Field Methods

Module 1: RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

● Modern psychology needs to be appreciated with an understanding of the research

methods that make psychology what it is
● The research process that helped generate many intriguing ideas about the nature of
people and society are increasingly part of one’s understanding of psychology.

Deanne Baumsrind’s Parenting Styles (Derived many responses from many parents)
Process of how she made Parenting styles:
Responses with same theme (r1, r2, r3)
Quantitative analysis through surveys
Category 5

Oedipal Complex (Sigmund Freud)

● How did he arrived at this answer? Through: Self re ection, stories of his patient

We have to know the research behind it.

We are research psychologists and social scientists. (Academics)

How would you de ne the word FRIEND…

Regular Person-same hobbies, someone who I have in common. (Subjective de nition)

Businessman- A person that I can rely in terms of nancial advise (Partnership/trade) (Subj)
Researcher-An academic companion who I share the same idea or collegue. (De nes
something objectively, based on available literature, there is a citation)

Operationalize- Trying to de ne a variable (objective)

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As research psychologists, we have to think like scientists
● Reading- what is the literature out there? (Reading studies to learn concepts)
● Evaluating Evidence- how were the conclusions derived?
● Inferring Causality (Cause and effect or relationship)

1. Does not state which is which (Left side) Does not specify the cause and effect but only
the correlation. NO CONCLUSION BUT THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP/ASSOCIATION
(Pearson Correlation)
2. Speci es which is the causal variable (Cause and effect) IV and DV are given (Spe c).
INFLUENCE/EFFECT (THERE IS A CAUSALITY). Sense of self affects high levels of
sense of purpose among adult learners in TECHVOC program.

3 Main reasons when causality cannot be de nitively concluded:

1. when variables are assessed once and at precisely the same time, we would not know
which of these two came rst.
2. The studied 'effect’ may have actually preceded the studied ‘cause'
3. The relationship between both variables may be the result of the in uence of a third
factor.

FORMS OF KNOWING
1. Experience
● Personal experiences, as well as the experiences of friends and familiy, are powerful
sources of information. Flaws: has no comparison group, experience is confounded
2. Intuition
● The use of our hunches about what seems “natural” or attempting to think about things
“Logically”. Cognitive Biases, con rmation bias, and bias blind spot.
3. Authority
● People- even those we trust- make claims as if they are facts (People of authority)

4. Empirical Research
●
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Research Topic: The Effect of Serial Position and Colors on Memory Recall
IV: Serial Position: Primacy and Recency Color: Postive, Negative (2x2) factorial design
DV: Memory Recall
Target Population: STELA students except psychology students (10 students per condition=
40)

OD DV: Number of correct recalled words (written to validate accuracy)

OD IV: Monosyllabic words measured by (HAL) (hyperspace analog to language)
Colors:
Positive-Yellow
Negative-Red

Duration: 2 sec. Per word

Between Subjects: To avoid carry over effect, and mental exhaustion
No. Words: 15 words
1. Main Effect of Serial Position
● Alternative Hypothesis (H): There is a signi cant difference in memory recall between
the Primacy and Recency positions.
2. Main Effect of Color
● Alternative Hypothesis (H): There is a signi cant difference in memory recall across the
different color conditions (Positive, Negative).
3. Interaction Effect between Serial Position and Color
● Alternative Hypothesis (H): The effect of Serial Position on memory recall depends on
the Color condition; there is an interaction between Serial Position and Color.
Statistical Method: 2 way ANOVA (2 IV’s using between-subjects)

Defend why it make sense to do this research:

It can improve study methods/techniques
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“Psychological Mechanisms of Beauty Bias: The Role of Pretty Privilege in Shaping rst
Impressions"

Pretty Privilege: Based on an article from Forbes (2023), Mark Travers stated that “Pretty
privilege award signi cant societal advantages to individuals deemed as conventionally
attractive”
First Impressions: According to APA (2018), It is the initial perception, judgments, and
attitudes formed by others about an individual based on observed characteristics, speci cally
physical appearance.
Qualitative data collection: interviews

how beauty bias shapes social impressions in various contexts?

Concepts:
Halo or fork tail effect
Positivity Bias
Con ict theory
Intersectionality

Why should the study be done?

We often heard about the saying “Don’t judge the book by its cover,” but most of the time we
make initial judgements based on the outlook appearance of a Person. The primary goal of
this study is to contribute to the understanding of privilege by examining how physical
appearance grants certain individuals advantages while disadvantaging others.
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Based on a research by Delmage (2022), it shows that individuals deemed more physically
attractive are often viewed more positively and treated better than those considered less
attractive. society.

