MODULE -2 Theoretical basis of training program

●​ Application of learning theories

➔​REINFORCEMENT THEORIES
➔​ Reinforcement theory emphasizes that people are motivated to perform or
avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from
those behaviors.2 There are several processes in reinforcement theory.
Positive reinforcement is a pleasurable outcome resulting from a behavior.
Negative reinforcement is the removal of an unpleasant outcome.
➔​For example, consider a machine that makes screeching and grinding
noises unless the operator holds levers in a certain position. The operator
will learn to hold the levers in that position to avoid the noises.
➔​The process of withdrawing positive or negative rein forces to eliminate a
behavior is known as extinction. Punishment is presenting an unpleasant
outcome after a behavior, leading to a decrease in that behavior. For
example, if a manager yells at employees when they are late, they may
avoid the yelling by being on time (but they may also call in sick, quit, or
trick the boss into not noticing when they arrive late). From a training
perspective, reinforcement theory suggests that for learners to acquire
knowledge, change behavior, or modify skills, the trainer needs to identify
what outcomes the learner finds most positive (and negative). Trainers
then need to link these outcomes to learners’ acquiring knowledge or skills
or changing behaviors. Learners can obtain several types of benefits from
participating in training programs. The benefits may include learning an
easier or more interesting way to perform their job (job-related), meeting
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 other employees who can serve as resources when problems occur
(personal), or increasing opportunities to consider new positions in the
company (career related). According to reinforcement theory, trainers can
withhold or provide these benefits to learners who master program
content.
➔​The effectiveness of learning depends on the pattern or schedule for
providing these reinforcers or Behavior modification is a training method
that is primarily based on reinforcement theory. For example, a training
program in a bakery focused on eliminating unsafe behaviors such as
climbing over conveyor belts (rather than walking around them) and
sticking hands into equipment to dislodge jammed materials without
turning off the equipment. Employees were shown slides depicting safe
and unsafe work behaviors. After viewing the slides, employees were
shown a graph of the number of times safe behaviors were observed
during past weeks. Employees were encouraged to increase the number of
safe behaviors they demonstrated on the job.
➔​They were given several reasons for doing so: for their own protection, to
decrease costs for the company, and to help their plant get out of last place
in the safety rankings of the company’s plants. Immediately after the
training, safety reminders were posted in employees’ work areas. Data
about the number of safe behaviors performed by employees continued to
be collected and displayed on the graph in the work area following the
training. Employees’ supervisors were also instructed to recognize the
workers whenever they saw them perform safe work behavior. In this
example, the data of safe behavior posted in the work areas and
supervisors’ recognition of safe work behavior represent positive
reinforcers
➔​ SOCIAL LEARNING THEORIES -
➔​Social learning theory emphasizes that people learn by observing others,
especially those who are considered credible and knowledgeable. It
suggests that behavior is more likely to be repeated when it is reinforced or
rewarded. For example, if an employee observes a colleague performing a
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 task effectively and receiving praise, they are likely to adopt that behavior.
Learning can occur in two ways: through direct experience (where the
person faces the consequences of their actions) or by observing the
experiences of others.
➔​A key concept in social learning theory is self-efficacy, which refers to a
person’s belief in their ability to successfully learn a new skill or behavior.
When employees have high self-efficacy, they are more likely to put in the
effort to learn and persevere, even in challenging environments.
Conversely, those with low self-efficacy might feel that learning is beyond
their capabilities and may withdraw or disengage. To enhance self-efficacy,
trainers can use techniques like offering encouragement (verbal
persuasion), helping individuals relate new tasks to things they’ve already
mastered (logical verification), showing examples of successful peers
(modeling), and allowing employees to achieve small successes in their
work (past accomplishments).
➔​Social learning theory also outlines four processes involved in learning:
attention, retention, motor reproduction, and motivation. Attention refers to
the need for learners to focus on the important aspects of a model’s
behavior. This requires that the model is credible and that the learner is
capable of observing the behavior. Retention is about remembering what
was observed, storing the information in a way that it can be recalled when
needed. Motor reproduction is the process of trying out the new behavior
and seeing if it brings the same positive results as it did for the model.
Lastly, motivation plays a role in whether the learner will adopt the
behavior; if the behavior leads to positive outcomes (like praise or
success), the learner is more likely to repeat it.
➔​This theory is foundational in training methods like behavior modeling,
where employees watch videos of models demonstrating key behaviors.
After observing, they discuss what worked and practice the behaviors
themselves. Feedback from peers and trainers helps refine their skills,
which they can then apply to real-world situations. The goal is to make the

