Brain (Nervous System)

Structure & Function of

Neuron
Physiological Psychology and
Pharmacology
 Nervous system

 Nervous system is composed of specialized cells that

work together to transmit signals and coordinate bodily
functions.
 ◦ The adult human brain weighs an average of 1.4 kg, or
about 2 percent of the total body weight.
 ◦ Despite this relatively small mass, the brain contains
approximately 100 billion neurons.
 ◦ Functioning as a unit, these neurons make up the most
complex and highly organized structure on Earth.
Nervous System

It is the master

controlling and
communicating
system of the body -
CONTROLS and
COORDINATES ALL
ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS
of the Human Body.
 Functions of the Nervous System

 SENSORY FUNCTION: Nervous system uses its millions of sensory

receptors to monitor changes occurring both inside and outside
of the body. Those changes are called STIMULI, and the
gathered information is called Sensory Input.
 INTEGRATIVE FUNCTION: The Nervous System process and
interprets the sensory input ad makes decisions about what
should be done at each moment—a process called Integration.
 MOTOR FUNCTION: The Nervous System then sends information
to muscles, glands, and organs (effectors) so they can respond
correctly, such as muscular contraction or glandular secretions.
Organization of Nervous System
 Central Nervous System
 The CNS is the core of the nervous system, including the brain and
spinal cord.
Location:
 The brain is encased within the skull, and the spinal cord is protected
by the vertebral column.
Functions:
 The CNS is responsible for:
 Receiving sensory information: The CNS receives signals from the
body's sensory organs, such as eyes, ears, and skin.
 Processing information: The CNS analyzes and interprets the sensory
input.
 Responding with motor output: The CNS sends signals to muscles and
glands to initiate actions.
Meninges

 The meninges are the three layers of tissue that cover and protect the brain
and spinal cord.
Dura Mater:
 The outermost and toughest layer, composed of dense connective tissue,
that adheres to the inner surface of the skull and vertebrae.
Arachnoid Mater:
 A thin, web-like middle layer filled with cerebrospinal fluid that cushions the
brain.
Pia Mater:
 The innermost, delicate layer that directly adheres to the surface of the
brain and spinal cord.
Meninges Related Psychological
Disorders
Meningitis (inflammation of the meninges, often due to infection) can lead to:
 Confusion, delirium, or disorientation
 Hallucinations and psychosis (especially in severe cases)
Meningiomas (tumors in the meninges) can cause:
 Mood changes, depression, or apathy
 Personality shifts (especially if affecting the frontal lobe)
 Psychotic symptoms (delusions, hallucinations in rare cases)
Subarachnoid Hemorrhage and Psychological Effects
 Bleeding in the space between the meninges can result in:
 Cognitive deficits and emotional instability
 Brain
The brain is responsible for complex
functions like thought, memory,
learning, and emotions
 Human Brain is divided into 3 main
parts on the basis of their function
and placements
The 3 main parts of Human Brain are ;
1. Fore Brain
2. Mid Brain
3. Hind Brain
 FORE BRAIN
The forebrain plays a central role in the
processing of information related to complex
cognitive activities, sensory and associative
functions, and voluntary motor activities. It
represents one of the three major
developmental divisions of the brain.
Position: It is the anterior part of the brain
It has 3 parts
1. Cerebrum
2. Thalamus
3. Limbic System
 CEREBRUM
 cerebrum is the largest part of your brain, and it
handles a wide range of responsibilities. Located at the
front and top of your skull, it gets its name from the
Latin word meaning “brain.”
Structure:
Cerebral Cortex
cerebral cortex, is mostly smooth but has many
wrinkles, making it look something like a walnut without
its shell. It’s divided lengthwise into two halves, the left
and right hemisphere, by a deep groove.
Hemispheres:
 two hemispheres: the right and left, connected by the
corpus callosum, a bundle of nerve fibers.
Lobes:
 Each hemisphere contains four lobes: frontal, parietal,
temporal, and occipital.
 Functions of the Cerebrum

Conscious Thoughts and Actions:

 The cerebrum is the seat of our conscious awareness, allowing us to
think, plan, and act.
Higher-Level Functions:
 Language: Understanding and producing speech.
 Memory: Forming and retrieving memories.
 Reasoning and Problem-Solving: Analyzing information and making
decisions.
 Sensory Processing: Interpreting sensory information from the world
around us (sight, sound, touch, etc.).
 Motor Control: Initiating and coordinating voluntary movements.
 Emotions and Personality: Regulating emotions and contributing to
personality.
 Hemispheric Specialization

