Dr.K.

SATHYA
ASST.PROFESSOR
SRMIST, KTR

CHAPTER-1
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
AND NATURAL RESOURCES

UNIT I MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Definition – Scope and importance – Need for public awareness
NATURAL RESOURCES
Renewable and Non-renewable resources- Natural resources and Associated problems-
Forest resources:-Use and over – Exploitation – Deforestation – Case studies – Timber
extraction – Mining – Dams and their ground water – Floods – Drought – Conflicts over
water – Dams – Benefits and Problems – Mineral Resources:- Use Effects on Forests and
Tribal People – Water Resources:- Use and Over-Utilization of Surface and Exploitation,
Environmental Effects of Extracting and Using Mineral Resources, Case Studies – Food
Resources: World Food Problems, Changes caused by Agriculture and Overgrazing, Effects
of Modern Agriculture, Fertilizer- Pesticide Problems, Water Logging, salinity, Case Studies
– Energy Resources:- Growing Energy Needs, Renewable and Non Renewable Energy
Sources, Use of Alternate Energy Sources, Case Studies

1.1 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
 The word environment is derived from the French word ‘environner’ which means
to ‘encircle or surround’.
 Thus our environment can be defined as “the Social, Cultural and Physical
conditions that surround, affect and influence the survival, growth and
development of people, animals and plants”
 This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment
as well as the cultural and social contexts that shape human lives.
 It includes all factors (living and nonliving) that affect an individual organism or
population at any point in the life cycle; set of circumstances surrounding a
particular occurrence and all the things that surrounds us.

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 1.1.2 SEGMENTS OF ENVIRONMENT
Environment consists of four segments.
1. Atmosphere- Blanket of gases surrounding the earth.
2. Hydrosphere- Various water bodies present on the earth.
3. Lithosphere- Contains various types of soils and rocks on the earth.
4. Biosphere- Composed of all living organisms and their interactions with the
environment.
1.1.3 MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
 The Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science because it comprises various
branches of studies like chemistry, physics, medical science, life science,
agriculture, public health, sanitary engineering etc.
 It is the science of physical phenomena in the environment. It studies about the
sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of physical and biological species in
the air, water, soil and the effect of from human activity upon these.
 As the environment is complex and actually made up of many different
environments like natural, constructed and cultural environments, environmental
studies is inter disciplinary in nature including the study of biology, geology,
politics, policy studies, law, religion engineering, chemistry and economics to
understand the humanity’s effects on the natural world.
 This subject educates the students to appreciate the complexity of environmental
issues and citizens and experts in many fields.
 By studying environmental science, students may develop a breadth of the
interdisciplinary and methodological knowledge in the environmental fields that
enables them to facilitate the definition and solution of environmental problems.
1.1.4 SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
Environmental studies as a subject has a wide scope. It includes a large number of
areas and aspects, which may be summarized as follows:
 Natural resources- their conservation and management
 Ecology and Biodiversity
 Environmental pollution and control
 Human population and environment
 Social issues in relation to development and environment

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 These are the basic aspects of environmental studies which have a direct relevance
to every section of society. Several career options have emerged in these fields that are
broadly categorized as:
(i) Research and development in environment:
Skilled environmental scientists have an important role to play in examining various
environmental problems in a scientific manner and carry out R&D activities for
developing cleaner technologies and promoting sustainable development.
(ii) Green advocacy:
With increasing emphasis on implementing various Acts and Laws related to
environment, need for environmental lawyers has emerged, who should be able to
plead the cases related to water, air, forest, wildlife, pollution and control etc.
(iii) Green marketing:
While ensuring the quality of products with ISO mark, now there is an increasing
emphasis on marketing goods that are environment friendly. Such products have
ecomark or ISO 14000 certification. Environmental auditors and environmental
managers would be in great demand in the coming years.
(iv) Green media:
Environmental awareness can be spread amongst masses through mass media like
television, radio, newspaper, magazine, hoardings, advertisements etc., for which
environmentally educated persons are required.
(v) Environmental consultancy:
Many non-government organizations, industries and government bodies are
engaging environmental consultants for systematically studying and tackling
environment related problems.

1.1.5 IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

 The importance of environmental studies is that, the current trend of environmental
degradation can be reversed if people of educated communities are organized,
empowered and experts are involved in sustainable development.
 Environmental factors greatly influence every organism and their activities.

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  At present a great number of environmental issues, have grown in size and
complexity day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. These issues
are studied besides giving effective suggestions in the environment studies.
 The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of our natural resources, indiscriminate release of pollution into the
environment etc.
Environment studies have become significant for the following reasons:
1. Environment Issues being of International Importance:
It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming, ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and loss of biodiversity are not merely national
issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and
cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in The Wake of Development:
Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth,
Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become
phased out in the developed world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has,
fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ factories to South. When the West developed, it
did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of its activities. Evidently
such a path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution:
World census reflects that one in every seven persons in this plant lives in India.
Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land
area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural
experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and
organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure.
4. Need for An Alternative Solution:
It is essential, specially for developing countries to find alternative paths to an
alternative goal. We need a goal as under:
(1) A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an environmentally
sound and sustainable development.
(2) A goal common to all citizens of our earth.

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 (3) A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the over-
consuming wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need To Save Humanity From Extinction:
It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequences to our
activities cause destructing the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the
name of development.
6. Need For Wise Planning of Development:
Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the
product have all to be synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of
development. Our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the
environment and development.

1.1.6 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS

1. Growing Population: A population of over thousands of millions is growing at
2.11 per cent every year. Over 17 million people are added each year. It puts
considerable pressure on its natural resources and reduces the gains of
development. Hence, the greatest challenge before us is to limit the population
growth. Although population control does automatically lead to development, yet
the development leads to a decrease in population growth rates.
2. Poverty: India has often been described a rich land with poor people. The poverty
and environmental degradation are mixed with one another. The vast majority of
our people are directly dependent on the nature resources of the country for their
basic needs of food, fuel shelter and fodder. About 40% of our people are still
below the poverty line.
3. Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor who depend upon the
resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus, the challenge of poverty and the
challenge of environment degradation are two facets of the same challenge.
4. Agricultural Growth: The people must be made familiar with the methods to
sustain and increase agricultural growth without damaging the environment. High
yielding varieties have caused soil salinity and damage to physical structure of soil.
5. Need to Increase Ground water: It is essential of rationalizing the use of
groundwater. Factors like community wastes, industrial effluents, chemical

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 fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface water and affected quality of the
groundwater. It is essential to restore the water quality of our rivers and other
water bodies. Suitable strategies for conservation of water, provision of safe
drinking water and keeping water bodies clean should be developed.
6. Development and Forests: Forests serve catchments for the rivers. With
increasing demand of water, plan to harness the mighty river through large
irrigation projects were made. Certainly, these would submerge forests; displace
local people, damage flora and fauna. As such, the dams on the river Narmada,
Bhagirathi and elsewhere have become areas of political and scientific debate.
Forests in India have been shrinking for several centuries owing to pressures of
agriculture and other uses. Vast areas that were once green, stand today as waste
lands. These areas are to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal
communities inhabiting forests, respects the trees, birds and animals give them
sustenance. We must recognize the role of these people in restoring and conserving
forests. The modern knowledge and skills of the forest department should be
integrated with the traditional knowledge and experience of the local communities.
The strategies for the joint management of forests should be evolved in a well
planned way.
7. Degradation of Land: At present out of the total 329 mha of land, only 266 mha
possess any potential for production. Of this, 143 mha is agricultural land nearly
and 85 suffers from varying degrees of soil degradation. Of the remaining 123 mha,
40 are completely unproductive. The remaining 83 mha is classified as forest land,
of which over half is denuded to various degrees. Nearly 406 million head of
livestock have to be supported on 13 mha, or less than 4 per cent of the land
classified as pasture land, most of which is overgrazed. Thus, out of 226 mha,
about 175 mha or 66 per cent is degraded to varying degrees. Water and wind
erosion causes further degradation of almost 150 mha This degradation is to be
avoided.
8. Evil Consequences of Urbanization: Nearly 27% of Indians live in urban areas.
Urbanization and industrialization has given birth to a great number of
environmental problems. Over 30 percent of urban Indians live in slums. Out of

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 India’s 3,245 towns and cities, only 21 have partial or full sewerage and treatment
facilities. Hence, coping with rapid urbanization is a major challenge.
9. Air and water Pollution: Majority of our industrial plants are using outdated and
pollution causing technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of any provision of
treating their wastes. A great number of cities and industrial areas have been
identified as the worst in terms of air and water po llution. Acts are enforced in the
country, but their implement is not so easy. The reason is their implementation
needs great resources, technical expertise, political and social will. Again the people
are to be made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement
these rules.