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 behavior part of their regular practice by reinforcing the positive outcomes
that come from using these skills effectively.
➔​GOAL THEORIES
➔​GOAL SETTING THEORY -
➔​Goal setting theory suggests that people's behavior is influenced by the
goals they set for themselves. Goals direct a person's focus and energy,
keep them motivated over time, and push them to develop plans to achieve
their objectives. Research shows that specific and challenging goals lead
to better performance than vague or easy goals. However, for goals to be
effective, people need to be committed to them. If a goal seems too
difficult, people may not be as motivated to achieve it.
➔​A good example of this theory in action is a training program for pizza
deliverers who had unsafe driving habits. Many of them were young and
inexperienced drivers, and they were paid based on the number of
deliveries they made, which encouraged speeding and ignoring safety
rules, like not wearing seat belts or not stopping completely at
intersections. These behaviors led to accidents.
➔​To address this, managers first observed the drivers' behavior over a week
and noted how often they made complete stops at intersections (which
was only 55% of the time). During a training session, managers and
trainers asked the drivers questions to help them understand why it was
important to stop completely at intersections and what might happen if
they didn't. After the discussion, the drivers agreed that stopping was
necessary for safety.
➔​Then, the trainers asked the drivers to set a goal for themselves. They
decided on a goal to increase their complete stops to 75% over the next
month. By setting a specific goal and making it a challenge, the drivers
were more motivated to improve their driving behavior. This is how goal
setting theory was used to help the drivers focus on safer driving practices.

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➔​GOAL ORIENTATION THEORY
➔​Goal orientation is about the way a trainee approaches learning during
training. There are two main types of goal orientation: learning orientation
and performance orientation.
➔​Learning orientation is when a person focuses on improving their skills and
knowledge. People with this mindset see success as making progress and
getting better at the task. They prefer trainers who care more about how
they’re learning rather than just their performance. They also view
mistakes as a normal part of the learning process and are not afraid to
make errors.
➔​Performance orientation, on the other hand, is when someone focuses
more on how well they perform compared to others. People with this
mindset define success as performing better than others. They value being
good at the task more than learning the process, and they often feel
anxious about making mistakes and try to avoid them.
➔​Goal orientation affects how much effort a trainee will put into learning.
Trainees with a learning orientation are more motivated to learn for the
sake of learning. They pay attention to the task and use more advanced
strategies to understand and improve. In contrast, trainees with a
performance orientation care more about performing well in front of others
and may not put as much effort into learning the task itself.
➔​To encourage a learning orientation, trainers can focus on goals related to
learning and improvement rather than just task performance. They can also
reduce competition between trainees, create a supportive learning
environment, and allow trainees to make mistakes and try new approaches
without fear of failure. This approach helps trainees focus on growing their
abilities rather than just getting things right.
➔​NEED THEORIES -
➔​Need Theories help explain why people are motivated to act in certain
ways based on the needs they feel are unmet. A need is a state of
deficiency or a desire for something that motivates behavior to fulfill it.
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 Both Maslow’s and Alderfer’s need theories focus on different levels of
needs, which drive human actions. These theories help understand what
people value and what can motivate them in various situations, including in
work or learning environments.
➔​Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Alderfer’s ERG theory both recognize
three basic types of needs:
➔​Physiological needs: These are the most basic needs for survival, such as
food, water, shelter, and sleep. If these needs are unmet, they become the
primary focus of a person's behavior.
➔​Relatedness needs: These are social needs, such as the need for
relationships, interaction with others, and a sense of belonging.
➔​Growth needs: These are higher-level needs related to self-esteem and
self-actualization—where a person seeks to realize their full potential and
improve themselves.
➔​Maslow proposed that people must satisfy lower-level needs first (such as
physiological needs) before they can focus on higher-level needs (like
self-actualization). His theory is often depicted as a pyramid, where each
layer represents different levels of needs.
➔​Alderfer’s theory, known as the ERG theory, also identifies these three
categories but differs from Maslow’s model. While Maslow suggested that
people move up the hierarchy step by step, Alderfer proposed that people
can move between different levels of needs depending on circumstances.
For example, if someone’s growth needs are not being met, they may focus
more on relatedness or physiological needs instead.
➔​The key difference between the two theories is that Maslow's hierarchy is
rigid—you need to satisfy lower-level needs before higher needs can be
addressed—while Alderfer’s ERG theory is more flexible and recognizes
that people can pursue multiple needs at the same time or switch between
them depending on their situation.
➔​McClelland’s Need Theory focuses on three specific needs that people
might have:
➔​Need for achievement (wanting to do well and set high standards)
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➔​Need for affiliation (wanting to build relationships and be accepted by
others)
➔​Need for power (wanting influence and control over situations or people)
➔​McClelland's theory suggests that these needs can be learned over time.
➔​The main takeaway from Need Theories is that to motivate people to learn,
trainers should understand what the trainees' needs are and explain how
the training can help meet those needs. For example, if someone’s basic
needs (like feeling secure in their job) aren’t met, they might not feel
motivated to learn, even if the training is useful
➔​ADULT LEARNING THEORY -
➔​Adult Learning Theory focuses on how adults learn differently from
children. Traditional teaching methods, called pedagogy, are designed for
children. In this approach, teachers decide everything—what to teach, how
to teach, and how to test—while students are seen as passive learners with
little experience to contribute.
➔​But adults have unique needs when it comes to learning, and a theory
called andragogy, developed by Malcolm Knowles, highlights these
differences. His theory is based on these key points:
➔​Adults need to know why they are learning something. They are more
motivated if they understand how the learning applies to their life or work.
➔​Adults want to be self-directed. They prefer to have control over their
learning rather than being told what to do.
➔​Adults bring their experiences to the table. These experiences are valuable
and can be used as learning resources.
➔​Adults focus on solving real-world problems. They prefer learning that
helps them tackle specific challenges they face.
➔​Adults are motivated by both external rewards (like promotions) and
internal rewards (like personal growth).
➔​This theory is crucial when designing training programs because adults
often aren’t used to traditional classroom environments. For example, if
adults feel anxious about learning something like math or finance, trainers