 The cerebrum is divided into two

hemispheres: the left and right,
with the right hemisphere
controlling the left side of the
body and the left hemisphere
controlling the right side. into two
hemispheres: the left and right.
Corpus Callosum:
 The two hemispheres are
connected by a thick band of
nerve fibers called the corpus
callosum, which allows
communication between them
 Lobes
The two hemispheres of your brain also have 4 main lobes each:
 Frontal (at the front of your head). This lobe handles things like attention,
behavior control (your sense of what’s appropriate and what’s not), the
ability to speak and certain types of muscle movements.
 Parietal (at the top of your head). This area handles touch, temperature and
pain signals. It also helps with how you see the world around you, especially
judging distance from and the size of objects. It also plays a role in
processing sound, languages you speak, your ability to use numbers and
count, and how you organize information and make decisions.
 Temporal (at the side of your head). This area helps you understand
language when other people are speaking. It also helps you recognize
people and objects. This part also helps you connect emotions with
memories.
 Occipital (at the back of your head). This lobe manages much of your eyes’
sensory input, including the ability to see movement and colors.
 Position: It is located above the brain stem and
between the cerebral cortex and mid-brain.
 The thalamus is a paired, egg-shaped
structure situated in the center of the brain,
specifically within the diencephalon.
 The thalamus surrounds the third ventricle, a
fluid-filled space in the brain.
It is composed of multiple nuclei, each with a
specific function.
Function: It carries sensory information from the
body to Cerebrum and The Limbic System
 LIMBIC SYSTEM
 Structure: It is arc shaped structure between thalamus and
cerebrum
 The limbic system is one of the oldest structures of your
brain. It produces natural instincts that your ancestors used
to survive by triggering behaviors needed to:
 Eat and drink.
 Reproduce.
 Care for young.
 React to surroundings (fight or flight response).
 There are many components to your limbic system that give
it a lot of responsibilities. For example, it helps manage your
memories and helps you learn from them. It also helps keep
you stimulated and motivated.
 MID-BRAIN
 The midbrain, also called the mesencephalon,
is a part of the brainstem located below the
cerebral cortex and at the top of the brainstem,
playing a crucial role in motor movement,
vision, hearing, and the sleep/wake cycle.
 Location: The midbrain is the most superior
region of the brainstem, situated between the
forebrain (cerebrum) and the hindbrain (pons
and medulla oblongata).
 Development: It develops from the
mesencephalon during embryonic
development.
 Functions:
•Motor Control:
The midbrain plays a vital role in coordinating body movements, including those related to vision
and hearing.
•Sensory Processing:
It acts as a relay station for visual and auditory information, transmitting signals to higher brain
regions.
•Sleep-Wake Cycle:
The midbrain contributes to regulating the sleep-wake cycle and arousal levels.
•Pain Modulation:
The PAG in the tegmentum plays a role in descending modulation of pain.
•Cranial Nerve Nuclei:
The midbrain contains the nuclei of the oculomotor (CN III) and trochlear (CN IV) cranial nerves,
which control eye movements.
•Reticular Formation:
The midbrain reticular formation is part of a larger network in the brainstem that regulates basic
autonomic functions, including attention, consciousness, and sleep.
Position: It is present at the
backside of the Brain.

Most of the 12 cranial nerves are

found in the hindbrain.

Parts: It consists of
1. Cerebellum
2. Pons
3. Medulla Oblongata
 CEREBELLUM

Location and Structure:

 The cerebellum is situated at the base
of the brain, under the cerebrum and
posterior to the spinal cord.
 It's a relatively small but neuron-rich
structure, containing a large
percentage of the brain's neurons.
 The cerebellum is connected to the
brainstem via three cerebellar
peduncles (superior, middle, and
inferior).
Functions of CEREBELLUM