According to Yonce in 2014, physical attractiveness was framed as a type of privilege by

investigating how those perceived as attractive experience unearned advantages in society.
This study will analyze the reasons and mechanisms behind these advantages through the
lenses of intersectionality and con ict theory.

Vignette Study
Short scenarios in written or pictorial form, intended to elicit themes during analysis.

Lecture: August 19, 2024

Theories and Types of Designs

Theory- set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to
one another. (guiding principles that oversee a particular nature)
Ex. Harlow’s Theory (Note: Read it for graded recit)
Hypothesis- Prediction, the speci c outcome the researcher expects to observe. (Gives
birth to a theory) Not yet proven.
Data-Set of observations. (Numerical value) meaningless if you have not interpreted it yet.
May support or challenge the theory.

Statistical Hypothesis (Null or Alternative)- we don’t use it in research, for statistical treatment
only.
Hypothesis-based on what you’ve read. What you think is gonna happen.
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 Theory Data Cycle

Ex. Kohlberge’s Moral Development

Pre-conventional- young reward-punishment driven AUTHORITY based
Post-based on your understanding (Self based)
conventional- external ethics (What is acceptable or not) Societal Based
Example Question: Under which stage is cultural morality exhibited?
Cultural Morality- based on culture
Research Design: One way
IV- Stages of Moral Development
DV-Cultural Morality (How to quantify?: ex. Degree with which you agree) 1-100 scale
Which of these stages wouldd produce a high degree of cultural morality?
Hypothesis: The conventional stage produce the highest degree of cultural moral among the
three.
Gathering of Data: Observation
ex. 3 mountain stash (Asking which mountain is the highest)

Types of Research Design (The way which you plan the research)

Correlation or Cross-sectional Design

● In here, a number of different variables are measured more or less simultaneously for a
sample of individuals. The strategy is to examine the extent to which these variables
measured are associated (that is, correlated) with one another. (measure 2-3 variables at
a single time)
● Like taking a picture of a place in that moment only ( after 10 years) Comparison
● measuring variables at one point in time.

Statistical Measurements of Correlation

Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coef cient (Pearson’s R)

● Measures: Linear Relationship between two continuous variables (Ex. IQ and Income)

Spearman’s Rank Correlation Coef cient (Spearman’s Rho) Ordinal Variables

● Measures: Monotonic relationship between two ordinal variables.
● Academic ranking and CEE ranking
Linear and Monotonic (The other things goes up the other goes down or same direction)
Linear: Consistent rate in change (Ex. If 2 hours ka nag aral may 1 point na pastas ng grade
mo)
Monotonic: Inconsistent rate in change (Ex. Study hours: 1 or 2 and your grade point is either
2-3)
Point-Biserial Correlation
● Measures: Relationship between one continuous variable and one dichotomous (Binary)
variable
● Ex. EQ (Continuous variable), sex (Binary variable) relationship,
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Phi coef cient
● Measures: relationship bet. 2 dichotomous variables

Kendall’s tau
● Measures: ordinal relationship bet 2 variables, especially when there are many tied ranks

Partial Correlation
● Measures: Relationship bet. 2 variables while controlling for the in uence of a third
variable.
● Controlling any 3rd factor that could affect the variables that you’re looking at

Statistical Measurements of Differences

T-test: Used to compare the means of 2 groups.

● Independent T-test: For independent groups (e.g men vs women) Between-subjects
design
● Paired T-test: For dependent groups (e.g Before and after measurements) Within-
subjects design

ANOVA (Analysis of Variance): Used to compare the means of 3 or more groups

● One-way ANOVA: For comparing means of one categorical variable with a continuous
Dependent variables. ( One IV)
● Two-way ANOVA: For comparing means of 2 categorical variables with a continuous
dependent variable( Two IV’s)
● Repeated Measures ANOVA: for repeated measurements on the same subjects. Ex.
Longitudinal and Within-subjects design

Types of Research Design

Longitudinal Study (Tracking over a long period of time)
● Entails measuring variables at different points in time.
● Applicable in the future.
● Time 1: happiness and Income
● Time 2: measure it again
● Time 3: measure it again
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Experimental Study
● Through randomization, confouncing variables that could not be taken account are
assumed to be equalized between/ among groups to be compared
● The simples experiment is comparing an experimental group with a control group
● Quasi vs experimental, quasi not actively manipulating the IV, experimental controlling IV.
A quasi-experimental design is a valuable research method for studying the effects of
interventions in real-world settings where random assignment isn't possible..
Strengths and Weakness of Each Design