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 can create fun, engaging activities (like running a pretend lemonade stand)
to make the material less intimidating.
➔​Another important idea is mutual learning, where the trainer and learners
work together to create a positive learning experience. Adults learn best
when they can connect new information to their own experiences and when
they feel involved in the process.
➔​INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY -
➔​The Information Processing Theory (IPT) is a framework that explains how
humans acquire, process, store, and recall information, drawing parallels to
how computers manage data. This theory breaks the process of learning
into distinct stages, focusing on how memory systems work together to
transform raw data into meaningful knowledge. By understanding these
stages, educators and trainers can design programs that improve
comprehension, retention, and practical application of knowledge.
➔​Key Components
➔​Sensory Memory:
➔​Sensory memory is the first stage where information enters the brain
through the senses, such as vision, hearing, or touch. This stage is
short-lived, holding information for only a few seconds unless attention is
given to specific details. For example, when viewing a slide or hearing an
explanation, only the most relevant parts are transferred for further
processing. To ensure learners focus on important elements, training
programs often use attention-grabbing visuals, engaging discussions, or
interactive experiences. This variety stimulates multiple senses, increasing
the chances that learners will process and retain the information.
➔​Short-Term Memory (Working Memory):
➔​In the short-term memory stage, information is actively worked on to make
sense of it. However, this memory stage has limited capacity, holding about
5–9 items at a time. To address this limitation, complex information can be
broken into smaller chunks, a method called “chunking.” For example,
instead of presenting an entire process at once, trainers can split it into
smaller, manageable steps. Repetition of key ideas and linking new
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 concepts to prior knowledge also help reinforce understanding and reduce
cognitive overload, enabling learners to process information more
effectively.
➔​Long-Term Memory:
➔​Long-term memory is where information is stored for extended periods,
making it available for future use. To move information from short-term to
long-term memory, it must be encoded effectively. Trainers can use
strategies like scaffolding, which involves building on prior knowledge, or
creating meaningful associations with real-world examples. For instance,
using relatable case studies, engaging stories, or practical exercises helps
learners see the relevance of the material, making it easier to remember
and apply. Repetition, review, and interactive activities further strengthen
the transfer of knowledge into long-term memory.