 Motor Control:
The cerebellum plays a vital role in coordinating voluntary movements,
ensuring smooth and accurate execution.
 Balance and Posture:
It helps maintain balance and posture by receiving sensory input from
the body's sensory receptors and integrating it with motor commands.
 Motor Learning:
The cerebellum is critical in motor learning, allowing individuals to
refine and improve their movements over time.
 Cognitive and Emotional Functions:
Emerging research suggests that the cerebellum also plays a role in
some cognitive, linguistic, and emotional functions.
 PONS
 pons is the second-lowest section of
your brainstem, just above your medulla
oblongata. It forms a key connection
between your brain above it and your
medulla oblongata and spinal
cord below it.
Function
 Your pons is a part of your brainstem,
which links your brain to your spinal cord.
That makes your pons a vital section of
your nervous system, providing a route for
signals to travel to and from your brain.
Several neurotransmitters in your pons
facilitate brain function, particularly sleep.
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA
Location:
 The medulla oblongata is located at the base of the
skull, where the brainstem connects to the spinal
cord.
Function:
 It plays a vital role in regulating essential bodily
functions, including:
 Respiration: Controls the rate and depth of breathing.
 Heart Rate: Regulates heart rate and blood pressure.
 Swallowing and Vomiting: Involved in reflexes like
swallowing, coughing, and vomiting.
 Sensory and Motor Pathways: Acts as a relay station
for sensory information from the body to the brain and
motor commands from the brain to the body.
 SPINAL CORD
 The spinal cord is a vital part of the central
nervous system, a cylindrical column of
nerve tissue that extends from the brainstem
down the spine, carrying messages between
the brain and the rest of the body.
Location:
 The spinal cord is housed within the vertebral
canal, a protective bony structure formed
by the vertebrae (backbones).
Length:
 In adults, the spinal cord typically extends to
the first or second lumbar vertebra (L1-L2).
 Function
Conduction:
 The spinal cord serves as a major pathway for transmitting
signals between the brain and the rest of the body.
Reflexes:
 It also plays a role in coordinating reflexes, which are
automatic, involuntary responses to stimuli.
Motor Control:
 The spinal cord transmits motor signals from the brain to control
muscles and movement.
Sensory Input:
 It receives sensory information from the body and relays it to
the brain for processing.
 Peripheral Nervous System

peripheral nervous system (PNS) is that part of your

nervous system that lies outside your brain and
spinal cord. It plays key role in both sending
information from different areas of your body back
to your brain, as well as carrying out commands
from your brain to various parts of your body.
peripheral nerves

 The peripheral nerves can be classified into three main

types:
 Sensory (Afferent) Nerves – Transmit sensory information
(pain, temperature, touch) from the body to the CNS.
 Motor (Efferent) Nerves – Control voluntary and
involuntary muscle movements by transmitting signals
from the CNS to muscles.
 Autonomic Nerves – Regulate involuntary functions like
heart rate, digestion, and breathing.
Peripheral Nerve Disorders

 Peripheral Neuropathy – Damage causing numbness,

tingling, weakness (e.g., diabetes, toxins).
 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – Compression of the median
nerve in the wrist.
 Sciatica – Pain due to irritation of the sciatic nerve.
 Guillain-Barré Syndrome – Autoimmune attack on
peripheral nerves leading to weakness.
 Bell's Palsy – Temporary paralysis of the facial nerve.
peripheral nervous system

peripheral nervous system has two main

subsystems: autonomic and somatic.
Autonomic: These are nervous system processes
your brain runs automatically and without you
thinking about them.
Somatic: These are functions you manage by
thinking about them.
 Somatic Nervous System
 The Somatic Nervous System (SNS) is a part of the
peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls
voluntary movements and sensory information
processing. It is responsible for transmitting signals
between the central nervous system (CNS) (brain
and spinal cord) and the skeletal muscles.
Somatic Nervous System

• Allows us to consciously, or voluntarily, control our

skeletal muscles. SMS is often referred to as the voluntary
nervous system, however, skeletal muscle reflexes are
also initiated involuntarily by fibers of this same
subdivision.
• Senses: Your PNS is a key part of how your brain gets
information about the world around you. This job falls under
the somatic nervous system.
• Movement: Your peripheral nerves deliver command signals
to all the muscles in your body that you can consciously
control. This job also falls under the somatic nervous system.
•.