1.1.7 INSTITUTIONS IN ENVIRONMENT

Managing natural resources require efficient institutions at all levels i.e. local,
national, regional and global. Among the large number of institutions that deal with
environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known organization include
government organizations like the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs like the BNHS, WWF-1, etc.
 The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai
 World Wide fund for nature- India (WWF-1), New Delhi
 Centre or science and environment (CSE), New Delhi
 C.P.R Environmental Education Centre, Madras
 Centre for Environment Education (CEE)
 Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Institute of Environment Education &
Research, Pune
 The Salim Ali Center for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON)
 Wild life Institute of India (WII), Dehradhun
 Zoological survey of India (ZSI)
 The madras Crocodile Bank Trust (MCBT)
 Botanical Survey of India (BSI)

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 1.2 NATURAL RESOURCES

1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
 Natural resources can be defined as ‘variety of goods and services provided by
nature which are necessary for our day-to-day lives’.
 Eg: Plants, animals and microbes (living or biotic part), Air, water, soil, minerals,
climate and solar energy (non- living or abiotic part).
 They are essential for the fulfillment of physiological, social, economical and cultural
needs at the individual and community levels.
1.2.2 TYPES OF NATURAL RESOURCES
They are of two types of resources namely Renewable and Non-Renewable
Resources.
1. Renewable resources: The resources that can be replenished through rapid
natural cycles are known as renewable resource. These resources are able to
increase their abundance through reproduction and utilization of simple
substances.
Ex: Plants, (crops and forests) and animals.
 Some examples of renewable resources though they do not have life cycle but
can be recycled.
Ex: Wood and wood-products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibers
(e.g. Cotton, jute, animal wool, silk and synthetic fibers) and leather.
 In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable
resources.
 Solar energy although having a finite life, as a special case, is considered as a
renewable resource in as much as solar stocks is inexhaustible on the human
scale.
2. Non renewable resources: The resources that cannot be replenished through
natural processes are known as non-renewable resources. These are available in
limited amounts, which cannot be increased. These resources include fossil fuels
(petrol, coal etc.), metals (iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc etc.), minerals
and salts (carbonates, phosphates, nitrates etc.).Once a non-renewable
resource is consumed, it is gone forever.

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  Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories, viz.
A) Recyclable and
B) Non-recyclable

A) Recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which can be collected

after they are used and can be recycled. These are mainly the non-energy
mineral resources, which occur in the earth’s crust (Ex: Ores of aluminum,
copper, mercury etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (e.g. Phosphate sock
and potassium and minerals used in their natural state (asbestos, clay, mica
etc.)
B) Non-recyclable: These are non-renewable resources, which cannot be
recycled in any way.
Ex: Fossil fuels and uranium, which provide 90 per cent of our energy
requirements
1.2.3 NATURAL RESOURCES AND ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS:
 The main problem associated with natural resources is unequal consumption.
 A major part of natural resources are consumed in the ‘developed’ world. The
‘developing nations’ also over use many resources because of their greater human
population. However, the consumption of resources per capita (per individual) of
the developed countries is up to 50 times greater than in most developing
countries.
 Advanced countries produce over 75% of global industrial waste and greenhouse
gases.
 Energy from fossil fuels consumed in relatively much greater quantities in
developed countries. Their per capita consumption of food too is much greater as
well as their waste.

1.2.4 FOREST RESOURCES

A forest can be defined as a biotic community predominant of trees, shrubs or any other
woody vegetation usually in a closed canopy. It is derived from latin word ‘foris’ means
‘outside’. India’s Forest Cover is 6,76,000 sq.km (20.55% of geographic area). Scientists
estimate that India should ideally have 33% of its land under forests. Today we only have

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 about 12% thus we need not only to protect our existing forests but also to increase our
forest cover.
1.2.4.1 FUNCTIONS OF FOREST
1. It performs very important function both to human and to nature.
2. They are habitats to millions of plants, animals and wild life.
3. They recycle rain water.
4. They remove pollutant from air.
5. They control water quality.
6. They moderate temperature and weather.
7. They influence soil condition and prevent soil erosion.

1.2.4.2 USES OF FOREST

1. Commercial uses
2. Ecological uses
1. Commercial uses:
i. Wood – used as a fuel
ii. Supply wood for various industries – Raw materials as pulp, paper, furniture
timber etc.
iii. Minor forest products – gum, dyes, resins
iv. Many plants – Medicines
v. Supply variety of animal products – honey. Ivory, horns etc.
vi. Many forest lands are used for - Mining, grazing, for dams and recreation.
2. Ecological uses: Forest provides number of environmental services.
i. Production of oxygen: Photosynthesis produces large amount of oxygen
which is essential for life.
ii. Reducing global warming: Carbon dioxide is one of the main green house
gas. It is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis. Therefore the problem of
global warming caused by CO2 is reduced.
iii. Soil conservation: Roots of trees bind the soil tightly and prevent soil
erosion. They also act as wind breaks.
iv. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Watershed in forest act like giant
sponges and slowly release the water for recharge of spring.

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 v. Pollution moderators: Forest can absorb many toxic gases and noises and
help in preventing air and noise pollution.
vi. Wild life habitat: Forest is the home of millions of wild animals and plants.

12.4.3 REASON FOR DEFICIENCY OF FOREST:

In India the minimum area of forest required to maintain good ecological balance is about
33% of total area. But at present it is only about 12%. So over exploitation of forest
material occurs.

1.2.4.4 OVER EXPLOITATION OF FOREST: Due to over population, there is an

increased demand for medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. Hence exploitation of forest
materials is going on increasing.
Cause of over exploitation:
1. Increasing agricultural production.
2. Increasing agricultural activities.
3. Increase in demand of wood resources.

1.2.4.5 DEFORESTATION: It is process of removal of forest resources due to natural

or manmade activities (i.e.) destruction of forests.
Causes of deforestation:
1. Developmental projects: Developmental projects causes deforestation through
two ways.
 Through submergence of forest area.
 Destruction of forest area.
Ex: big dams, hydro electric projects, road construction etc.
2. Mining operations: It reduces forest areas. Ex: Mica, coal, Manganese and
lime stone.
3. Raw materials for industries: Wood is an important raw material for various
purposes.
Ex: Making boxes, furniture and paper etc.
4. Fuel requirement: Wood is the important fuel for rural and tribal population.

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 5. Shifting cultivation: Replacement of natural forest ecosystem for mono specific
tree plantation. Ex: Teak
6. Forest fires: Forest fire destructs thousands of acres of forest.
7. Over grazing: Over grazing by cattle reduces the cultivation land
Consequences of deforestation (or) impacts of deforestation:
1. Economic loss
2. Loss of biodiversity
3. Destructs the habitats of various species
4. Reduction in stream flow
5. Increases the rate of global warming
6. Disruption of weather patterns and global climate
7. Degradation of soil and acceleration of the rate of soil erosion.
8. Induces and accelerates mass movement / land slides.
9. Increases flood frequency, magnitude / severity.
10.Breaks the water cycle
11.Breaks the nutrient cycle

1.2.4.6 PREVENTIVE MEASURES (OR) AVOID OF DEFORESTATION (OR)

METHODS OF CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
1. New plants of more or less of the same variety should be planted to replace the
trees cut down for timber
2. Use of wood for fuel should be discouraged.
3. Forest pests can be controlled by spraying pesticides by using aero planes
4. Forest fire must be controlled by modern techniques.
5. Over grazing by cattle must be controlled.
6. Steps should be taken by the government to discourage the migration of people
into the islands from mainland.
7. Education and awareness programmes must be conducted.
8. Strict implementation of law of Forest conservation Act.
Case study:

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 Deforestation in the Himalayan region, involves clearing of natural forests and
plantation of monoculture like Eucalyptus. Nutrient in the soil is poor; therefore soil losing
their fertility, hence, Himalayan area facing the serious problem of desertification.