Ex. Harvard happiness study (Read it) longitudinal study

Lab exercise for this week

Topic: HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY: Coping Mechanism for Stroke patient
Find 2 RRLs for each research design: Cross-sectional, Longitudinal design, and
Experimental:
UNIT 1 : Research subject, aims , hypothesis
What is the subject matter of Psychology?
ABC (Affect, behavior, cognitive)
It is only through observation and language can we draw this ABCs out

AIMS IN RESEARCH
The rst step in doing research is identifying our aims. These aims dictate the direction of our
research

Research Objective
Descriptive or Exploratory
aims: describe in detail a phenomenon; descriptions require that we categorize our
observations; we want to explore the unexplored (a topic that never been study before)
Examples: qualitative studies, case studies, content analysis (analyze written texts)

Evaluation or Outcome studies

Aims: Testing effectiveness of intervention; purely empirical; x theory developement
Examples: Effectiveness of treatment; cause-and-effect quantitative

Meta-analytic studies
Aims: Statistical analysis of results of a range of studies which have investigated a particular
topic; iow, research about researches
Example: using effective sizes combine and differentiate between the ndings of a number of
data analysis.
spurious correlation-strong correlation but in theory they are not supposed to be in
relationship (no theoretical framework that binds them)
effect size; magnitude of the relationship of 2 variables not acquiring any other variables (eta
square)
ex: using effect sizes combine and differentiate bet. Findings of a number of data analyses.

Q-quizess, assignment, active participation= 35%

Laboratory= 30%
Exam= 35%
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Module 2 Unit 2: Variables in Psychology
Research
coverage of exam: start Until Module 4
Prelim: Worksheet A (Operationalize these conceptual variables), lab exercise 3 (aims,
hypothesis, variables)
Room: 606 exam room
Variables: Core unit
Kantiaw: how to measure?
by looking at the time frame when kantiaw is effective
LAB EXERCISE 3: DEADLINE: 1 WEEK

The what, why and how of Psychology Research

Subject Matter of Psychology:

ABC (Affect, behavior, cognition)

Aims in Research:
Objectives: Aims
Descriptive/Exploratory: describe features characteristics (Qualitative)
Evaluation/Outcome- Test effectiveness; do not seek to develop theory (Randomized
controlled trials)
Meta-analytic: Summarize, analyzed results of range of studies (Scoping review)

Justifying the aims of research

● Relevance to what is already known
● Theoretical advancements
● Addressing gaps
● Responding to a wider social context and the broader society
Hypothesis in Research
● Working assumptions, propositions expressing expectations linked to the aims
● Aims in research are formulated through hypotheses
● Does not have to be true
● We clarify our expectations and propose relationships between/among variables

Relationships: (Associated/Correlation)
● Positive or direct association (as x increases the y also increases)
● Negative or inverse association (as the x increases the y decreases)
● Predictor variable and outcome variable
● No relationship (Scattered plot)
What is HIGH? that is accepted
(.99) highly correlated

Causal Relationship
Statistical Hypothesis:

Non directional hypothesis ( exploratory study/research design)

Types of Variables:
● IV (Manipulated) for experimental
● DV (Being measured)
● CV/ Controlled Variable
● Confounding Variable (potential variables that might affect the relationship between IV
and DV
● Moderator variable (Mediates)
● Extraneous Variable (not interested but can affect your study)
● categorical variable (represents distinct categories or groups without order)
● Continuous variables ( an in nite number of values within a given range)
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Module 3: Strengthening Research Findings
Unit 1: Sampling & Representativeness

Claims:
● Frequency claims: focuses on only one variable
● Association claims: postive, negative, zero association
● Causal Claims

Assessing claims based on reliability and validity

● construct validity: Operationalized variable
● Statistical validity: Statistically signi cant: (descriptive statistic, Inferential statistics)
● Internal Validity: Accurate, free from confounding variables (standardizing methods and
procedures
● External Validity: generalizability (Large sample size) our SAMPLE must be a
REPRESENTATIVE of the POPULATION.
Check the validity of your research proposal

Reliability:
● Consistency, stability of a measure or instrument to collect data
● Test-retest reliability: stability of a measure over time
● Inter-rater reliability: Consistency of scores made by different raters
● Internal consistency: consistency of responses (Cronbach’s alpha)
● Split-half reliability: diving a test into two halves, comparing scores from each half

Note: need to be valid to be reliable

Reliability (replicability)
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Enhancing reliability
● standardized procedures: Consistency in administering test or measure across diff.
Participants and settings
● Training raters: Thorough training for raters or observers
● Pretesting Measures: Conducting Pilot studies
● using established instruments: employing well-validated and widely used measures that
have demonstrated high reliability in previous research

Module 4: Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research

PAP
● Respect for persons: informed consent
● Bene cence and nonmale cence: Do no harm
● Justice: Fair treatment
● Integrity: Honesty and Transparency
● Con dentiality: Privacy protection (Keeping anonymity and con dentiality)
● Professional competence: quali ed conduct
● Responsibility: Accountability
Anonymity VS Con dential: keeping info that will recognized the person (Anonymity)
Anonymity means you don’t know who the participants are, while con dentiality means you
know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report.
Tell me how justi ed your research is?

