1/9/25, 12:57 AM Degree of Freedom and Generalized Coordinates in Classical Mechanics - Mathematical Explorations
Degree of Freedom and Generalized
Coordinates in Classical Mechanics
AUGUST 24, 2023 ADV-MATHEMATICS
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The concept of degrees of freedom is crucial in describing and analyzing the behavior of physical
systems. It’s used to determine the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify the
complete state of a system.
Contents
1. Degree of Freedom
1.1. Free Particle
1.2. 2 Free Particles
1.3. N Free particles
1.4. N Free Particles with k Constraints
1.5. A Bead Sliding on a Wire
1.6. Motion of a Simple Pendulum
1.7. Motion of a Double Pendulum
1.8. Motion of Three Particles Connected by Three Straight Lines
2. Generalized Coordinates
2.1. Simple Pendulum
3. Advantages of Generalized Coordinates
Degree of Freedom
The degree of freedom of a mechanical system is the minimum number of independent variables
without violating constraints of the motion required to completely describe its motion.
In a mechanical system, each degree of freedom corresponds to a possible way in which the
system can change its configuration. For example:
Particle in 3D Space: A single particle that can move freely in three-dimensional space has three
degrees of freedom, one for each spatial dimension (x, y, and z).
Rigid Body: A rigid body that can rotate and translate in 3D space has six degrees of freedom:
three for translation and three for rotation.
Simple Pendulum: A simple pendulum has one degree of freedom, which is the angle it makes
with the vertical.
Free Particle
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1/9/25, 12:57 AM Degree of Freedom and Generalized Coordinates in Classical Mechanics - Mathematical Explorations
When a single free particle moves in space, it has 3 degrees of freedom. e.g. a bird flying in the
sky.
2 Free Particles
When a system of 2 free particle moves in space, it has 3.2=6 degrees of freedom.
N Free particles
When a system of N free particle moves in space, it has 3N degrees of freedom.
N Free Particles with k Constraints
A system of N free particles subjected to k constraints, has f = 3N − k degrees of freedom.
A Bead Sliding on a Wire
Here, No. of free particles (N) = 1
No. of constraints (k) = 2
1st constraint = the particle cannot move along y-axis
2nd constraint = the particle cannot move along z-axis
Degree of freedom = 3N – k = 3.1 – 2 = 1
Motion of a Simple Pendulum
Here, No. of free particles (N) = 1
No. of constraints (k) = 2
1st constraint = length of the string is constant
2nd constraint = the bob moves in a plane
Degree of freedom = 3N – k = 3.1 – 2 = 1
Motion of a Double Pendulum
Here, No. of free particles (N) = 2
No. of constraints (k) = 4
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1/9/25, 12:57 AM Degree of Freedom and Generalized Coordinates in Classical Mechanics - Mathematical Explorations
1st constraint = length of the 1st string is constant
2nd constraint = length of the 2nd string is constant
3rd constraint = 1st bob moves in a plane
4th constraint = 2nd bob also moves in plane
Degree of freedom = 3N – k = 3.2 – 4 = 2
Motion of Three Particles Connected by Three Straight
Lines
Here, No. of free particles (N) = 3
No. of constraints (k) = 3
1st constraint = length between 1st and 2nd particle is constant
2nd constraint = length between 2nd and 3rd particle is constant
3rd constraint = length between 3rd and 1st particle is constant
Degree of freedom = 3N – k = 3.3 – 3 = 6
Sl. No. No. of particles Degree of freedom
1 For 1 particle 3
2 For 2 particles 6
3 For N particles 3N
4 When a single particle moves in space 3
5 When a single particle moves in plane 2
6 When a single particle moves in straight line 1
Generalized Coordinates
The minimum number of independent coordinates or variables which is required to describe the
motion of a dynamical system is known as generalized coordinates.
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1/9/25, 12:57 AM Degree of Freedom and Generalized Coordinates in Classical Mechanics - Mathematical Explorations
For a system of N particles and for k constraints and d dimension, the number of independent
coordinates (f) =dN-k. These ‘f’ number of minimum independent coordinates required to
describe configuration and motion of a mechanical system are called generalized coordinates
and are denoted by qi (i = 1, 2, 3, … , f ).
Generalized coordinates can be any set of parameters that equivalently specify a point in space.
We can express cartesian coordinates ri in terms of generalized coordinates in the form
ri = ri ((q1 , q2 , q3 , ..., qf , t)
Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a point mass called bob suspended at the lower end of a
massless and inextensible string of constant length (l) fixed at its upper end to a fixed rigid
support.
Here, No. of free particles (N) = 1
No. of constraints (k) = 2
1st constraint = length of the string is constant
2nd constraint = the bob moves in a plane
Generalized Coordinates = 3N – k = 3.1 – 2 = 1
∴ Generalized Coordinate is given by θ.
Advantages of Generalized Coordinates
Generalized coordinates are not limited to Cartesian coordinates. They allow for the use of
alternative coordinate systems that may be more suitable for describing the configuration of a
specific system.
Generalized coordinates provide a natural and convenient way to handle constraints in
classical mechanics. By utilizing appropriate generalized coordinates, the constraints can be
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1/9/25, 12:57 AM Degree of Freedom and Generalized Coordinates in Classical Mechanics - Mathematical Explorations
expressed as equations, simplifying the analysis and allowing for the incorporation of
constraints directly into the equations of motion.
Generalized coordinates enable a more concise and elegant representation of complex
systems. By appropriately choosing the generalized coordinates, the degrees of freedom and
independent variables necessary to describe the system can be significantly reduced.
Generalized coordinates are closely tied to the concept of energy and the Lagrangian
formulation in classical mechanics. The Lagrangian function, which is expressed in terms of
generalized coordinates and their derivatives, simplifies the derivation of equations of motion
using the principle of least action, providing a powerful and systematic approach to solving
problems in classical mechanics.
Generalized coordinates allow for system-specific descriptions that are tailored to the unique
properties and geometry of the system under study.
Many physical systems naturally possess non-Cartesian characteristics. Using generalized
coordinates allows for a seamless transition between different coordinate systems, facilitating
the analysis and understanding of systems with curved or non-rectangular geometries.
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