1.2.4.7 MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN FORESTS

1.2.4.7.1 TIMBER EXTRACTION
Wood used for engineering purposes like building houses, making furniture is called
timber. The products derived from timber have been important to many civilizations, and
thus it has acquired value within these civilizations. Timber extraction results in
deforestation and in the fragmentation of the last remaining forests. It harms valuable
species of trees, birds and wild animals. In spite of this, it is sometimes necessary to
extract timber, so as to meet the needs of a developing country. During the extraction of
timber, cutting, felling and handling should be done selectively, carefully and in a planned
manner, in order to save the remaining forests and biodiversity.
Effects of Timber Extraction
The major effects of timber extraction on forest and tribal people include:
1. Poor logging results in a degraded forest.
2. Floods may be intensified by cutting of trees or upstream watersheds.
3. Loss of biodiversity.
4. Climatic changes such as less rains.
5. New logging roads permit shifting cultivators to gain access to logged areas
and cut the remaining trees.
6. It results in forest fragmentation which promotes loss of biodiversity because
some species of plants and animals require large continuous areas of similar
habitat to survive.
7. Exploitation of tribal people by the contractors.
8. Soil erosion especially on slopes occurs extensively.
9. Sedimentation of irrigation systems, floods may be intensified by cutting of
trees on upstream.
Case Study-Chipko Movement
The world famous Chipko Movement, pioneered by Dasohli Gram Swarajya
Mandal in Gopeshwar brought about a general awareness about conservation of forests.

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 The first Chipko Movement dates back to 1731, when a village woman named Amrita Bai
led the Bishnoi women against the Maharajas men to prevent them from cutting trees. In
this attempt to save the trees, she sacrificed her life along with the lives of her husband,
three daughters and 363 people. The movement was given this name because the village
women embraced or hugged the trees to stop them from being cut. In 1972, in Uttar
Pradesh, the Chipko Movement was led by Bachnoi Devi of Advani who protected the hill
forests from the contractors axe men.

1.2.4.7.2 DAMS
Today there are more than 45,000 large dams around the world, which play an important
role in communities and economies that harness these water resources for their economic
development. Current estimates suggest some 30-40% of irrigated land worldwide relies
on dams. Hydropower, another important the use of stored water, currently supplies 19%
of the world’s total electric power supply and is used in over 150 countries. The world’s
two most populous countries – China and India –have built around 57% of the world’s
large dams.
Dams problems
Dams are the massive artificial structures built across the rivers to store water for much
beneficial purpose.
Dams are considered a “Temples of modern India”. Dams destruct vast area of
forest area. India has more than 1600 large dams.
Effects of dams on forest:
1. Thousands of hectares of forest will be cleared.
2. Killing of wild animals and destruction of aquatic life.
3. Spreading of water borne diseases.
4. Water logging increases the salinity of the soil.
Ex: Narmadha Sagar project it has submerged 3.5 lakhs hectares of forest.
Effects of dam on tribal people
1. Construction of big dams lead to the displacement of tribal people.
2. Displacement and cultural change affects the tribal people both mentally and physically.
3. They do not accommodate the modern food habits and life style.
4. Tribal people are ill treated by the modern society.

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 5. Many of the displaced people were not recognised and resettled or compensated.
6. Body condition of tribal people will not suit with new areas and hence they will be
affected by many diseases.

Case study- Sardar Sarovar Project:

The World Bank’s withdrawal from the Sardar Sarovar Project in India in 1993 was a
result of the demands of local people threatened with the loss of their livelihoods and
homes in the submergence area. This dam in Gujarat on the Narmada has displaced
thousands of tribal folk, whose lives and livelihoods were linked to the river, the forests
and their agricultural lands. While they and the fishermen at the estuary, have lost their
homeland, rich farmers downstream will get water for agriculture. The question is why
should the local tribals be made homeless, displaced and relocated to benefit other
people? Why should the less fortunate be made to bear the costs of development for
better off farmers? It is a question of social and economic equity as well as the enormous
environmental losses, including loss of the biological diversity of the inundated forests in
the Narmada valley.

1.2.4.7.3 MINING
The process of extracting mineral resources and fossil fuels like coal from
the earth is called as mining.
Types of mining
1. Surface mining: Mining of minerals from shallow deposits
2. Underground mining: Mining of minerals from deep deposits
Steps involved in mining
1. Exploration
2. Development
3. Exploitation
4. Ore processing
5. Extraction and purification of minerals
The extent of damage by underground mining is more than that of surface mining,
which needs enormous amount of land area for its operation and management.

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 Effects of mining
1. Pollute soil, water and air.
2. Destruction of natural habitat.
3. Continuous removal of minerals leads to the formation of trench where water is
logged which contaminates the ground water.
4. Vibrations cause earth quakes.
5. Produces noise pollution
6. Reduces shape and size of the forest.
7. Increased risk of landslides.
8. Spoils the aesthetic beauty.

1.2.5 WATER RESOURCES

Water claims to be an important resource. An important use of water in our country
is for irrigation. Besides, water is also required in large amounts for industrial and
domestic consumption.
1.2.5.1 USES
 Is essential for all forms of life.
 Many uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and
environmental activities. Virtually, all of these human uses, require fresh water.
 No plant or animal species can survive without water. If water in our body drops by
1% we feel thirst, if it drops by 10% we face death.

1.2.5.2 HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE:

Water from various water bodies

Evaporated by solar energy

Enters in to the atmosphere as clouds

Falls again on earth as rain or snow

Ultimately returns to the ocean.

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 1.2.5.3 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER RESOURCES

Fresh water resources

Surface water Underground water

Standing water bodies flowing water bodies

1.2.5.3.1 UNDERGROUND WATER

Aquifer: Layers of highly permeable rock that can store water is called an aquifer. Layer
of sand and gravels are good aquifers. Clay and crystalline rocks are not good aquifers.
Effects of over utilization of water
1. Decrease of ground water:
i. Increased usage decreases the ground water.
ii. Insufficient rain fall
iii. Building construction activities sealing the permeability of the soil.
2. Ground subsidence: If ground water withdrawal is greater than it’s recharge rate,
then the sediments in the aquifers get compacted. As a result shrinkage of land surface
takes place.
Problems: a. Structural damages to the buildings
b. Fracture in pipes.
c. Reversing the flow of canals.
3. Lowering of water table: Over utilization of ground water in arid and semi arid
regions for agriculture disturbs the state of equilibrium of the hydrological cycle.
Problem: a. Lowering of water table
b. Decrease the number of aquifers
c. Change the speed and direction of water.
4. Intrusion of salt water: In coastal area over exploitation of ground water leads to
the intrusion of salt water from sea. Therefore that water cannot be used for drinking and
agriculture.

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 5. Over utilization of water causes earth quakes, landslides and famines.
6. Drying up of wells: Due to over utilization, ground water level decreases much
faster than can be regenerated. It leads to drying up of dug well and bore wells.
7. Pollution of water: Near the agricultural land ground water decreases therefore
water containing nitrogen enters into the ground and pollute the ground water.
Problem: Water which contains excess nitrate content is not suitable for drinking.

1.2.5.3.2 REASONS FOR DECLINE OF GROUND WATER

Population continues to rise at an unprecedented and unsustainable rate; many
more areas are expected to experience this imbalance in the near future.
1. Population explosion: World population is > 6 billion and will continue to increase
significantly during the next few decades - Enormous demands on the world’s limited
freshwater supply. The total annual freshwater withdrawals today are estimated at
3800 cubic kilometers, twice as much as just 50 years ago (World Commission on
Dams, 2000).
2. Overutilization of Surface and Groundwater: Occurs at various levels. Use of more
water than really needed by human beings. Many agriculturists use more water than
necessary to grow crops. Industries in order to maximize short-term economic gains,
does not bother its liquid waste and releases it into streams, rivers and the sea.
3. Deforestation: Once hill slopes are removed of forest cover, the rainwater rushes
down the rivers and is lost. Forest cover permits water to be held in the area
permitting it to seep into the ground. This charges the underground stores of water in
natural aquifers. This can be used in drought years if the stores have been filled during
a good monsoon. This soil and water management and afforestation are long-term
measures that reduce the impact of droughts. The destruction of forests influences the
regulation of natural water cycle. The removal of dense and uniform cover over the
hilly zones leads to occurrence of floods in drainage basins. Nations situated in tropical
climates including India experience disastrous floods caused by the indiscriminate
deforestation of the slopes above the valleys.
4. Hydropower generation: Large amount of water is used for generating power which
otherwise used for human needs.
5. Dams - for Agriculture and Power Generation

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 6. Rain fall: The erratic and inadequate rainfall results in reduction in storage in
subsurface reservoirs. The building construction activities are sealing the permeable
zone, reducing the area for percolation of rainwater into subsurface and increase in
surface runoff.
7. India’s increasing demand for water for intensive irrigated agriculture, for generating
electricity, and for consumption in urban and industrial centers, has been met by
creating large dams. Dams support 30 to 40% of this area.