➔​Applications in Training
➔​Personalized Learning: Tailoring content to fit individual learning styles is
crucial. Visual learners benefit from diagrams and illustrations, auditory
learners from verbal instructions, and kinesthetic learners from hands-on
activities. Personalized training ensures that learners engage with material
in a way that suits their preferences, enhancing retention.
➔​Active Engagement: Encouraging learners to participate actively helps them
retain information more effectively. Techniques like role-playing, group
discussions, and real-world problem-solving enable trainees to apply
concepts in a meaningful way. These activities make learning interactive
and help reinforce connections between new knowledge and prior
experiences.
➔​Memory Aids: Tools like spaced repetition, where information is reviewed at
intervals, help strengthen recall. Mnemonics and other memory tricks
simplify complex concepts, while visual or auditory cues make information
easier to retrieve when needed.

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➔​Benefits for Training Programs
➔​Integrating IPT into training programs offers several advantages. It
promotes critical thinking and problem-solving by emphasizing active
learning and engagement. This approach ensures that knowledge is not
only learned but also retained and applied in real-world situations.
Additionally, IPT-based training designs make learning more engaging and
accessible, particularly for diverse audiences with different needs and
challenges. For instance, it is particularly effective in high-pressure
environments where quick recall and application are essential.
➔​by leveraging the principles of the Information Processing Theory, training
programs can be designed to optimize learning outcomes. These methods
ensure that learners can effectively process, store, and apply new
information, leading to improved performance and a deeper understanding
of the material.
➔​EXPECTANCY THEORY -
➔​The Expectancy Theory of Learning, developed by Victor Vroom, explains
how individuals make decisions based on their expectations of desired
outcomes. While Vroom's model initially focused on workplace motivation,
its principles apply broadly to learning and training. The theory suggests
that people are motivated to learn when they believe their efforts will lead
to success, that success will yield desired outcomes, and that those
outcomes align with their personal goals or values.
➔​Key Components
➔​Expectancy (Effort → Performance)
➔​This component refers to a learner's belief that putting in effort will lead to
successful performance. In a training context, learners must believe that
their time and effort in a program will help them acquire new knowledge or
skills. For instance, clear instructions, adequate resources, and structured
guidance can help learners feel that success is achievable. If a training
program appears overly difficult or lacks support, learners may disengage
because they doubt their ability to succeed.
➔​Instrumentality (Performance → Outcome)
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➔​Instrumentality describes the connection between performance and
outcomes. Learners need to see a clear link between achieving training
goals and receiving meaningful rewards. For example, they might expect
that mastering new software will lead to promotions, recognition, or greater
efficiency at work. Trainers can reinforce instrumentality by explaining how
the training aligns with personal or professional benefits, such as career
advancement or better job performance.
➔​Valence (Value of Outcomes)
➔​Valence reflects the learner's perception of the value or desirability of the
outcomes associated with successful training. Learners are more
motivated when the rewards for success match their personal goals or
values. For example, a learner seeking career growth will be motivated by
training that enhances employability. Conversely, if the rewards are
irrelevant (e.g., a certificate without real-world value), motivation to engage
diminishes.
➔​Applications of Expectancy Theory in Training
➔​Setting Clear Expectations: Trainers should outline the effort required for
success and the benefits of completing the training. For example, setting
specific, measurable objectives can help learners understand what is
expected and how success will be evaluated.
➔​Providing Resources and Support: Ensuring learners have the tools,
materials, and guidance they need builds their confidence in their ability to
succeed, enhancing expectancy. This includes offering feedback,
addressing challenges, and accommodating different learning styles.
➔​Aligning Training with Rewards: Clearly connecting performance in training
to meaningful outcomes increases motivation. Rewards can include
tangible benefits (certifications, promotions) or intrinsic rewards (personal
satisfaction, skill mastery).
➔​Making Training Relevant: Programs should address real-world
applications, aligning with learners' personal and professional goals. When
learners see the training's relevance to their lives, its perceived value
(valence) rises.
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➔​Benefits of Applying Expectancy Theory in Learning
➔​By applying the principles of Expectancy Theory, training programs can be
more engaging and effective. Learners become motivated when they
believe their efforts will result in meaningful success and that this success
will bring valuable rewards. This approach also fosters a sense of purpose
and connection, helping learners stay committed even when faced with
challenges. Moreover, by addressing individual goals and values, trainers
can tailor programs to meet diverse needs, ensuring broader engagement
and satisfaction.
➔​Expectancy Theory highlights the importance of aligning training design
with learners' beliefs, expectations, and values. By ensuring a clear
effort-performance-outcome link and emphasizing the benefits of success,
trainers can inspire learners to commit to and excel in their learning
journeys.

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