Components of the Somatic Nervous

System
•Sensory (Afferent) Neurons – Carry sensory information (touch, pain,
temperature, etc.) from the body to the CNS.
•Motor (Efferent) Neurons – Transmit motor commands from the CNS to
skeletal muscles, enabling voluntary movements.
•Cranial and Spinal Nerves – These nerves connect different body parts to
the CNS
•Functions of the Somatic Nervous System
 Controls voluntary movements, such as walking, writing, or
speaking.
 Relays sensory information (touch, pain, temperature) to the brain.
 Reflex actions (like pulling your hand away from a hot surface)
involve somatic pathways.
Autonomic Nervous System
Regulates events that are automatic, or involuntary,
such as the activity of smooth muscles and glands.
This subdivision is commonly called the involuntary
nervous system.
 Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous
System

 Sympathetic Nervous System ("Fight or Flight")

 Prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations.
 Increases heart rate, dilates pupils, releases adrenaline, and redirects
blood to muscles.
 Example: When you feel scared, your heart races and breathing
quickens.
 Parasympathetic Nervous System ("Rest and Digest")
 Promotes relaxation and conserves energy.
 Slows heart rate, stimulates digestion, and lowers blood pressure.
 Example: After eating, your body focuses on digestion, and you feel
relaxed.
Sympathetic Nervous System
The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for
"fight or flight
 Parasympathetic Nervous System

It is the “housekeeping”

system and is in control most
of the time.
Function: Promotes "rest and
digest" functions, calming the
body and restoring it to a
normal state after stress or
activity.
Nervous system

The nervous system comprises of two groups of

cells,
 glial cells
 neurones
 Neurons

Neurons are the structural and

functional unit of the nervous system.
Neurons are the fundamental units of
the nervous system, responsible for
transmitting electrical and chemical
signals.
 Structure of Neurons

A typical neuron consists of:

Cell Body (Soma)
Dendrites
Axon
Axon Terminals (Synaptic Boutons)
Schwann cells
Nodes of Ranvier
Myelin Sheath
 Structure of Neuron

Cell Body (Soma)

 The central part of the neuron containing the nucleus, mitochondria,
and other organelles necessary for cell function.
 Integrates incoming signals and maintains cell function.
Dendrites
 Multiple, branching extensions that receive electrical signals from
other neurons at synapses
 they act like "antennae"
 collecting information and transmitting it towards the cell body.
 Structure of Neuron
Axon
 A long, slender projection that carries signals away from the soma.
 Covered by the myelin sheath in some neurons, which speeds up
signal transmission.
Axon Terminal
 The end of the axon, where neurotransmitters are released to transmit
signals across the synapse to the next neuron.
Myelin Sheath
 A fatty layer that insulates the axon, allowing for faster transmission of
electrical signals.
 Structure of Neuron

Nodes of Ranvier
 Gaps in the myelin sheath where ion exchange occurs.
 Facilitate rapid signal conduction via saltatory
conduction.
Schwann cells
 These insulate the axon with myelin sheath which
facilitates the rapid transmission of action potentials
along the axon.
Once the information hits
the terminal, it is
transmitted outside the
cell by neurotransmitters,
which reside in the axon
terminal.
 Synaptic transmission
The Synapse is the space between neurons
The synaptic gap or cleft

• Information must be transmitted across the

synapse to other neurons via the
neurotransmitters.

• This is an electrochemical process

 __________

Presynaptic Neuron

________

________

____________

________________________
 Functions of Neurons
Signal Reception:
 Dendrites receive electrical signals from other neurons at synapses,
converting chemical signals into electrical impulses.
Signal Integration:
 The cell body processes the incoming signals from dendrites and decides
whether to generate an electrical signal (action potential).
Signal Transmission:
 The axon conducts the electrical impulse generated by the cell body to the
axon terminal.
Neurotransmitter Release:
 At the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft,
which then bind to receptors on the receiving neuron, transmitting the signal
further.
 Types of Neurons
Classification Based on Function
Sensory Neurons Interneurons (Association Motor Neurons
Neurons)