1.2.5.4 FLOOD
It is an over flow of water. It happens when the magnitude of flow of water exceeds the
carrying capacity of the channel within its bank.
1.2.5.4.1 CAUSES OF FLOOD
1. Heavy rainfall, melting of snow and sudden release of water from dams. (Flash floods)
2. Reduction in the carrying capacity of the channel.
3. Deforestation, mining and over grazing increase the runoff from rains and the level of
flood raises.
1.2.5.4.2 EFFECT OF FLOOD
1. Water spreads in the surrounding area and submerges them.
2. Cultivated land gets affected.
3. Extinction of civilization.
1.2.5.4.3 FLOOD MANAGEMENT
1. Floods can be controlled by dams.
2. Channel management control flood.
3. Flood hazards reduced by forecasting or flood warning.
4. Flood may also be reduced by reduction of run off by increasing infiltration through
appropriate afforestation in the catchment area.

1.2.5.5 DROUGHT
Drought is nothing but scarcity of water, which occurs due to
1. Inadequate rain fall
2. Late arrival of rain fall
3. Excessive withdrawal of ground water.

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 Lack of water for the needs of agriculture, livestock, industry or human population may be
termed as a drought. Drought causes serious damages to plants, animals and human life.
1.2.5.5.1 CAUSES OF DROUGHT
1. When annual rain fall is below normal and less than evaporation, drought is created.
2. High population.
3. Intensive cropping pattern
Ex: Maharashtra - There has been no recovery from drought for the last 30
years due to over exploitation of water by sugarcane crop.
1.2.5.5.2 EFFECTS OF DROUGHT
1. Drought causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water an also changes
the quality of water.
2. Drought causes widespread crop failure leading to acute shortage of food and
adversely affects human and live stock population.
3. Worst situation of drought causes desertification.
4. Raw materials of agro based industries are critically affected during drought time,
hence industrial and commercial growth decreases.
5. Drought increases the degradation of natural resources.
6. Drought causes large migration of people and urbanization.
1.2.5.5.3 DROUGHT MANAGEMENT
1. Indigenous knowledge is essential.
2. Rain water harvesting system.
3. Construction of reservoirs to improve ground water level.
4. Modern irrigation technology (drip irrigation) very useful to conserve water.
5. Afforestration activities also improve the potential of water in the drought area.
6. Crop mixing and dry forming are the suitable methods which minimize the risk of crop
failures in dry area.

1.2.5.6 DAMS
Dams made significant contributions to human development and the benefits
derived from them have been considerable. Large dams are designed to control floods and
to help the drought prone areas, with supply of water. But large dams have proved to

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 cause severe environmental damage. Hence an attempt has been made to construct small
dams. Multiple small dams have less impact on the environment.
Benefits: Dams ensure a year round supply of water for domestic use and provide extra
water for agriculture, industries and hydropower generation.
Problems: They alter river flows, change nature’s flood control mechanisms such as
wetlands and flood plains, and destroy the lives of local people and the habitats of wild
plant and animal species, particularly is the case with mega dams.
Some of the problems are mentioned below.
 Dam construction and submersion leads to significant loss of farmland and forest and
land submergence
 Siltation of reservoirs, water logging and salination in surrounding lands reduces
agricultural productivity
 Serious impacts on ecosystems - significant and irreversible loss of species and
ecosystems, deforestation and loss of biodiversity, affects aquaculture
 Socio economic problems for example, displacement, rehabilitation and resettlement of
tribal people.
 Fragmentation and physical transformation of rivers
 Displacement of people - People living in the catchment area, lose property and
livelihood
 Impacts on lives, livelihoods, cultures and spiritual existence of indigenous and tribal
people
 Dislodging animal populations
 Disruption of fish movement and navigational activities
 Emission of green house gases due to rotting of vegetation
 Natural disasters – reservoirs induced seismicity, flash floods etc and biological
hazards due to large-scale impounding of water – increase exposure to vectorbrone
diseases, such as malaria, schistosomiasis, filariasis.

1.2.5.7 SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT

 Building several small reservoirs instead of few mega projects
 Developing small catchment dams and protecting wetlands

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  Soil management, micro-catchment development and afforestation permits recharging
of underground aquifer, thus reducing the need for large dams
 Treating and recycling municipal waste water for agricultural use.
 Preventing leakages form dams and canals and loss in municipal pipes
 Effective rainwater harvesting in urban environments
 Water conservation measures in agriculture, such as using drip irrigation, control of
growing water intensive cash crops ; control of water logging.
 Pricing water at its real value makes people use it mo re responsibility and efficiently
and reduces wastage
 In deforested areas where land has been degraded, appropriate soil management
practices, making bunds along the hill-slopes and making nalla plugs can help retain
moisture and make it possible to revegetate degraded areas
 Use waste water for activities that does not need fresh water – Recycling
 Adopt mini water harvesting models for domestic usage.
 Protect existing tanks
 Develop systematic water management and adopt strict water auditing
 “Save water Campaigns” for public awareness on water scarcity
 Through rainwater harvesting, community based participatory initiatives and holistic
watershed management.
 Responsible water usage can only be achieved by empowering local communities and
creating local accountability.
 The government should develop policies that protect water resources, promote
sustainable watershed management and invest in technologies that will increase
efficiency in irrigation, industrial usage and improve water harvesting techniques.

1.2.5.8 WATER CONFLICTS

1. Conflict through use: Unequal distribution of water led to interstate and international
disputes.
National conflicts:
a. Sharing of cauvery water between Karnataka and TamilNadu.
b. Sharing of Krishna water between Karnataka and Andrapradesh
c. Siruvani – TamilNadu and Kerala

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 International conflicts:
Indus – India and Pakistan & Colorado river – Mexico and USA

1.2.6 MINERAL RESOURCES

Naturally occurring inorganic crystalline solids with uniform chemical composition are
called as minerals.
1.2.6.1 USES AND EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS
1. Development of industrial plants and machinery. - Fe, Al & Cu
2. Construction work – Fe, Al &Ni
3. Generation of energy - coal, lignite, uranium
4. Designing defense equipments like weapons and o rnaments
5. Agricultural purposes – fertilizers and fungicides – Zn & Mn
6. Jewellery –Au, Ag & Pt
7. Making alloys for various purposes
8. Communication purposes – telephone, wires, cables and electronic devices
9. Medicinal purposes, particularly in ayurvedic system

1.2.6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGES CAUSED BY MINING ACTIVITIES

1. Devegetation:
 Topsoil and vegetation get removed
 Deforestation leads to several ecological losses
 Land scape gets badly affected
2. Ground water contamination: Mining pollutes ground water; sulphur is converted
into sulphuric acid which enters into the soil.
3. Surface water pollution: Radioactive wastes and other acidic impurities affect the
surface water, which kills many aquatic animals.
4. Air pollution: Smelting and roasting are done to purify the metal which emits air
pollutants and damage the nearby vegetation. It causes many health problems.
5. Subsidence of land: Mainly underground mining results in cracks in houses, tilting of
buildings and bending of rail tracks.

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 1.2.6.3 EFFECTS OF OVER EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS
1. Rapid depletion of mineral deposits
2. Wastage
3. Environmental pollution
4. Needs heavy energy requirements.

1.2.6.4 MANAGEMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES

1. The efficient use and protection of mineral resources.
2. Modernization of mining industries
3. Search for new deposit
4. Reuse and recycling of the metals.
5. Environmental impacts can be minimized by adopting eco friendly mining
technology.

1.2.6.5 CASE STUDIES-MINING AND QUARRYING IN UDAIPUR

200 open cast mining and quarrying in Udaipur. But 100 mines are illegal. 150 tons of
explosives are used per month. It pollutes air, soil and water. It affects irrigation and wild
life.

1.2.7 FOOD RESOURCES

Food is an essential requirement for survival of life. Main components are carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, minerals and vitamins.

1.2.7.1 TYPES OF FOOD SUPPLY

1. Crop plants: Grains mostly constitute about 76% of the world’s food.
Ex: Rice, Wheat and Maize
2. Range lands: Produces 17% of world’s food from trees and grazing animals.
Ex: Fruits, milk and meat
3. Ocean: Fisheries – 7% of world’s food

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 1.2.7.2 WORLD FOOD PROBLEM
1. In the earth’s surface, 79% is water out of total area. 21% land (forest, desert,
mountain and barren land) . Less % cultivated land, at the same time population
explosion is high therefore world food problem arises.
2. Environmental degradation like soil erosion, water logging, water pollution, salinity
affects agricultural land.
3. Urbanization affects agricultural land. Hence production of rice, wheat, corn and
other vegetable is difficult.

