Chapter 16
Respiratory System
Week 5
Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology - SCIE22273
Dr. Tara Hayes
1
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Chapter 16
Respiratory
System
HOLE’S ESSENTIALS OF
HUMAN ANATOMY &
PHYSIOLOGY
Fifteenth Edition
Charles J. Welsh and Cynthia
Prentice-Craver
© McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
16.1: Introduction to the Respiratory System
Oxygen is required by cells to break down nutrients, to release energy and
produce ATP; carbon dioxide is a product of nutrient breakdown, which has to
be excreted from the body
Respiration is concerned with the methods by which an organism produces
energy
Respiratory system:
• Obtains oxygen from the atmosphere, and removes carbon dioxide from the
body cells
• Consists of tubes that filter, warm, and moisturize incoming air, and
transport it into the gas exchange areas, and microscopic air sacs that
exchange gases
• Other functions of the respiratory system: removes particles from incoming
air, regulates temperature and water content of the air, provides vocal
sounds, regulates blood pH, and helps in sense of smell
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Introduction to the Respiratory System
Stages of Respiration:
• External respiration includes the process of ventilation or
breathing, the gas exchange between air and the capillaries of
the lungs
• Internal respiration: transport of gases in the blood for
exchange with body cells
• Cellular respiration: oxygen usage to produce energy and
production of carbon dioxide; these processes occur in the
mitochondria of the body cells
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16.2: Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System
The organs of the respiratory tract can be divided into 2 portions
or tracts:
• Upper respiratory tract:
Nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, and larynx
• Lower respiratory tract:
Trachea, bronchial tree, and lungs
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Figure 16.1: Organs of the Respiratory System
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Nose and Nasal Cavity
Nose:
• Nose is a facial structure supported by bone and cartilage
• Nostrils provide openings for entrance and exit of air
• Nostrils contain coarse hairs, which prevent entry of particles
Nasal cavity:
• Hollow space posterior to the nose
• Divided medially by nasal septum, consisting of bone & cartilage
• Nasal conchae are scroll-shaped bones that divide the nasal cavity into
passageways
• Conchae support mucous membranes, and increase the surface area to
warm, moisturize, and filter incoming air
• Mucous membrane consists of pseudostratified ciliated epithelium,
containing goblet cells (which secrete mucus) and cilia
• Particles trapped in the mucus are carried to the pharynx by action of cilia,
swallowed, and carried to the stomach, where gastric juice destroys
microorganisms in the mucus
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Figure 16.2: Respiratory Structures of the Head and Neck
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Figure 16.3: Mucus Movement in the Respiratory Tract
(b): Biophoto Associates/Science Source
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Paranasal Sinuses and Pharynx
Paranasal sinuses:
• Air-filled spaces in the maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid
bones
• Sinuses open into the nasal cavity
• Lined with mucous membrane that is continuous with that lining the
nasal cavity
• Reduce the weight of the skull
• Serve as resonant chambers for the voice
Pharynx (throat):
• Space behind oral and nasal cavities and larynx
• Common passageway for air and food from nasal & oral cavities
• Aids in producing sounds for speech
• 3 subdivisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx
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Larynx
Larynx (voice box):
• An enlargement in the airway superior to the trachea and
inferior to the laryngopharynx
• Transports air in and out of the trachea
• Helps keep particles from entering the trachea
• Houses the vocal cords
• Composed of a framework of muscles and cartilage bound by
elastic tissue
• Larger cartilages of the larynx:
• Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple)
• Cricoid cartilage
• Epiglottic cartilage
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Figure 16.4: Anterior and Posterior Views of the Larynx
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Vocal Folds of the Larynx 1
Inside the larynx, 2 pairs of vocal folds, consisting of muscle and
connective tissue, and covered with mucous membrane, extend
from the walls:
• The upper pair is the false vocal cords; no sound production
• The lower pair is the true vocal cords; sound production
• Glottis: true vocal cords and opening between them
• During breathing, vocal cords relax and glottis is open
• Air forced through the glottis vibrates vocal cords to produce
sound
• Changing tension on the vocal cords controls pitch of sound
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Vocal Folds of the Larynx 2
• Loudness of sound depends on the force of air moving through
the vocal cords
• The pharynx, oral cavity, tongue, and lips transform the sound
into words
• Epiglottic cartilage makes up center of the flaplike epiglottis
• Normally, epiglottis stands vertically, and allows air to enter
larynx
• During swallowing, the false vocal cords and epiglottis close off
the glottis, to prevent food from entering the larynx
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Figure 16.5: Vocal Cords with Glottis Closed and Open
(c): CNRI/Science Source
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Trachea
Trachea (windpipe):
• Cylindrical tube, 12.5 cm long (5 inches) that extends downward
