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9. Superconductivity
Super conductivity was first discovered in 1911 by the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh
ones. Onnes observed that as purified mercury is cooled, its resistivity vanished abruptly
at 4K. H, Kamerlingh Onnes was honoured in 1913 with the Nobel prize in physics for
super conductor.
In many of the metals and alloys, dc electrical resistivity vanishes entirely below a certain
temperature, the temperature depending upon the substance the zero resistivity is known
as super conductivity. The temperature at which the normal metal passes into super

ks
conducting state is called the transition temperature or critical temperature T C. The
materials whose resistivity becomes immeasurably small or actually become zero below a
critical temperature TC are known as super conductors.

 
  Super conductor
Normal Metal
zi
 Impure Super conductor
o o
T  TC T 

Figure: shows the resistivity of normal metal & super conductor

According to free electron model of metals, the resistivity of the metal may be written as
m

ne 2
fi
where m = mass of electron, n = is the no of electron per unit volume,  = average
collision time.

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Empirical criteria
Same observations about the material to show super conductively are as follows
(i) The materials (Metallic substance) whose number of valence electrons Z lies between 2
to 8, generally shows the super conductivity
(ii) Critical temperature of the superconducting materials show maximum value for z = 3, 5
and 7 as shown in figure.

TC

ks
o
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Z 

(iii) Graph between critical temperature TC and z2 is straight line.

(iv) Critical temperature TC varies inversely as the atomic mass of the super conducting
materials.
(v) The materials having high normal resistivity show the super conductivity.

Properties of Superconductors:
zi
(i) At room temperature, the resistivity of ρ of super conducting materials is greater than
other element shows as
(ii) All thermoelectric effects disappear in super conducting state.
(iii) When a sufficient strong magnetic field is applied to super 

conductor below critical temperature TC, it super conducting
property is destroyed.
o TC T k  
fi
(iv) When current is passed through the super conducting
materials, the heating loss (I2R) is zero.
RA
As resistivity   ρ → very small (zero at TC)
l
R = 0 Hence no heating loss.
h
(v) Flux quantization due to ring is   n
2e

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9.1 Meissner Effect

Meissner and ochsenfeld found that if a super conductor is cooled in a magnetic field to
below the critical temperature (transition temperature) then at the transition, the lines of
induction are pushed out.
The expulsion of magnetic flux from the interior of a piece of super-conducting material
as the material undergoes the transition to the super-conducting phase is known as
Meissner effect.
Figure show the normal sphere at T > TC and super conducting sphere at T < TC showing

ks
the expulsion of magnetic lines of induction. Meissner effect is reversible when the
temperature is raised from below TC the flux suddenly penetrates the specimen after it
reaches TC and the substance is in the normal state.
Super Conducting
Sphere
Normal
Sphere
zi
T  TC
T  TC

As B  0 H  M 
M
B   0 1  x H where x 
H

Since B  0 for super conductor state

fi
χ= - 1 and also χ = μr – 1 hence μr = 0
i.e. a super conductor exhibit perfect diamagnetism. Because of diamagnetic nature,
superconducting materials strongly repel external magnet, it leads to a levitation effect.

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9.2 Properties of Superconductor

9.2.1 Critical Field
The minimum applied magnetic field necessary to destroy super conductivity and restore
the normal resistivity is called the critical field H C, when the magnetic field exceeds the
critical value HC, the super conducting state is destroyed and the material goes into the
normal state.
Figure shows the critical field HC as a function of temperature. A specimen is
superconducting below the curve and normal above the curve.

ks
For a given substance, value of HC decrease as
H0
temperature increases from T = 0K to TC
(Critical temperature) the curve is nearly Normal State
 Superconducting
parabolic and can be presented as
State
HC
  T 2 
H C  H 0 1    
  TC  
where H0 is the critical field at 0 K.
T  TC
zi
thus the field has its maximum value H0 at T = 0 K
 0 
at T = 0 H C  H 0 1  2   H 0
 TC 
at T = TC H C  H 0 1  1  0
Equation is the phase boundary between the normal and super conducting state.
Important Question:
Example : The critical field for niobium is 1  105 A/m at 8 k and 2  105 A/m at 0 K.
fi
Calculate the critical temperature of the material.
T
Solution: TC  1/ 2
= 11.31 K
  HC 
1   H 
  

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9.2.2 Critical Current Density

The minimum current that can be passed in a sample without destroying its
 h
superconductivity is called critical current IC and its flux will     . If a super
 2e 
conducting material carries a current such that the magnetic field which it produce is
equal to HC, the super conductivity disappears. The current density J at which the super
conductivity disappear is called the critical current density JC for any value of J < JC the
current can sustain itself whereas for values of J > JC the current can not sustain itself.