1.2.7.3 TYPES OF NUTRITION

1. Nutritious nutrition: To maintain good health and disease resistance, we need large
amount of carbohydrate, proteins, fats and smaller amount of micronutrients such as
vitamins and minerals such as Fe, Ca and iodine. Food and agricultural organization (FAO)
of United Nations estimated that on an average, the minimum calorie intake on a global
state is 2500 calories/day.
2. Under nutrition: People who cannot buy enough food to meet their basic energy
needs suffer from under nutrition. They receive less than 90% of this minimum dietary
calorie.
Effect of under nutrition: Suffer from mental retardation and infectious diseases.
3. Mal nutrition: Besides minimum calorie intake we also need proteins, minerals,
vitamins, iron and iodine. Deficiency leads to malnutrition resulting in several diseases.
Effect of mal nutrition:
S.No Deficiency of nutrients Effects
1 Protein Growth
2 Iron Anemia
3 Iodine Goiter
4 Vitamin – A Blindness

India 3 rd largest producer of crops, nearly 300 million Indians are still under nourished.
World food summit 1996: The world food summit, 1996 has set the goal to reduce the
number of under nourished and mal nourished people to just half by 2015.

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 1.2.7.4 OVER GRAZING
It is a process of eating the forest vegetation without giving a chance to regenerate.

1.2.7.4.1 EFFECTS OF OVER GRAZING

1. Land degradation
 Over grazing removing the cover of vegetation
 Exposed soil gets compacted
 Soil moisture reduces.
 Desertification - OG leads to poor, dry and compacted soil.
 Land cannot be used for further cultivation.
2. Soil erosion: When the grasses are removed the soil becomes loose and gets eroded
by the action of wind and rain fall.
3. Loss of useful species: OG affects the plant population and their regenerating
capacity. OG replace the plant of high nutritive value with plant of low nutritive value.

1.2.7.5 AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is an art, science and industry of managing the growth of plants animals for
human use. It includes cultivation of the soil, growing and harvesting crops, breeding and
raising livestock, dairying and forestry.
1.2.7.5.1 TYPES OF AGRICULTURE
1. Traditional agriculture
2. Modern (or) industrialised agriculture
1. Traditional agriculture
Small plot, simple tools, surface water, organic fertilizer and a mixture of crops constitute
traditional agriculture. They produce enough food to feed their family and to sell it for
their income.
2. Modern agriculture
Hybrid seeds of single crop variety, high tech equipments, lot of fertilisers, pesticides and
water to produce large amount of single crops.
1.2.7.5.2 EFFECTS OF MODERN AGRICULTURE
1. Problems in using fertilizers

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 a. Excess of fertilizers causes micronutrient imbalance. (e.g) Punjab and
Haryana deficiency of nutrient zinc in the soil affect the productivity of the
soil.
b. Blue baby syndrome (nitrate pollution): Nitrate present in the fertilizer
causes blue baby syndrome, when the amount exceeds the limit leads to
death.
c. Eutrophication: Nitrogen and phosphorus in the crop fields washed out by
runoff water in the water bodies, which increases the nourishment of the
lakes called eutrophication. Hence algal species increases rapidly. Life time of
the species is less and they decompose easily and pollute the water which
affects the aquatic life.
2. Problems in using pesticides
1. Death of non target organism.
2. Producing new pest – super pest
3. Bio magnification – Most of the pesticides are non bio degradable, keep on
concentrating in the food chain and it is harmful to human beings.
4. Risk of cancer:
a. It directly acts as carcinogen
b. It indirectly supports immune system.
3. Water logging: Land where water stand for most of the year.
Causes of water logging:
1. Excessive water supply
2. Heavy rain
3. Poor drainage
Remedy:
1. Preventing excessive irrigation
2. Subsurface drainage technology
3. Bio drainage like trees like Eucalyptus
1.2.7.6 CASE STUDY- PESTICIDES IN INDIA
In Delhi the accumulation of pesticide in the body of mother causes premature
delivery and low birth weight infant.

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 Pesticides in Pepsi and Coca Cola India has reported that Pepsi and coca cola
companies are selling soft drinks with pesticide content 30-40 times higher than EU limits.
This damages the nervous system,.

1.2.8 ENERGY RESOURCES

1.2.8.1 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION IN THE WORLD
 Developed countries like USA and Canada constitute only 5% of the world’s population
but consume 25% of the world’s available energy.
 Energy consumed by a person in a developed country for a single day is equal to
energy consumed by a single person in a poor country for one year.
 Developed country GNP increases and energy consumption increases. In the poor
country GNP and energy consumption are less.
1.2.8.2 TYPES OF ENERGY RESOURCES:
1. Renewable energy resource (or)Non conventional energy resources
2. Non renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources
1.2.8.2.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES: Energy which can be regenerated.
Merits of renewable energy resources
1. Unlimited supply
2. Provides energy security.
3. Fits into sustainable development concept.
4. Reliable and the devices are modular in size.
5. Decentralized energy production.
Types of renewable energy resources
1. Solar energy: Nuclear fusion reaction of sun produces enormous amount of energy.
Several techniques are available for collecting, storing and using solar energy.
a. Solar cell (or) Photovoltaic cell (or) PV cell:
 Solar cell consists of p- type semi conductor (Si doped with B) and n-type
semi conductor (Si doped with P). P-type forms top layer and n-type forms
bottom layer.
 Solar rays fall on the top layer, the electrons from valence band promoted to
the conduction band which crosses the p-n junction into n-type semi

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 conductor. Potential difference between the two layers is created which
causes flow of electrons.

Uses: It is used in calculators, electronic watches, street light, water pumps etc.

b. Solar battery: Large number of solar cells connected in series is called solar
battery. It is used in remote areas where continuous power supply is a
problem.
c. Solar water heater: It consists of insulated box painted with black paint
with glass lid. Inside the box black painted copper coil is present. Cold water
is allowed to flow, it is heated up and flows out into a storage tank from
which water is supplied through pipes.
2. Wind energy: Moving air is called wind. The energy recovered from the force of the
wind is called wind energy It’s speed is high.
a. Wind mills: When a blowing wind strikes the blade of the wind mill, it
rotates continuously. And rotational motion of the blade drives number of
machines like water pump, flour mills and electric generators.
b. Wind farms: When a large number of mills are installed and joined together
in a definite pattern – it forms wind farm. It produces large amount of
electricity.
Condition: Minimum speed for wind generator is 15 Km/hr
Advantages:
1. It does not cause air pollution
2. Very cheap

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 3. Ocean energy:
Tidal energy (or) Tidal power: Ocean tides are due to gravitational force of sun and
moon which produce enormous amount of energy. High tides – rise of water in the ocean.
Low tides – fall of water in the ocean. Tidal energy can be used by constructing a tidal
barrage. During high tides sea water enters into the reservoirs and rotates the turbine,
produce electricity. During low tides water from reservoir enters into the sea rotate the
turbine produce electricity.
Ocean thermal energy:
Temperature difference between surface water and deeper level water in ocean generates
electricity. The energy available due to the difference in temperature of water is called
ocean thermal energy.
Condition: Temperature difference should be 200C.
Process: Ammonia is converted into vapours on the surface of warm water, it increases
the vapour pressure which rotate the turbine and generates electricity. Deeper level cold
water is pumped to cool and condense the vapour in to liquid.
3. Geo thermal energy: Temperature of the earth increases at a of 20 –750C per/km
when we move down the earth. The energy ut ilised from the high temperature present
inside the earth is called geothermal energy.
Natural geysers: Hot water or steam comes out of the ground through cracks naturally
is called natural geysers.
Artificial geysers: Artificially a drill hole up to the hot region and by sending a pipe into
it. The hot water or steam is used to rotate the turbine and generate electricity.
4. Bio mass energy:
Bio mass: Organic matter produced by plants or animals used as source of energy
Bio gas: Mixture of methane, carbondioxide and hydrogen sulphide. Methane is the major
constituent. It is obtained by anerobic fermentation of animal dung (or) plant wastes in
the presence of water.