anterior to the esophagus and into the thoracic cavity
• Splits into right and left primary bronchi at the carina
• Inner wall is lined with ciliated mucous membrane with many
goblet cells
• Goblet cells product mucus, that traps incoming particles
• Cilia sweep mucus toward pharynx, where it is swallowed
• Wall is supported by 20 incomplete (C-shaped) cartilaginous
rings that keep the airway open
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Figure 16.6: The Trachea Conducts Air from the Larynx to the
Bronchi
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Bronchial Tree 1
• Consists of branched, mucous membrane-lined tubular airways,
leading from the trachea to the microscopic air sacs of the
lungs, called alveoli
• Main (primary) bronchi: first branches of the bronchial tree;
branch directly off the trachea; each bronchus leads to a lung
• Lobar (secondary) bronchi: branches of the main bronchi; each
enters a lobe of a lung
• Segmental (tertiary) bronchi: branches of the lobar bronchi;
each enters a segment of a lung
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Bronchial Tree 2
• Bronchioles: smaller tubular organs that branch off the
segmental bronchi
• Terminal bronchioles: branches off larger bronchioles; smallest
bronchioles that conduct air, without performing gas exchange
• Respiratory bronchioles: branch off terminal bronchioles;
contain alveoli, so they can perform gas exchange
• Alveolar ducts: branch off respiratory bronchioles
• Alveolar sacs: branch off alveolar ducts; consist of air sacs
called alveoli
• Alveoli: sites of gas exchange between the air and blood;
closely surrounded by extensive capillary networks
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Figure 16.7: The Bronchial Tree
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Figure 16.8: Respiratory Tubes and Alveoli
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Figure 16.9: Light Micrograph of Alveoli
Al Telser/McGraw Hill
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Characteristics of the Bronchial Tree
Cartilage: present in the trachea and bronchi, but lessens in the smaller
tubular structures, and is absent in the bronchioles
As cartilage lessens, smooth muscle increases in walls of bronchioles,
and occurs in all structures until the alveolar ducts
Absence of cartilage and presence of smooth muscle allows for changes
in diameter of bronchioles:
• Bronchodilation: increase in diameter of the bronchioles during fight-
or-flight or sympathetic stimulation
• Bronchoconstriction: decrease in diameter of the bronchioles during
certain allergic responses or asthma
Mucous membranes of bronchial tree filter, warm, and humidify
incoming air
Alveoli consist of simple squamous epithelium, which conducts rapid gas
exchange with the associated capillaries
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Figure 16.10: O2 and CO2 Diffusion Between the Alveoli and the
Blood
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Lungs 1
Lungs:
• Soft, spongy, cone-shaped organs of the respiratory system
• Separated medially by the mediastinum, and enclosed by the
diaphragm and thoracic cage
• Occupy most of thoracic cavity
• A primary bronchus and large blood vessels enter each lung on
the medial surface
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Lungs 2
• The pleura:
• A double-layered serous membrane
• Visceral pleura: inner layer; attached to the surface of each lung
• Parietal pleura: outer layer; lines the thoracic cavity
• Serous fluid lubricates the pleural cavity between the 2 layers
• Right lung is larger than left lung
• Right lung has 3 lobes (superior, middle, and inferior), and left
has 2 lobes (superior and inferior)
• A lobar bronchus supplies each of the 5 lobes of the lungs
• Each lung contains air passages, alveoli, nerves, blood vessels,
lymphatic vessels, and connective tissues
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Figure 16.11: Pleural Membranes and Cavities
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Parts of the Respiratory System
TABLE 16.1 Parts of the Respiratory System
Part Description Function
Nose Part of face centered above mouth, in Nostrils provide entrance to nasal cavity; internal
and below space between eyes hairs begin to filter incoming air
Nasal cavity Hollow space behind nose Conducts air to pharynx; mucous lining filters,
warms, and moistens incoming air
Paranasal sinuses Hollow spaces in certain skull bones Reduce weight of skull; serve as resonant
chambers
Pharynx Chamber behind nasal cavity, oral Passageway for air moving from nasal cavity to
cavity, and larynx larynx and for food moving from oral cavity to
esophagus
Larynx Enlargement at top of trachea Passageway for air; prevents foreign objects from
entering trachea; houses vocal cords
Trachea Flexible tube that connects larynx with Passageway for air; mucous lining continues to
bronchial tree filter particles from incoming air
Bronchial tree Branched tubes that lead from trachea Conducts air from trachea to alveoli; mucous
to alveoli lining continues to filter incoming air
Lungs Soft, cone-shaped organs that occupy a Contain air passages, alveoli, blood vessels,
large portion of the thoracic cavity connective tissues, lymphatic vessels, and nerves
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16.3: Mechanics of Breathing
Ventilation (breathing): movement of air from outside the body
into the bronchial tree and alveoli, and back out
Composed of inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation)
Inspiration:
• Air moves from higher to lower pressure
• Atmospheric pressure: pressure exerted by the air on all
objects in contact with it; force that moves air into the lungs
• When pressure inside the lungs decreases below atmospheric