ks
This effect is known as Silsbee effect.
 h
Flux Quantization is   n 
 2e 
A super conducting ring of radius r ceases to be a
super conductor when the current is
T  TC
IC = 2πrHC
IC 2rH C
Critical current density J C  
Area r 2
zi
2H C
JC 
r
Dependence of J, H and T is shown in figure as

J C T  0k , H  0
fi
H C T  0k , J  0 

TC H  0k , J  0

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9.2.3 London Penetration Depth

When a magnetic field is applied to a superconductor, the applied field does not suddenly
drop to zero at the surface, instead H decays exponentially according to the formula.
H  H 0e x /  -------- (i)
Where H0 is the applied field on the surface at x = 0, x is the distance from the specimen
penetration depth λ varies from 300 to about 5000 Ǻ.
Penetration depth λ is defined as the
effective depth to which magnetic

ks
H0
field penetrates a super conductor.
The graphical form of equation (i)
shown as.
Penetration depth λ depends strongly  2 3 4 5 6
on temperature and becomes much x
larger as T approaches TC. It is related to temperature as
2 4 1
  T    T  
  o    1     ------- (ii)
zi
    TC  

Where λ (T) and λ (0) are the penetration depth at T K and 0 K respectively.
Equation (ii) implies that super conducting electron density is given as
  n0  4 
ns  n0 1     ------- (iii)
  n s  
the density of super conducting electron increases from zero to T C to n0 at T = 0 K as
fi
shown in figure
n0 

0
T T
TC TC

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from equation (ii) and (iii) we get

1/ 2
n 
 T    0 0 
 ns 
Note: London equation is defined as
1/ 2
 m 
   2
  m
  0 ns e 
where λ is London penetration depth.

ks
9.2.4 Coherence Length (ξ)
The coherence length is measure of the distance within which the gap parameter can not
change drastically in a spatially varying magnetic field. It is also a measure of the
minimum spatial extent of a transition layer between the normal and super conductor. An
intrinsic coherent length ξ0 is given as
2VF
0 
Eg
Where VF is electron velocity at the Fermi surface and Eg is energy gap, ξ0 is
zi
characteristic of pure super conductor. In impure materials and alloys the coherence
length is shorter than ξ0.
Example: Calculate the value of the intrinsic coherence length ξ0 for pure mercury
whose TC = 4.15 K [Given VF = 106 m/s]
2VF
Ans:  0  , Eg = 3.53 KBTC.
Eg
ξ0 = 331.1 nm
fi

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9.2.5 Isotope Effect:

In 1950 C A Reynolds and E. M. Maxwell found that the critical temperature T C varies
with the atomic mass M according to the relation
 ln TC 1
    TC M 1 / 2  constant --------- (i)
 ln M 2
Thus, the larger the isotropic mass, lower is transition temperature. For example, the
transition temperature of mercury changes from 4.185 K to 4.146 K. When its isotopic
mass is change from 199.5 to 203.4 amu. Now it is known that the mean square

ks
1
amplitude of atomic or lattice vibrations at low temperature is proportional to and
M
Deye temperature QD, of the phonon spectrum is related to M as
Q D M = constant --------- (ii)
TC
From equation (i) and (ii) we get = constant 
QD
ln TC
1
In general we can write as TC  Q D 
M
zi
ln M 

9.3 Type-I and Type-II Superconductors:

Superconducting materials can be divided into two types, based on their magnetic
response. These two types are designated as type I and II.
Type I or the ideal superconductors state are completely diamagnetic, that is when these
superconductors are placed in a magnetic field, then all the lines of induction are pushed
fi
out from the specimen. These superconductors show Meissner effect. As Magnetic field
is increased, the material remains diamagnetic until the critical value HC is reached. At
this point conduction becomes normal and complete magnetic flux penetration takes
place.

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Type II or hard super conductors are those in which the ideal behavior is seen up to a
lower critical field HC, beyond which the magnetization gradually changes and attains
zero at an upper critical field designated as H C2 . The Meissner effect is incomplete in
this region between H C1 and H C2 , this region is known as the Vortex region as shown in

figure. The Normal behaviour is observed only beyond H C2 . The lines of induction
penetrate gradually from the specimen as the field is increased beyond H C1 and the

penetration complete at H C2 . Figures show the behavior of type I and type II super

ks
conductor as a function of M and H.
It is clear that for type I super conductor, upto HC, the magnetization of the material
grows in proportion to the external magnetic field and then abruptly drops to zero at the
transition to the normally conducting state.

