GENDER ISSUE IN PSYCHOLOGY
Theories
of Gender
LESSON 9,10,11
presented by 165, 135, 171, 136
Nature and Nurture
Debate
Gender development influenced by biological
(nature) and environmental (nurture) factors.
Nature: Inborn traits (e.g., hormones, brain
structure).
Nurture: Experiences, learning, socialization.
Most psychologists agree both play a role in gender
development.
Example: A boy may be biologically more active
(nature), but whether he plays with trucks or dolls can
depend on cultural influences (nurture).
Biological Approach
Focuses on biological differences (chromosomes, hormones).
Maccoby & Jacklin: Male/female behavioral differences linked to biology.
Emphasizes that gender role differences result from biological processes.
Differences in chromosomes (XX in females, XY in males) and hormones
(testosterone/estrogen) determine behavioral differences.
Males are more aggressive across cultures, and male children have a
higher mortality rate.
Androgen hormones are linked to disruptive and aggressive behaviors in
males.
Biological Differences
in the Brain
* Men's left brain is more developed (logical, abstract, and analytic
thinking). * Women's right brain is more developed (imaginative, artistic,
holistic, intuitive thinking, visual and spatial tasks).
This approach acknowledges the importance of cultural differences,
cognitive processes, and sex stereotypes in the development of gender
roles.
Behavioral/Social Learning
Approach
Gender role development is learned through conditioning and modeling.
Children are rewarded for gender-appropriate behavior and punished for gender-
inappropriate behavior.
Through operant conditioning, children learn that certain behaviors are more acceptable
for their gender.
Example: A boy might be rewarded for playing with trucks but discouraged from playing
with dolls.
Behavioral/Social Learning Approach
Observational learning: Children imitate same-sex role models (parents, siblings,
peers, media figures).
Bandura (1977) emphasized that children learn gender roles through observation
and imitation.
Children observe and imitate a wide range of behaviors, including those that society
deems gender-appropriate.
Social and cultural contexts play a significant role in shaping gender roles.
Children learn from various sources like parents, teachers, peers, and the media,
which can reinforce stereotypes.
CognitiveApproach
to Gender Roles
Focuses on thought processes underlying learning.
Emphasizes the importance of cognition (knowledge and the process of
knowing) in understanding and explaining behavior.
Gives importance to the internal states of the person as well as the
environmental events; however, thinking and perception are key factors.
Cognitive approach emphasizes thoughts, feelings, thinking, values, and
expectations.
People's thinking determines how they perceive the world and how they act
upon those perceptions
The Cognitive Approach
The theory proposes the interaction of mental schema and social experience in
directing gender role behavior.
The cognitive approach focuses on the child's understanding, which refers to how
he/she perceives and tackles a phenomenon.
Information about gender is organized into sets of beliefs about the sexes, i.e.,
gender schema.
Gender schema (plural schemata or schemas): A mental framework that organizes
and guides a child understands information relevant to gender.
Example: Information about which toys are for girls and which toys are for boys
forms a schema that guides behavior.
A child who has seen women being respected in his family will perceive women as
respectable beings, and vice versa.
Lawrence Kohlberg's
Cognitive Development
01.
Gender Identity (2–3 years):
Recognizing oneself as male or
Theory female
Children understand gender as they understand anything
else.
02.
Children have experiences with people of both genders, Gender Stability (around 4 years):
think about their experiences, make mental notes of what Understanding that gender is
males and females do, and adopt behaviors of their own stable over time.
sex.
Children do their own gender typing, classifying
themselves and others as male or female, and organize
their behaviors around this classification. Gender Constancy (around 6–7 years):
Gender roles are organized around this classification, and
children adopt behaviors consistent with their gender,
03. Realizing that gender is consistent
across situations, even if appearance or
behavior changes.
reflected in their use of language, clothes, toys, etc.
Lawrence Kohlberg's Cognitive
Development Theory
Gender roles are organized around this classification, and children adopt behaviors
consistent with their gender, reflected in their use of language, clothes, toys, etc.
According to Kohlberg, gender rules are acquired through gender constancy, i.e., a
child's understanding and awareness that his/her sex is permanent, constant, and
will never change.
Gender constancy is also known as sex category constancy in modern literature.
Gender-appropriate behaviors are adopted after realizing that sex is a permanent
feature of personality.
Gender constancy emerges between 3 and 7 years of age and is the key to gender
typing, according to Kohlberg.
Gender schema theory
"A schema is a mentally organized network of gender-related
information that influences behavior" (Papalia et al. 2001).