pressure, air flows in from the atmosphere; this occurs during
inspiration
• Increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity causes air pressure
inside the lungs to decrease (an inverse relationship)
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Inspiration 1
Diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles:
• Muscles that expand the thoracic cavity for normal inspiration
• Diaphragm contracts and moves downward, enlarging the
thoracic cavity
• External intercostals contract to move ribs and sternum upward
and outward
• Muscle contraction results in pressure in lungs falling to 2 mm
below atmospheric pressure; this causes air to rush into the
lungs
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Inspiration 2
• Maximal (forced) inspiration (a deep breath): requires
contraction of several other muscles (pectoralis minor,
sternocleidomastoid, scalenes), to enlarge the thoracic cavity
even more
• Due to surface tension between the 2 layers of the pleura, as
the thoracic cavity expands, the lungs expand with it
• Surface tension, however, is not advantageous in the alveoli; it
would tend to cause alveolar collapse
• As the lungs expand in size, a lipoprotein mixture called
surfactant keeps the alveoli inflated, preventing collapse
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Figure 16.12: Mechanisms of Breathing: Normal Inspiration and
Expiration
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Figure 16.13: Normal and Maximal Inspiration
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Expiration
Normal expiration:
• Results from the passive process of elastic recoil of the muscles and lung
tissues, and from the surface tension within the alveoli
• The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax and the lungs recoil,
decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity
• As the diaphragm recoils, abdominal organs spring back to original shape,
which pushes the diaphragm upward
• As the lungs recoil, the pleura and chest wall are pulled inward
• Increased surface tension in the alveoli decreases their volume
• Intra-alveolar pressure increases to about 1 mm Hg above atmospheric
pressure
• As a result, air rushes out of the lungs into the atmosphere
Maximal (forced) expiration:
• Allows for expiration of more air than normal
• Aided by internal intercostal muscles and abdominal wall muscles, which
compress the rib cage and abdominal wall, respectively
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Figure 16.14: Normal and Maximal Expiration
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Respiratory Volumes and Capacities 1
Spirometry: study of various air volumes that move into and out of the lungs
due to different degrees of effort
Respiratory volumes can be measured on a spirometer
One inspiration followed by expiration is called a respiratory cycle
There are 4 distinct respiratory volumes:
• Tidal volume (TV): volume of air that enters or leaves the lungs during one
respiratory cycle; average resting TV is approximately 500 mL
• Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): volume of air that can be inhaled in
addition to the tidal volume, during forced inspiration; average is
approximately 3,000 mL
• Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): volume of air that can be exhaled during a
maximal forced expiration, beyond the tidal volume; average is
approximately 1,200 mL
• Residual volume (RV): volume of air that remains in the lungs after a
maximal expiration; average is approximately 1,200 mL; cannot be measured
with a spirometer
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Respiratory Volumes and Capacities 2
Respiratory capacities: combinations of 2 or more respiratory volumes:
• Inspiratory capacity (IC) is volume of air that can be inhaled after a normal,
resting expiration; IRV + TV (approximately 3,500ml)
• Functional residual capacity (FRC) is volume of air that remains in lungs
after a resting expiration; ERV + RV (approximately 2,300 mL)
• Vital capacity (VC) is maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a
maximal inspiration; TV + IRV + ERV (approximately 4,600ml)
• Total lung capacity (TLC) is total volume of air the lungs can hold; VC + RV
(approximately 5,800 mL); varies with age, gender, body size
Anatomic dead space is the volume of air remaining in the bronchial
tree, that is not involved in gas exchange
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Figure 16.15: Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
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Respiratory Volumes and Capacities 3
TABLE 16.2 Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Name Volume* Description
Tidal volume (TV) 500 mL Volume of air moved in or out of the lungs during a respiratory
cycle
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) 3,000 mL Maximal volume of air that can be inhaled at the end of a resting
inspiration
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) 1,100 mL Maximal volume of air that can be exhaled at the end of a resting
expiration
Residual volume (RV) 1,200 mL Volume of air that remains in the lungs even after a maximal
expiration
Vital capacity (VC) 4,600 mL Maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after taking the
deepest breath possible: VC = TV + IRV + ERV
Inspiratory capacity (IC) 3,500 mL Maximum volume of air that can be inhaled following exhalation
of resting tidal volume: IC = TV + IRV
Functional residual capacity (FRC) 2,300 mL Volume of air that remains in the lungs following exhalation of
resting tidal volume: FRC = ERV + RV
Total lung capacity (TLC) 5,800 mL Total volume of air that the lungs can hold: TLC = VC + RV
*Values are typical for a tall, young adult.