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 Bio fuels: Fuels obtained by the fermentation of biomass.
Ex: Ethanol, methanol
Ethanol: Produced from sugar cane. Calorific value is less.
Methanol: Obtained from ethanol Calorific value too less.
Gasohol: Mixture of ethanol and gasoline India trial is going on to use gasohol in cars and
buses.
Hydrogen fuel: Hydrogen produced by pyrolysis, photolysis and electrolysis of water. It
has high calorific value. Non polluting one because the combustion product is water.
Disadvantages:
1. Hydrogen is highly inflammable and explosive.
2. Safe handling is required.
3. Difficult to store and transport.
1.2.8.2.2 NON RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES:
Energy which cannot be regenerated is called as non-renewable.
1. Coal: It is a solid fossil fuel.
Disadvantages:
1. When coal is burnt large amount of CO2 is released which causes global
warming.
2. S, N produces toxic gases during burning.
2. Petroleum: Crude oil is a liquid consists of more than hundreds of hydrocarbons and
small amount of impurities. The petroleum can be refined by fractional distillation. In
the world level 25% of oil reserves are in Saudi Arabia. At present rate of usage, the
world crude oil reserves are expected to get exhausted in just 40 years.

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 3. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): Petroleum gases obtained during FD and cracking
can be easily converted into liquid under high pressure as LPG. It is colorless and
odorless gas, but during cylindering mercaptans are added to detect leakage.
4. Natural gas: These are found above oil in oil wells. It is a mixture of methane and
other hydrocarbons. Calorific value is high. There are two types. Dry gas and wet gas.
5. Nuclear energy: Dr.H.Bhabha is a father of nuclear power development in India. 10
nuclear reactors are present in India. It produces 2% of India’s electricity. Nuclear
energy can be produced by two types of reactions. Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fission; It is a nuclear change in which heavier nucleus split into lighter
nuclei on bombardment of fast moving neutrons. Large amount of energy is released
through chain reaction.
Ex: Uranium with fast moving neutron gives barium and krypton in addition to three
neutrons; in the second stage it gives nine neutrons and so on. This process of
propagation of the reaction by multiplication is called chain reaction.
Nuclear fission: It is a nuclear change in which lighter nucleus is combined together
at extremely high temperature (1 billion 0C) to form heavier nucleus and a large
amount of energy is released.
Ex: Isotopes of hydrogen combine to form helium molecule.

1.2.8.9 CASE STUDY

Wind energy in India: India generating 1200 MW electricity using the wind energy.
Largest wind farm situated near Kanyakumari in Tamilnadu. It produces 380 MW
electricity.
Hydrogen fuel car: General motor company of china discovered a experimental car ( fuel
H2) can produce no emission only water droplets and vapors come out of the exhaust
pipe. This car will be commercially available by 2010.

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 CHAPTER-2
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
Concepts of an Ecosystem – Structure and Function of an Ecosystem – Producers,
Consumers and Decomposers – Energy Flow in the Ecosystem – Ecological
Succession – Food Chains, Food Webs and Ecological Pyramids – Introduction,
Types, Characteristic Features, Structure and Function of the (A) Forest Ecosystem
(B) Grassland Ecosystem (C) Desert Ecosystem (D) Aquatic Ecosystems (Ponds,
Streams, Lakes, Rivers, Oceans, Estuaries)
BIODIVERSITY Introduction to Biodiversity – Definition: Genetic, Species and
Ecosystem Diversity – Biogeographical Classification of India – Value of
Biodiversity: Consumptive Use, Productive Use, Social, Ethical, Aesthetic and Option
Values – Biodiversity at Global, National and Local Levels – India as a Mega-
Diversity Nation – Hot-Spots of Biodiversity – Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat Loss,
Poaching of Wildlife, Man-Wildlife Conflicts – endangered and Endemic Species of
India – Conservation of Biodiversity: In-Situ and Ex-Situ conservation of
Biodiversity. Field Study of Common Plants, Insects and Birds.

2.1 ECOSYSTEMS
2.1.1INTRODUCTION:
ECOLOGY:
 The term was first coined by Hons Reiter and Haekel in 1869.
 The term ecology (Okekologie) is originated from two Greek words Oikos (eco) –
means “house” (or) place of living and “ology” means “the science of (or) the study of.
Hence, ecology is the branch of science that deals with the study of the pattern of
relations between the organism and their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of interactions among organisms (or) group of organisms with
their environment.
(OR)
 Ecology is the study of ecosystems.
ECO SYSTEM:
 In 1935, the British ecologist A.G.Tansley coined the term “eco system”.

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  The term “eco system” is made up of two Greek words. “Eco” means ecological
sphere (or) house (or) place of living (or) surroundings (or) Environment, w here living
organism does exist while “system” means “group of organisms joined in regular and
interdependent manner. Hence,
 A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with environment is known as
ecosystem.
(OR)
 A system of interaction of organisms with their surroundings (i.e., environment) is
called as “ecosystem”.
Examples: Pond, lake, ocean, forest and desert…. Etc are some of the examples of the
ecosystems.

2.1.2 FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOLOGY

STRUCTURE:
 Living /Biotic
 Non-Living /Abiotitic
PROCESS:
 Energy flow
 Cycling of matter
CHANGE:
 Dynamic (Not static)
 Succession etc.
FUNCTION:
 Food chain
 Food web
 Ecological pyramids
 Energy Flow
 Cycling of matter

2.1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM

 Eco system is the basic functional unit of ecology.
 It contains both biotic and abiotic components.

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  The function of ecosystem is related to the cycling of matter (materials) and flow of
energy.
 The amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure.
 Ecosystem passes from a less complex state to more complex state, which is called as
“ecological succession”.

2.1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM:

 The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types:
1. Natural Ecosystem
2. Artificial Eco system
1. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM:
 A natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature.
 These are capable of operating and maintaining themselves without any major
interference by man.
 The following are the two types of natural ecosystem based on their habitat.
1. Terrestrial Ecosystem.
2. Aquatic Ecosystem.
1) Terrestrial Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to land.
Examples: Grassland ecosystem.
Forest ecosystem, and
Desert ecosystem etc.
2) Aquatic Ecosystem:
 This ecosystem is related to water, it is further sub divided into two types
based on salt content.
i. Fresh Water Ecosystem:
a. Running Water Ecosystems
Examples: Rivers, streams (small narrow rivers)
b. Standing Water Ecosystems
Examples: Pond, lake & well, etc
ii. Marine Ecosystem:
Examples: seas and sea shores <land along the edges of sea>

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 2. MAN MADE (OR) ARTIFICIAL ECOSYSTEM:
An artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples: Reservoirs, Artificial lakes and gardens, etc.
2.1.5 STRUCTURE (OR) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The term structure refers to various components. So, the structure of an
ecosystem explains the relationship between the abiotic (non-living) and the
biotic (living) components.
 Each and every ecosystem has two major components are:
1. Biotic (living) components.
2. Abiotic (Non-living) components.

Biotic
Components

Eco System

Abiotic
Components

Fig: Components Of Ecosystem

1. Biotic Components: The living component of an ecosystem is called “Biotic

component”.
Examples: Plants (Producers)

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 Animals (Consumers) and
Micro Organisms (Decomposers)
 The biotic components of an ecosystem are classified into three types based on how
they get their food.

A. Producers (Autotrophs) : Plants

B. Consumers (Heterotrophs) : Animals
C. Decomposers (Saprotrophs) : Micro organisms.

A. Producers (or) Autotrophs (Auto=self, troph=feeder)

 Self food producing organisms are known as autotrophs.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
 Producers synthesize their food themselves through photosynthesis. Hence
they are also called “Photo autotrophs”. (photo = light)
B. Consumers (or) Heterotrophs (Hetero = other, troph = feeder:
 Consumers are organisms, which cannot prepare their own food and depend
directly (or) indirectly on the producers.
Examples: Plant Eating Species: Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.
Animals Eating Species: Fish, lions, tigers, etc.
 Depending upon the food habits the consumers are divided into four types.
i. Herbivores (or) Primary Consumers (Plant Eaters)
ii. Carnivores (or) Secondary Consumers (Meat Eaters)
iii. Omnivores (or) Tertiary Consumers (With plant & meat eaters)
iv. Detritivores (dead organism eaters)

i. Herbivores: (Herbi = the green plant & Vorare = to devour)

 Animals that eat only plants are called Herbivores.
 They directly depend on the plants for their food. So they are called Plant
eaters.
Examples: Insects, goat, deer, cow, horse, etc.
ii. Carnivores: (Carne = flesh meat & Vorare = to devour)
 Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

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  They directly depend on the herbivores for their food.
Examples: Frog, cat, snake & foxes, etc.
iii. Omnivores: (Omni = whole comes from “ohm” & Vorare = to
devour)
 Animals that eat both plants and animals are called omnivores.
 They depend on both herbivores and carnivores for their food.
Examples: humans, tigers, lions, rats and fox etc.
iv. Detritivores: (Detritifeeder)
 Animals that eat dead organisms and waste of living are called detritivores.
Examples: beetles, termites, ants, crabs, earthworms, etc.
C. Decomposers (or) Saptrotrophs: (Sapros = Rotten, trophos = feeder)
 Decomposers attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and
decompose them into simple compounds. During the decomposition inorganic
nutrients are released.
 The organisms which break down the complex compounds into simple
products are called decomposers (or) reducers.
Examples: micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi, etc.
2. Abiotic Components:
 The non-living component of an ecosystem is called “abiotic component”
 These non-living components enter the body of living organism, take part in
metabolic activities and then return to the environment. The abiotic
component of the ecosystems divided into three portions.
1. Climate factors : Solar radiation, temperature, wind, water current,
rainfall, etc.
2. Physical factors : light, fire, soil, air, etc.
3. Chemical factors : Organic and Inorganic substances.