Transmit sensory information  Interneurons are neural • play a role in the movement,
from receptors (e.g., skin, eyes, intermediaries found in your including voluntary and
ears) to the central nervous brain and spinal cord. involuntary movements.
system (CNS). They’re the most common • These neurons allow the brain
Detect stimuli such as touch, type of neuron. and spinal cord to
temperature, pain, light, and  They pass signals from sensory communicate with muscles,
sound. neurons and other organs, and glands all over
Found in sensory organs and interneurons to motor the body.
peripheral nerves. neurons and other
interneurons. Often, they
form complex circuits that
help you to react to external
stimuli.
 Classification Based on Structure
Unipolar Neurons Bipolar Neurons Multipolar Neurons Pseudounipolar
Neurons
 Have a single  Have one axon  Have one axon  Similar to unipolar
extension that splits and one and multiple neurons but
into two branches: originate as
one leading to the
dendrite. dendrites. bipolar neurons
CNS and the other during
to the peripheral  Found in  The most development.
body. specialized common type in
 Found in sensory sensory organs, the CNS.  Found in the
neurons of the dorsal root
peripheral nervous
such as the ganglia of the
system (PNS). retina (eyes)  Found in motor spinal cord
and olfactory neurons and (sensory neurons).
system (nose). interneurons.
Bipolar(a) - Unipolar(b) Neurons

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MULTIPOLAR
 Neurotransmitters

 Neurotransmitters are chemical substances that reside

in the axon terminals
 They communicate to other neurons by binding to
receptors on neighboring neurons
 The communication between neurons is chemical
 Neurotransmitter are either neutralized by an enzyme
or taken back up by the neuron that released it in
reuptake.
 At least 50 different types of neurotransmitters have
been identifie
 Synaptic Transmission
 The neurotransmitters are released from the vesicles and then
attach to receptors located on the postsynaptic neuron.
 These neurotransmitters are in contact with the dendrite of the
postsynaptic neuron only briefly.
 The chemical is almost immediately destroyed or reabsorbed
 Let’s Review!
Neurotransmitter Function Example Disorders

Acetylcholine (ACh) Muscle movement, memory Alzheimer’s disease

Reward, motivation, Parkinson’s,

Dopamine movement schizophrenia

Serotonin Mood, sleep, appetite Depression, anxiety

GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric
Acid)
Inhibitory (calming) effect Epilepsy, anxiety

Excitatory (learning &

Glutamate memory)
Stroke, neurotoxicity
 Drugs Impact on the Brain
 Common drugs can •Mimicking neurotransmitters
alter the amount of a
neurotransmitter
(e.g., heroin mimics endorphins).
released at the •Flooding the brain with
synapses dopamine (e.g., cocaine,
 Some drugs can methamphetamine).
mimic/facilitate the •Blocking neurotransmitter
action of the
neurotransmitters while reabsorption (e.g.,
others can block the antidepressants or stimulants).
action of the •Altering brain plasticity (e.g.,
neurotransmitter.
long-term cannabis use affecting
memory)
 Agonists versus Antagonists

Agonists mimic or facilitate the actions of a

neurotransmitter
Antagonists oppose/block the actions of a
neurotransmitter

Agonist Antagonist
 Effects of Specific Drugs on the Brain
Stimulants (Cocaine, Meth, ADHD Medications) Opioids (Heroin, Fentanyl, Prescription
 Increase dopamine, leading to euphoria Painkillers)
and energy.  Bind to opioid receptors, blocking pain
and producing pleasure.
 Overuse can deplete dopamine stores,
leading to depression and cognitive issues.  Can slow breathing, leading to overdose
deaths.
 Can cause long-term changes in brain
circuits, impairing impulse control.  Long-term use rewires pain pathways,
increasing dependence.
Depressants (Alcohol, Benzodiazepines,
Cannabis (Marijuana, THC-based products)
Barbiturates)
 Alters cannabinoid receptors, affecting
 Enhance GABA, slowing brain activity and mood, memory, and coordination.
causing relaxation.
 Can impair short-term memory and
 Chronic use can shrink brain regions, cognitive function with heavy use.
impairing memory and decision-making.
 May have medical benefits for pain and
 Withdrawal can be dangerous, leading to anxiety.
seizures or death.
Long-Term Consequences
 Addiction & Dependence: Drugs hijack the brain’s reward system,
making natural rewards less satisfying.
 Mental Health Issues: Increased risk of anxiety, depression, and
psychosis.
 Cognitive Decline: Memory loss, reduced decision-making abilities,
and lower impulse control.
 Brain Damage: Some drugs, like methamphetamine or alcohol, can
cause permanent brain damage.
Recovery & Healing
 The brain has some ability to recover, but prolonged drug use can
cause irreversible damage.
 Neuroplasticity helps the brain rewire itself over time with abstinence
and therapy.
 Medications, behavioral therapy, and lifestyle changes aid in
recovery.