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Nonrespiratory Movements
• Air movement not used for breathing
• Clear air passages or express emotion
• Coughing: reflex that clears substance from lower respiratory
tract
• Sneezing: reflex that clears upper respiratory passages
• Laughing and crying: involve inspiring, and expelling air via a
group of short expirations; express emotion
• Hiccups: spasms of the diaphragm; function is unknown
• Yawning: may cause increase in O2 intake, but unknown
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16.4: Control of Breathing
Normal breathing is a rhythmic, involuntary event, even though
the muscles are also under voluntary control
Respiratory Areas:
• Composed of groups of neurons in the brainstem, scattered
throughout medulla oblongata and pons
• Control breathing by causing inspiration and expiration, and by
adjusting rate and depth of breathing
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Control of Breathing
Main respiratory areas of the brainstem:
• Medullary rhythmicity center includes 2 groups of neurons:
• Ventral respiratory group stimulates respiratory muscles, and sets basic
rhythm of breathing
• Dorsal respiratory group also stimulates respiratory muscles, especially
the diaphragm; involved in cardiopulmonary reflexes that control rate &
depth of breathing
• Pontine respiratory group
• May contribute to rate & depth of breathing
• Limits duration of inspiration
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Figure 16.16a:
Respiratory Areas
of the Brainstem
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Figure 16.16b: Respiratory Areas of the Brainstem
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Factors Affecting Breathing 1
Chemicals, lung tissue stretching, emotional state, and level of
physical activity affect breathing
Central chemoreceptors are chemosensitive areas associated with
the respiratory centers in medulla oblongata:
• Sensitive to changes in the concentration of CO2 and H+ ions in
the cerebrospinal fluid, which represents blood concentrations
• If either CO2 or H+ ion concentrations rise (pH decreases), the
central chemoreceptors signal the respiratory center, and
breathing rate and depth increase
• As more CO2 is exhaled, blood and CSF levels fall, and breathing
returns to normal
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Factors Affecting Breathing 2
• Breathing rate will decrease if CO2 or H+ ion concentration
decreases, to increase CO2 level to normal range
• Low blood O2 level has little effect on central chemoreceptors,
and must be very low (approximately 50% of normal level) to
stimulate them
Peripheral chemoreceptors in carotid bodies and aortic bodies:
• Sense low blood O2 level
• Transmit impulses to the respiratory center
• In response, breathing rate and tidal volume increase
O2 level plays a minor role in respiratory control; CO2 and H+ are
the major factors affecting breathing process
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Figure 16.17: Effect of CO2 and pH on Chemoreceptors
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Figure 16.18: Blood O2 Level & Peripheral Chemoreceptors
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Factors Affecting Breathing 3
• Inflation reflex: helps control depth of breathing; triggered by
stretch receptors in the visceral pleura, bronchioles, and alveoli;
helps to prevent over-inflation of the lungs during forceful
breathing
• Emotions, such as fear or pain, can alter breathing patterns
• There is also voluntary control over breathing muscles, so
breathing can be stopped for a short time; as CO2 builds up in
the blood, chemoreceptors are stimulated, and breathing
resumes
• Hyperventilation, breathing quickly and deeply, lowers the
amount of carbon dioxide in the blood; this can be used to
increase breath-holding time
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16.5: Alveolar Gas Exchanges
Alveoli:
• Microscopic air sacs/cavities clustered at distal ends of alveolar
ducts
• The only sites of gas exchange between the air and blood
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Figure 16.8: Alveoli Exchange Gases with the Blood
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Respiratory Membrane
Gas exchange occurs across the respiratory membrane by rapid
diffusion
Respiratory membrane consists of:
• Simple squamous epithelial cells of the alveolus
• Endothelial cells (simple squamous epithelium) of the capillary
• The fused basement membranes of these layers
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Figure 16.19: The Respiratory Membrane