Chemical Factors

Organic Substances Inorganic Substances

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 2.1.6 FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM:
 The function of an ecosystem is related to the cycling of materials (matter) and flow of
energy.
2.6.1 Types of functions:
 Functions of an ecosystem are of three types:
1. Primary Function: The producers (plants) can make their food themselves
through photosynthesis. This process is called primary function of eco system.
Examples: All green plants and trees.
2. Secondary Function: The consumers (animals and humans) cannot make their
own food. They are always depending upon the producers for their energy. This
is called secondary function of eco system.
3. Tertiary Function: Decomposers attack the dead bodies of consumers and
producers and decompose them into simpler compounds. During the
decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
Examples: Micro organisms like bacteria and fungi, etc.
The functioning of an ecosystem may be understood by studying the following
terms:
A. Food chains
B. Food webs
C. Food pyramids (or) Energy pyramids
D. Energy and material flow.
A. Food Chain:
 Anything which we eat to live is called food.
 Food contains energy.
 Food can be transferred from one organism to the other.
 The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of
organisms is called as “food chain”.
 A food chain always starts with a plant life and end with animal life. Thus,
a food chain is a picture (or) model that shows the flow of energy from
autotrophs (producers) to series of organisms in an environment, as
shown in the following figure.

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 Producers Herbivores Carnivores Omnivores Decomposer
SUN

Figure: Schematic representation of food chain.

 Infact, all the food chains starts with the sun. The sun provides energy for
plants.
 The producers (plants) can make their food themselves with the help of
the sunlight, chlorophyll, water and air. The consumers, including animals
and humans, cannot make their own food. They are always depending
upon the producers for their energy.
 Decomposers are the micro-organisms that break down the dead animals
and plants and release nutrients that become part of the soil, which are
re-used by new plants, back to the starting point of the food chain.
Types of food chain:
Three basic types of food chains are found in a typical eco system. They are:
1. Grazing food chains.
2. Detritus food chains.
3. Parasitic food chains.
1. Grazing food chains:
 Grazing food chain starts with green plants (producers) and goes to
decomposer food chain (or) detritus food chain through herbivores and
carnivores.
 It has two types :
a. Terrestrial food chain and
b. Aquatic food chain
a. Terrestrial food chain: Food chain on land is called terrestrial food chain.
Example: Grassland food chain
Forest land food chain
Desert land food chain
Grass land food chain
Grasses Grasshoppers Frog Snake Eagles
Forest food chain

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 Green plants Deer Tiger (or) lion
b. Aquatic food chain : This food chain is slightly different from terrestrial
food chain. It is seen in aquatic (water) eco system. Food chain in water is
called “Aquatic food chain”.
Example: Marine food chain Example: Ocean
Fresh water food chain Example: Pond, lake, streams, etc.
Food chain in a pond
Phytoplankton Zoo Plankton Small fish Large fish Man
Marine Food chain:
Sea Weeds Small fish Large fish Sharks and other animals

Figure:

Food chain

Grazing food chain Detritus food chain Parasite food chain

Terrestrial food chain Aquatic food chain

Marine food chain Fresh water food chain

Standing water food chain Running water food chain

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 2. Detritus’ food chain: Detritus food chain starts with dead organic matter
(plants and animals) and goes to decomposer through consumers. Detritus food
chains, independent of solar energy, but they depend on influx of dead organic
matter.
Example:
Dead Plants Soil mitts Algae Crabs Small fish Large
fish
3. Parasitic food chain: Parasitic food chain operates in many ecosystems. In this
food chain either consumer (or) producer is parasitized and the food passes to
smaller organisms. A parasitic food chain involves host parasite hyper parasites’
links.
Example: Trees Fruit eating birds Lice & Bugs Bacteria Fungi

B. Food Web:
 Web means “network” such as spider’s web, World Wide Web (WWW) etc.
 So, food web is a network of food chains.
 In a food web many food chains are inter connected, where different types of
organisms are connected at different tropic levels, so that there are a number of
options of eating and being eaten at each tropic level. Thus, there is a inter
connecting of various food chains are called food webs and as shown in following
figure.

Bird(Eagle)
Snake
Fish

Insect

Frog Grass

Grasshopper

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 Figure: Food Web
Sparrow

Hawk

Snake Insect

Mouse

Cat Lizard

Grain Grass

This food web shows many linear food chains <as shown in figure>. These linear food
chains are inter connected with other food chains operating in the eco system to form a
food web. The grazing food chains are as follows:
 Grains Mouse Cat
 Grains Mouse Hawk
 Grains Mouse Snake Hawk
 Grains Insect Sparrow Hawk
 Grass Insect Lizard Snake Hawk
 Grass Insect Sparrow Snake Hawk
The above food web is a simple one. Much more complex food webs do exist in nature.
C. Ecological Pyramids:
 The concept of ecological pyramids was first developed by British ecologist Charles
Elton in 1927.
 Ecological pyramids are the diagrammatic representation of tropic structures in which
the tropic levels (i.e., tiers) are depicted in successive stages.
 An ecological pyramid is shown in the following figure.

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 Apex

Tertiary Consumers (Omnivores)

Decrease in number (or) Biomass (or) Energy

Secondary Consumers
(Carnivores)

Primary Consumers
(Herbivores)

Producers

Base

Figure: Formation of an Ecological Pyramid

 In ecological pyramids, tropic levels are shown in the following manner:

i. The producers represent first tropic level in the ecological pyramid.
ii. The herbivores (or) primary consumers represent second tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iii. The carnivores (or) secondary consumers represent third tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.
iv. The omnivores (or) tertiary consumers represent fourth tropic level in the
ecological pyramid.

 On the basis of the number of organisms, the biomass of organisms and energy flow in
organist population. Three types of ecological pyramids are:
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy.

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 1. Pyramid of numbers:
 It shows the number of individual organisms present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in numbers per unit area.
 Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have three types of pyramid of numbers.
a. Upright pyramid of numbers.
b. Partly upright pyramid of numbers.
c. Inverted pyramid of numbers.

1. Upright Pyramid of numbers:

 The number of individual organisms gradually decreases from lower tropic
level to higher tropic level is called “upright pyramid of numbers”.
Example: A grassland ecosystem and a pond ecosystem show an upright
pyramid of numbers.
 The producers in the grass lands are grasses, which are small in size and
large in numbers. So, producers occupy lower tropic level (1 s t tropic level).
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are rats, which occupy the II tropic
level. Since the numbers of rats are lower when compared to the grasses,
the size of which is lower.
 The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the III
tropic level. Since the numbers of snakes are lower when compared to the
rats, the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are eagles, which occupy the IV tropic
level. The number and size of the last tropic level is lowest <as shown in
figure>.
 Similarly, in the case of pond ecosystem, producers, herbivores and
carnivores are decreases from lower tropic level to the higher tropic level.
Thus, these pyramids are upright.
 Therefore, the numbers of individual organisms permit area, decreases from
lower tropic level to higher tropic level as shown in figure.

