opposed to the research aims,
the research objectives are more
practically oriented, looking at
specific things you’ll be doing to
achieve your research aim(s).
They break down the research aims
into more specific, actionable
tasks.
Your research objectives need
to be SMART
Specific, Measurable,
Achievable, Relevant and Time-
bound.
Example of a set of research
objectives, following from the research
aim mentioned earlier:
1.Analyzing the nature of ……
2.Identifying the factors …..
3.Analyzing the impact…..
Research questions
They are the specific questions
that your research will seek to
answer.
Practice
• “The previous research has mistakenly
assumed that….” or “Although most experts in
the field believe …., they have overlooked …”
• “None of the previous research has
examined ……”
 “This research aims to…
 “This research sought to…
 “The aim of this study…
 “This study planned to…”
 “The previous research suggests an
interesting correlation between A and B;
therefore, the current research will....”
 “Although most experts in the field believe
…., they have overlooked …. this undertaking
will ….”
 “Despite the intense focus on X, few
researchers have examined Problem Y ……this
research will …”
 Thepurpose of this ______________________
(experiment? Survey?) study is (was? Will be?) to test the
theory of _______________ that __________ (compares?
Relates?) the _______________ (independent variable)
to ___________ (dependent variable).
 The independent variable (s) _______________ will be
generally defined as _________________________
(provide a general definition), and he control and
intervening variable (s), _______________________.
 Stressthe value and relevance of your
research. Why is your research relevant?
What will it contribute to the field (and
beyond)? Why should we care about your
research?
Practice
- New technology use
- student academic performance
- Moulay Ismail University students
1. Suggest a qualitative research title
2. Suggest a quantitative research title
3. Suggest a mixed methods research title
4. Suggest a qualitative research question, a quantitative research question and a
hypothesis.
5. Based on the above mentioned information, suggest a significance of the study
The title
Be brief and avoid wasting words,
Eliminate unnecessary words such
as "An Approach to" or "A study
of."
Literature review
After selecting a quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed methods
approach, the researcher needs to
begin reviewing the scholarly
literature.
A literature review is a critical
analysis of existing research and
literature on a particular topic or
research question.
Itinvolves searching for, reading, and
evaluating relevant academic articles,
books, and other sources that
address the topic of interest.
Literature review helps researchers
limit the scope of their inquiry, and
they convey the importance to
studying a topic to readers.
Literature review Purposes

The literature review serves many

purposes:
1.It shares with the reader the results
of other studies that are closely
related to the study being reported.
2. It provides a frame work for
establishing the importance of the
study as well as a benchmark for
comparing the results of a study with
other findings.
3. Identify gaps, inconsistencies, and
controversies in the existing literature,
which can help guide future research.
4. Identify key theories, concepts, and
methodologies that are relevant to the
research question.
5. Demonstrate the importance of the
research question and justify the need
for further investigation.
6. Help researchers identify potential
research questions and hypotheses.
The literature review is an essential
component of any research project,
as it helps to situate the research
within the broader context of existing
knowledge and provides a foundation
for further investigation.
Provide a context for the study
The literature review provides a
concise synthesis of existing research
on the current research topic.
This creates the context from the
past for the new study to be
conducted with the new subject
and newly obtained data.
Create a conceptual frame of reference

The researcher must carefully assess

the key components in the body of
literature
The researcher must identify areas
that are still conceptually and
methodologically under-developed
and point out ‘gaps’ in the field.
Report the status of the current research

The point here is to provide a

brief overview of past research,
distinguish areas of consensus
among researchers in the field of
hypothetical and theoretical
issues.
The literature review will
pinpoint what has been done
and how the current research
could address explicit issues or
gaps the field.
Demonstrate theoretical and conceptual
gaps in the field
Itis critical for the researcher to
understand how earlier research
helps to guide and inform their
own study.
Theliterature review must not only
improve the researcher’s knowledge
of the chosen field but also
demonstrate the depth of
understanding of the field.
Strategies for literature review
Structure the literature review as
early as possible in terms of
headings and subheadings.
Draw concept maps.
Formulate questions that the literature
review addresses.
What to include and exclude from the review
of literature
The main problem of writing the
literature review is what to include
or not.
The following range of factors is critical
to identify the scope of coverage of the
literature review:
1: Comprehensiveness – the review
should cover all existing and past
knowledge on the area under study
2: Specificity – confine your writing
to your particular topic
Authority – ensure that the
authoritative authors have been
identified
Currency – include current thinking
and writing in the field
Relevance – include only relevant
material.
Criteria for evaluating the literature
review
Research Methodology
Research design
Research design refers to the
overall plan or structure that
guides the process of collecting,
analyzing, and interpreting data in
a research study.
A research design is a blueprint
that outlines the framework for
conducting research and helps
researchers systematically
investigate their research
questions or hypotheses.
A well-designed research study
is crucial for obtaining reliable
and valid results.
Key components of a research
design
Purpose of the Study:
• Clearly state the objectives and
goals of the research.
Type of Research:
• Specify whether the research is
exploratory, descriptive,
explanatory, etc.
Exploratory research
Exploratory research is a type of research
design that is conducted when the
researcher is seeking to:
- Explore a new topic,
- Gain insights into a phenomenon,
- Develop a better understanding of
a problem.
The primary goal of exploratory
research is:
- to generate ideas and
hypotheses rather than test them.
This type of research is often
used in situations where the
researcher has little or no prior
knowledge of the subject.
Examples of exploratory research
questions:
- How do students perceive the use of
technology in the classroom, and what
impact does it have on their learning
outcomes?
What are the current challenges
and opportunities in the adoption of
artificial intelligence in small
businesses?
Descriptive research
Descriptive research is a type of
research design that is used to
describe the characteristics of a
population, phenomenon, or
process.
The primary aim of descriptive
research is to provide an
accurate portrayal of what is
being observed.
This type of research is often
concerned with answering
questions about the "what," "who,"
"where," and "when" of a
particular topic.
Example of a research question:

How do individuals in a specific age

group perceive social media and its
impact on relationships?
Explanatory research design
Explanatory research, also known as
causal or explanatory research
design, is a type of research that
aims to identify the cause-and-
effect relationships between
variables.
Unlike descriptive research, which
focuses on describing the
characteristics of a phenomenon,
explanatory research seeks to
understand why certain events
or phenomena occur.
Examples of explanatory research
questions
- Does a specific teaching method
(independent variable) lead to
improved student performance
(dependent variable)?
What is the causal relationship
between a particular drug
(independent variable) and the
reduction of symptoms in a medical
condition (dependent variable)?
Explanatory research is crucial for
advancing our understanding of
cause-and-effect relationships in
various fields, including psychology,
medicine, economics, and
education.
Data Collection
“You can have data without
information, but you cannot have
information without data.”
Daniel Keys Moran
You can have raw data without it
being organized or interpreted,
but you can't have meaningful
information without first having the
underlying data.
Data is a prerequisite for information.

To extract knowledge and insights,

you need to process and analyze
data to transform it into meaningful
information.
This highlights the importance of
collecting, organizing, and
interpreting data to derive valuable
insights and information.
Withouta foundation of data, there's
nothing to analyze or derive
meaning from.
Data Collection Methods:
• Define the methods and
techniques used to gather data
(e.g., surveys, experiments,
interviews, observations).
Data collection is the process of
collecting information on relevant
variables in a methodical way so that
one can respond to specific research
questions, test hypotheses, and
assess results.
The main techniques for gathering
data are:
- Questionnaires
- Interviews
- Observation
An ideal data collection
procedure should be clear,
unbiased, reliable and valid
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a data collection
instrument that is designed to
gather information from individuals
or groups of people in a structured
format.
Key characteristics of a questionnaire

1. structured format:

Questionnaires typically consist of a
set of predefined questions that
respondents are asked to answer.
The format can vary, including
multiple-choice questions, open-
ended questions, Likert scales,
etc.
2. Standardization:
Each respondent receives the
same set of questions in the same
order, reducing potential bias in the
data.
3. Qualitative and quantitative data
Depending on the nature of the
questions, questionnaires can yield
both quantitative data (numerical
information) and qualitative data
(descriptive information).
4. Anonymous responses
Respondents often remain
anonymous when filling out
questionnaires, which can
encourage more honest and
unbiased answers.
Interviews
An interview is a data collection
instrument that involves direct
interaction between a researcher
(interviewer) and a participant
(interviewee) for the purpose of
gathering information.
Interviews can be conducted in
various formats, including face-
to-face, over the phone, or
through video conferencing.
Interviews are commonly used in
research to collect in-depth and
qualitative data, allowing for a
deeper exploration of the
respondent's thoughts, experiences,
and perspectives.
Characteristics of interviews
1.Open-Ended questions:
Interviews often involve open-ended
questions, allowing respondents to
express themselves freely.
2. Flexibility:
- Unlike structured questionnaires,
interviews offer flexibility.
- Interviewers can adapt their
questions based on the
respondent's answers or probe for
more information on specific topics.
3. Probing and clarification
Interviewers can ask follow-up
questions, seek clarification, or
probe deeper into certain responses.
This enables a better understanding
of the participant's perspectives and
helps ensure that the data collected
is comprehensive.
4. Non-verbal cues
In face-to-face interviews,
researchers can observe and
interpret non-verbal cues such as
body language, facial expressions,
and tone of voice.
Interviews can be structured,
semi-structured, or unstructured,
depending on the level of guidance
provided by the interviewer.
Structured interviews follow a
predetermined set of questions
Semi-structured and unstructured
interviews allow for more flexibility
and exploration of new topics.
The 5 W’s of data collection are:
- What data is to be collected?
- From whom data is to be collected?
- Who will collect data?
- From where the data will be
collected?
- When is the data collected?
Sampling Design:
• Outline the procedures for
selecting participants or samples
from the population being studied.
Variables:
• Identify and define the
independent and dependent
variables, as well as any control
variables.
Data Analysis Techniques:
• Specify the statistical or qualitative
methods that will be employed to
analyze the collected data.
Validity and Reliability:
• Discuss how the study will ensure
the validity (accuracy) and
reliability (consistency) of the
results.
Reliabilityis about consistency and
stability, while validity is about
accuracy and appropriateness.
Reliability focuses on the
consistency of results, while validity
focuses on whether the results are
actually measuring what they are
intended to measure.