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Diffusion Across the Respiratory Membrane
• In a mixture of gases, each gas accounts for a portion of the total pressure;
the amount of pressure exerted by each gas is its partial pressure
• The partial pressure of O2(PO2) is higher in alveolar air than in capillary
blood, so O2 will diffuse into the blood
• Atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg at sea level
• Air is 21% O2, so the PO2 is 0.21 × 760 = 160 mm Hg
• The PCO2 in the air is 0.3 mm Hg
• The PCO2 is greater in the blood than in the alveolar air, so CO2 will diffuse
from the blood and into the alveolus
• In a gas mixture, each gas diffuses from higher partial pressure to lower
partial pressure
• Several factors favor increased gas diffusion: more surface area, shorter
distance, greater solubility of gases, and a steeper partial pressure gradient
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Figure 16.20: Gas Exchange Occurs due to Differences in Partial
Pressure of Gases
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16.6: Gas Transport
The respiratory gases, O2 and CO2, are transported chemically
bound to molecules in the blood or dissolved in the plasma
Oxygen Transport:
• Over 98% of oxygen is carried in the blood bound to
hemoglobin in red blood cells, producing oxyhemoglobin
• Remaining 2% is carried dissolved in the plasma
• When breathing normal air, alveolar PO2 is always higher than
that of blood in alveolar capillaries, so O2 constantly diffuses
from alveoli into blood by crossing the respiratory membrane
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Oxyhemoglobin
• Each hemoglobin molecule can bind to up to 4 O2 molecules
• Oxyhemoglobin is hemoglobin that contains O2 molecules bound to its iron
atoms
• Normally in the capillaries of the lungs, all oxygen-binding sites in the
hemoglobin molecules are occupied (100% saturated)
• Oxyhemoglobin bonds are unstable in areas where the concentration of
oxygen is low, so O2 molecules are released in these areas
• Hemoglobin in venous blood is still 75% saturated with O2; this provides O2
reserve
• Factors that increase O2 release from oxyhemoglobin: increase in blood
concentration of CO2, increase in acidity of blood, or increase in blood
temperature
• Deficiency of oxygen reaching the tissues is called hypoxia, and has a variety
of causes
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Figure 16.21: Oxyhemoglobin and Oxygen Transport
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Carbon Dioxide Transport 1
Carbon dioxide (CO2) diffuses from tissue cells into systemic
capillaries, since the PCO2 is higher in the cells than the capillaries
Methods of CO2 transport through the blood:
• 7% dissolves in blood plasma
• 23% binds to hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin
• 70% is transported in the form of bicarbonate ions:
• CO2 enters the blood from the tissue cells
+ −
• CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H + HCO3
• Bicarbonate ion diffuses out of the RBC and enters the blood plasma
• The H+ ion binds to hemoglobin, which temporarily acts as a buffer
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Carbon Dioxide Transport 2
• CO2 is transported in the blood plasma to the lungs, mainly in
the form of HCO3- ions
• When the HCO3- ions reach the lungs, H+ ions are released from
hemoglobin, and the reactions proceed in reverse:
• H+ + HCO3− → H2CO3 → CO2 + H2O
• Carbaminohemoglobin also releases its carbon dioxide, which diffuses out
of the blood into the alveolar air
• CO2 is exhaled from the lungs
• CO2 is released easily in the lungs, because the PCO2 is higher in
the alveoli than in the atmosphere
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Figure 16.22a: Transport and Exchange of O2 and CO2: Systemic
Gas Exchange
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Figure 16.22b: Transport and Exchange of O2 and CO2: Alveolar
Gas Exchange
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Gases Transported in Blood
TABLE 16.3 Gases Transported in Blood
Gas Reaction Involved Substance Transported
Oxygen 1% to 2% dissolves in plasma; 98% to 99% combines Oxyhemoglobin
with iron atoms of hemoglobin molecules
Carbon About 7% dissolves in plasma Carbon dioxide
dioxide
About 23% combines with amino groups of Carbamino-hemoglobin
hemoglobin molecules
About 70% reacts with water to form carbonic acid; Bicarbonate ions
the carbonic acid then dissociates to release
hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions
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