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 Apex

Large Tertiary Consumers

Fish
Distance in Number

Secondary Consumers
Small Fish

Primary Consumers
Zoo Plankton Ex: Protozoa
In Number

Producers
Phytoplankton (Algae)

Base

Large Fish Tertiary Consumers

Small Fish Secondary Consumers

Zoo Plankton
Ex: Protozoa Primary Consumers

Phytoplankton (Algae) Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in an aquatic (pond) ecosystem

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 2. Partially Upright Pyramid Of Numbers:
 A forest eco system is an example of partially upright pyramid.
 In a forest eco system, big trees are the producers, which are less number.
So, these producers occupy the lower tropic level which is narrow base.
 The primary consumers (herbivores) are birds, insects, which occupy the II
tropic level. Since the number of birds, insects and other species are higher
when compared to the trees, the size of which is broader.
 The secondary consumers (Carnivores) are fox, snakes, lizards, which occupy
the third tropic level. Since the number of fox, snakes are lower when
compared to the birds, insects the size of which is lower.
 The tertiary consumers (omnivores) are lion, tiger, which occupy the IV
tropic level. Since the number of lion, tiger are lower when compared to the
fox and snakes the size of which is very (or) narrow lower. So the pyramid is
narrow on both sides and broader in the middle and hence it is called
partially upright of number as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
Lion,
Tiger

Snakes, Secondary Consumers

Foxes

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees

Producers

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 Lion, Tiger Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary Consumers

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees Producers

Figure: Pyramid of numbers in the forest ecosystem

3. Inverted Pyramid Of Numbers:

The number of individual organisms gradually increases from lower tropic level to higher
tropic level, is known as “inverted pyramid of numbers”.
Example: Parasitic food chain shows as inverted pyramid of number as shown in the
following figure.

Hyper parasites-Fleas, Microbes

Tertiary Consumers

Parasites, Lice & Bugs Secondary Consumers

Birds
Primary Consumers

Trees
Producers

2. Pyramid of Biomass:
 It represents the total amount of biomass (mass (or) weight of biological
material (or) organism) present in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in gram per unit area.

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  Depending upon the type of ecosystem, we have two types of pyramid of
biomass.
i. Upright pyramid of biomass.
ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass.
i. Upright Pyramid Of Biomass:
 The pyramid of biomass gradually decreases from the produce level (or) first
tropic level to consumer level (higher tropic level) is called “upright pyramid of
biomass”
 A forest ecosystem showed an upright pyramid of biomass.
 In this ecosystem, the biomass decreases from the producer level to consumer
levels (as shown in figure)

Apex

Lion- Tertiary Consumers

10kgs
Distance in Number

Snakes,
Secondary Consumers
fox- 100kgs

Insects, Birds- Primary Consumers

1000kgs
In Number

Trees-10000kgs Producers

Base

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 Lion, Tiger Tertiary Consumers

Snakes, Foxes
Secondary Consumers

Insects, Birds Primary Consumers

Trees Producers

ii. Inverted pyramid of biomass:

 The pyramid of biomass gradually increases from producer level to consumer
level are called as Inverted pyramid of biomass.
 Example: The pond ecosystem shows an inverted pyramid of biomass.
 In this, ecosystem, the biomass increases from producer level to consumer
levels as shown in the following figure.

Big fish
Tertiary Consumers

Small fish Secondary Consumers

Insect
s Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

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 Big fish Tertiary Consumers

Small fish
Secondary Consumers

Insects Primary Consumers

Algae
Producers

Figure: Pyramid of biomass in pond (eco system)

3. Pyramid of Energy:
 It represents the amount of flow of energy in each tropic level.
 It is expressed in calories per unit area per year.
 In an eco system, the energy flows from producer level to the consumer level.
At each successive tropic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in
the form of heat, respiration, etc. Thus, at each next higher level only 10% of
the energy passes on. Hence, there is a sharp decrease in energy at each and
every producer to omnivores (or) top carnivores. Therefore, the pyramid of
energy is always upright as shown in figure.

Tertiary Consumers
Decrease in Energy

5 Kcals

50 K cals Secondary Consumers

500 K Cals Primary Consumers

In Number

5000 K cals Producers

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 5 K Cals Tertiary Consumers

50 K cals
Secondary Consumers

500 k cals Primary Consumers

5000 K cals Producers

2.1.7 MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS

2.1.7.1 FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Definition: It is a natural ecosystem consisting of dense growth of trees and wild
animals
Types:
1. Tropical – deciduous, evergreen, wet green
2. Littoral and swamps
3. Sub tropical
Characteristics:
Abiotic: soil, sun light, temperature etc
Biotic : forest trees, shrubs and animals
Structure:
Producer : Trees and shrubs
Consumer : Primary – elephants, deer etc.
Secondary – snakes, birds, lizards etc
Tertiary – lions, tigers etc
Decomposers : fungi, bacteria
2.1.7.2 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Definition:
Deals with water bodies and biotic communities present in them-Classified as fresh
water and marine ecosystems. Fresh water systems are classified as lentic and lotic
ecosystems.

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 Types:
A. Pond ecosystem: Small fresh water ecosystem – seasonal in nature –
organisms: algae, aquatic plants, insects, fishes etc. Ponds are very often
exposed to anthropogenic pressure like cloth washing, bathing, cattle bathing,
swimming etc.
B. Lake ecosystem: Big fresh water ecosystem – Zonation or stratification,
especially during summer is a common one.
Top layer – shallow, warm, prone to anthropogenic activities – Littoral zone
Second layer – enough sunlight, high primary productivity – Limnetic zone
Third layer – very poor or no sunlight – Profundal zone
Eg. Dal lake in Srinagar, Naini lake in Nainital
Organisms:
1. Planktons – phytoplankton eg. Algae – zooplankton eg. Rotifers
2. Nektons – that swims in water eg. Fishes
3. Neustons – that float on the surface of water Benthos – that attached
to sediments eg. Snails
Types of lakes : Many types
1. Oligotrophic lakes – with less nutrient content
2. Eutrophic lakes – with very high nutrient content due to fertilizer
contamination
3. Desert salt lakes – that contains high saline water due to over
evaporation
4. Volcanic lakes – formed by water emitted from magma due to volcanic
eruptions
5. Dystrophic lakes – that contains highly acidic water (low pH)
6. Endemic lakes – lakes that contain many endemic species, etc.

C. Streams: fresh water ecosystem where water current plays a major role.
Oxygen and nutrient content are uniform. Stream organisms have to face
extreme difference in climatic conditions but they do not suffer from oxygen
deficiency as pond and lake organisms. This is because large surface area of
running water provides more oxygen supply. The animals have very narrow

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 range of tolerance towards oxygen deficiency. Thus stream are worst victims of
industrial pollution.
D. River ecosystem: large streams flowing from mountain highlands are rivers.
 Three phases:
1. Mountain highlands – rushing down water fall of water – large quantity of
dissolved oxygen – plants attached to rocks and fishes that require more
oxygen are found.
2. Second phase – gentle slopes of hills – warmer – supports the growth of
plants and fishes that require less oxygen are seen.
3. Third phase: river shapes the land – lots of silts, nutrients are brought –
deposited in plains and delta – very rich in biodiversity.

E. Oceans: Gigantic reservoirs of water covering >70% of earth surface –

2,50,000 species – huge variety of sea products, drugs etc. – provide Fe, Mg,
oils, natural gas, sand etc. – major sinks of carbon di oxide – regulate
biochemical cycles.
 Two zones:
1. coastal zone – warm, nutrient rich, shallow – high sunlight – high primary
productivity.
2. Open sea – away from continental shelf – vertically divided in to 3 zones.
 Euphotic zone – abundant sunlight
 Bathyal zone – dim sunlight
 Abyssal zone – dark zone – world’s largest ecological unit.

F. Estuary: coastal area where river meet ocean – strongly affected by tidal
actions – very rich in nutrients – very rich in biodiversity also – organisms are
highly tolerant – many species are endemic – high food productivity – however
to be protected from pollution.
Characteristics:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: pH, nutrients, D.O, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: Phytoplankton, fishes, snails insects, birds, etc.

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 2.1.7.3 GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:
Dominated by grass – few shrubs and trees are also found – rainfall average but erratic –
overgrazing leads to desertification.
Three types – depending on the climate
a. Tropical grass lands – found near the boarders of tropical rain forests. Eg.
Savannas in Africa. Animals – Zebra, giraffes etc. – fires are common in dry
seasons – termite mounds produce methane – leads to fire – high in
photosynthesis – deliberate burning leads to release of high CO2 – global
warming.
b. Temperate grasslands – flat and gentle slopes of hills. Very cold winter and
very hot summer - dry summer fires do not allow shrubs and trees to grow –
soil is quite fertile – cleaned for agriculture.
c. Polar grasslands – found in arctic polar region – organism – arctic wolf, fox,
etc. – A thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil surface throughout the
year – known as permafrost – summer insects and birds appear.
Components:
Structural Components:
Abiotic: soil pH, nutrients, soil moisture, temp, climatic conditions, etc.
Biotic: grass, caterpillar, butterfly, worms, insects, birds, etc.

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