 Vertex region Normal

M Normal 
-M
Super
zi
Conductor
State
H C1 HC H C2
H HC
Figure : Type I Superconductor Figure : Type II Supercondu ctor

Variation of resistivity of a type I super conductor and type II super conductor as a

function of applied magnetic field is shown in figure.
fi
S.C. State Normal
State

 
 
Vertex
State
HC H C1 H
H HC2

Figure : Type I  Figure : Type II 

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9.4 BCS THEORY

John Bardeen, Lean N. Cooper and John R. Schrieffer developed in 1957 the quantum
theory of super conductivity. This theory is based on two experimental results, the
isotope effect (as explained earlier) and variation of electronic specific heat with
temperature. BCS theory is based on interaction of two electrons through the
intermediary of phonons. When an electron approaches an ion in the lattice, there is a
coulomb attraction between which causes an increase in the density of ions in the region
of distortion. The higher density of ions in the distorted region attracts another electron.

ks
Thus a free electron exerts a small attractive force on another electron through phonons
with are quanta of lattice vibrations, “A pair of free electrons thus coupled through a
phonon is called a cooper pair. Energy of cooper pair is lower than the energy of two
individual electrons. The electrons in a cooper pair has opposite spins, so that has a total
spin of zero. As a result, the electron pairs in a super conductor are bosons and its radius
 V 
r0   F 
 EB 
zi
1 2

 total spin  0 B.E. Statics 

When there are non current in super conductor, the linear momentum of the electrons in a
cooper pair are equal and opposite for a total of zero. Energy gap E g of a super conductor
at 0 K is given by the formula.
fi
E g 0   3.53k BTC
where kB is Boltzmann’s constant and TC is the critical temperature of a super conductor.

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At T > 0 K some cooper pairs break up. The resulting individual electrons interact with
the remaining cooper pair and reduces the energy gap.
At critical temperature TC, the energy gap 1
E g T 
disappears, there are no more cooper
E 0
pairs, and the material is no longer
super conducting. The energy gap Eg
can be measured by directly microwave
radiation of frequency v at a super conductor T / E   1

ks
Eg can also be measured by utilizing the Josephson effect.
Note: (i) BCS theory valid only for weak coupling superconductor
(ii) BCS theory assumed a spherical FS and isotropic mass.
9.5 JOSEPHSON EFFECT AND TUNELLING
For Josephson effect, the experiment involves two pieces of metal, one in the super
conducting state and other is normal state. These two pieces are separated by thin
insoluting (layer) film (1 nm thickness) as shown in figure (i)
zi
Tunneling

Eg

EF

Figure (i)
Normal Conductor
fi
Insulating
layerg
Figure (ii)

When a small voltage (mv range) is applied, the energy band in the superconductor is
raised. As this voltage is increased, some filled electron states in the super conductor
come in opposite to empty states in the normal conductor fig (ii). Then the cooper pair
easily tunnel through the insotulating barrier (known as Josephson function). Eg can be
calculated from the threshold voltage at which the tunneling current starts to flow.

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In the dc Josephson effect the current through a Josephson junction that has no voltage
across it is given by I = Imax sin α.
Where α is the phase difference between the wave-functions of the cooper pairs on either
side of the junction, Imax is maximum junction current and depends on the thickness of the
insolulating film. I max is very small (1 μA to 1 mA) when a voltage V is applied across a
Josephson junction, the phase difference α increases with time t at rate
d 2eV  2eV 
f   ,   2vt  2n   
dt h  h 

ks
 4eVt 
I J  I max sin   AC current produced
 h 
Example: A voltage of 5.0 μV is applied across a Josephson junction what is the
frequency of the radiation emitted by the junction?
2eV
Ans: f   3.4  10 9 Hz
h
Thermodynamics of Superconductivity:
Heat capacity – The transition of metal from its normal state to a super conducting state
zi
not involve a change of crystallographic structure. No ferromagnetic, ferromagnetic or
antiferromagnetic transition occurs. Only thermodynamic phase transition takes place
where the specific heat changes discontinuously at the transition temperature TC.
Specific heat varies linearly with temperature in normal conductor and exponentially in
super conductor, as shown in figure and it is
given by CV  e  aTC / T -------- (i)
fi
From the equation (i) it is clear that specific  S
heat in super conductor decreases C V
exponentially. N

In general CV  S  e  aTC / T
3 .0
Note: Ruger’s Formula is given as TC  T

4 H 02
CS  C N 
 0TC

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Applications of superconducting materials:

(i) These materials are used for producing very strong magnetic fields of about 50 Tesla.
Which is much larger than the field obtainable from an electro magnetic.
(ii) High current densities with zero resistance properties of super conducting material
make useful for strong magnetic for example. MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
devices, used in medicine.
(iii) In super conducting materials, heating loss in zero [I2R = 0]. Therefore power can be
transmitted through super conducting cables without loss.

ks
(iv) These materials can be used to perform logic and storage function in computer.
(v) Type II super conducting materials are mainly utilized for super conducting solenoid.
(vi) There are also used in high speed leviated trains (Maglev)
(vii) SQUIDs are used in the field of medicine, it measures the very weak fields
generated by heart and brain.
(viii) Recently super conductors have found applications in switching elements called
cryotrons.
zi
fi

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