Gender schema: A mental framework that organizes a child's
understanding of gender-relevant information.
Example: Beliefs about which toys are for girls and boys form a
schema that guides behavior.
Gender schema theory
According to the theory:
Children develop a simplified concept of male-female distinctions (Bem, 1989,
1993).
Children learn their own sex and develop a concept of what it means to be male
or female in their culture, taking on gender roles.
Observations of men and women (e.g., clothing, toys) are organized around the
gender schema.
Example: A child observes that mothers cook and fathers fix appliances, leading
to a schema that household chores are for women and tougher tasks are for men.
Gender schemata influence judgments and promote gender stereotypes.
Gender Identity:
A person’s internal sense of being male, female, or
Gender
something else.
Develops early in childhood, often solidified by age 3.
Gender Stereotypes:
Oversimplified and generalized beliefs about how males Identity,
and females are "supposed" to behave.
Influenced by culture, family, peers, and media.
Examples: "Boys are strong," "Girls are nurturing."
stereotypes
Gender Consistency:
The understanding that gender remains the same even if and
consistency
external characteristics (e.g., clothing, behavior) change.
Develops around age 6–7 as part of Kohlberg’s gender
development stages.
Essential for internalizing gender roles and behaving in
gender-consistent ways.
Learning of Gender
Roles by
Preschoolers
Preschoolers think concretely, not logically; they rely on
appearance to judge gender.
They see males and females as opposites and form rigid gender
stereotypes.
Gender concepts are static and egocentric at this stage (Bem, 1989, 1993).
Children develop a gender script and fit experiences into it (Levy & Fivush,
1993).
Given neutral toys, they first decide if it’s for boys or girls, then choose
based on that (Martin et al., 1995).
Self-Socialization Process
By the age of 5 to 6, children come to understand that their gender is permanent and
will not change over time. This realization plays a key role in shaping their sense of
identity.
Once they recognize their gender, children begin to value and prefer behaviors that are
associated with it. They develop a desire to act in ways that match what they believe is
appropriate for boys or girls.
According to Geis (1993), children are not just passive recipients of social norms—they
actively observe their surroundings and try to align their behavior with cultural gender
expectations. This self-directed effort helps reinforce their gender identity, even
without direct reinforcement from others.
Theories of gender development:
Psychodynamic Approach
Developed by Sigmund Freud; focuses on unconscious drives and early childhood
experiences.
Gender identity forms through the resolution of the Oedipus complex (boys) and
Electra complex (girls) during the phallic stage (around ages 3–6).
Boys develop gender identity by identifying with their father to resolve unconscious
desire for the mother.
Girls experience "penis envy" and identify with the mother to resolve feelings of
rivalry.
Gender development is influenced by the child’s relationship with parents,
emotional conflicts, and internal resolutions.
Karen Horney's Perspective:
Horney disagreed with Freud's concept of "penis envy."
She proposed that men experience "womb envy" and feel inadequate due to
their inability to reproduce.
According to Horney, men seek and struggle for achievement because they
are trying to overcompensate for the lack of ability to reproduce.
In comparison to women, men feel inadequate, and as a result, attribute evil
to women.
In order to deal with their feeling of inferiority, men need to feel more
adequate, for which they see women as inferior.
Karen Horney's Perspective:
Men's feelings of resentment result in attempts to weaken women and
leave women with feelings of inferiority and insecurity.
Unlike Freud, Horney believed that females' inferiority had its origin in male
insecurity; she disagreed with Freud over the idea that females feel inferior
because of a perceived physical inferiority.
Horney emphasized men's behavior and a society with masculine biases
that generates females' inferiority.
Chodorow's Theory:
Early Childhood Experiences
Focuses on early childhood experiences with mothers, especially the pre-Oedipal
stage.
Children of both genders initially identify with their mothers.
Girls maintain a close relationship → Develop a feminine identity.
Chodorow challenges Freud’s views on gender inequality.
Emphasizes mother-child interactions over anatomical differences.
Boys must separate from their mothers to form a masculine identity.
Chodorow's Theory:
Gender Identity Formation
Most children are primarily raised by mothers, shaping gendered development.
Infants are unaware of sex differences, but mothers treat boys and girls
differently.
Girls continue identifying with their mothers → smoother gender identity
formation.
Boys undergo a difficult separation → may reject femininity and develop mistrust.
This separation affects boys' personalities:
→ Fear of femininity
→ Emotional distance
Chodorow suggests men’s devaluation of women stems from this early mother-
son
separation.
Thank
you very
much!
Presented by 165, 135, 171, 136