Belmont Report (1979)

● US department of Health, education and welfare
● basic ethical principles (respect for persons, bene cence, justice)
● Respect for persons. This states that every human has the autonomy and right to make
his or her decisions about the research. Informed consent comes from this principle.
● Bene cence refers to the obligation to minimize the risk of harm and maximize the
possible bene ts to individuals. This principle also tackles the responsibility of
researchers to estimate potential risks as accurately as possible before proceeding with
the research.
● Justice refers to fairness in both the burdens and bene ts of the study. This required the
researchers to select participants with fairness to ensure that some people are not being
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chosen because they are disadvantaged, readily available, or easily manipulated.

APA (American Psychological Association) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of

Conduct also provides ve general principles for to guide researchers towards ’the highest
ideals of psychology’. These ve general principles include:

● bene cence and non-male cence

● delity and responsibility
● integrity
● justice
● respect for people’s rights and dignity

Module 5: Research Reports-Organization and Writing

Midterm: M5-M7 Exam: 24-30

Psychological Research Report

● Preliminary Material
● Body
● Supplementary Material

Body of report (most important part)

● this is where you put your introduction

Introduction: general to particular topic (where you discuss what you researched and why. It
establishes the scope, context, and signi cance of the research being conducted by
summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic.
● what was I studying? (Scope)
● Why was the topic important to investigate?
● What did we know about this topic before I did this study? (What is known already)
● How will this study advance new knowledge; new WAYS OF UNDERSTANDING
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goals of a good introduction:
● 1) summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a
foundation for understanding the research problem;
● 2) explain how your study speci cally addresses gaps in the literature, insuf cient
consideration of the topic, or other de ciency in the literature; and,
● 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and
implications of your research

Literature Review
● Chronological format: earliest to the latest research
● Write in a thematic way, outlining the various themes

Methodology: What and How you did it

● Participants (specify the participants/description) sampling design (why is it the best?)
(inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria)
● Materials, measures or apparatus
● Design and procedure
● Data Analysis (included in the proposal)
Pearson- linear relationship association between 2
Spearman- ranked data

Results:
● What you found in your research
● statistical analyses, tables and diagrams OR graphs
● You give the results of your research, but do not interpret them.

Discussion:
● Detailed explanation and relevance of the ndings presented under results
● shows how it ts with other research in the area.
● relate back to your literature review and your introductory thesis statement.
● limitations of the study
● Future research
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 ● Practical Applications
recos are put in the discussion part

Conclusion:
● A summary of results and ndings.
● Recommendations are suggestions about what needs to be done as a result of the
ndings
● recon are usually listed in order of priority.

Supplementary Materials:
● References or bibliography (bibliography: includes other sources which were consulted
during the research but not cited)
● Appendices (append the questionnaires, raw data

Preliominary Material:
● Title page: • the title, the author and author details such as their address, e-mail address,
telephone and fax number. For a student report, this will be replaced with details such as
student ID number, degree program
● Abstract: This is the second page of the report and you may use the subheading
‘Abstract’ for clarity. The abstract is a detailed summary of the contents of the report. The
Abstract should be within the 150–250-word limit.
● Purpose, Methods, Results, Conclusions. (Qualitative)
● Another structure uses Introduction, Methods, Results, Analysis, Discussion.IMRAD
● Title of Report: A concise heading that is clear and indicates exactly what you are
researching. The title is expressed as a sentence which describes the main nding. The
recommended number of words should not be more than 12
● Table of contents can be useful, but not required.
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Polishing report:
● Short, simple sentences of 8 to 10 words are best
● sub headings
● margins: 1 in wide
● Font: Times new roman 12
● Passive sentences: (does not use pronounce ‘I’ and ‘we’or 1st POVs)
● Avoid racist, sexist (neutral)

worksheet: related to psych (ABC)

discuss a topic: 1/4 sheet of paper
Note: quiz every after topic/module

Module 6: Observation Methods

October 7, 2024
method of collecting data

● Non experimental studies

● Behavior is systematically observed and recorded
● goal is to describe a variable or set of variables; to obtain a snapshot of speci c
characteristics of an individual group or setting
● non-experimental= nothing is manipulated
● data that are collected are often qualitative in nature but they may also be quantitative in
nature or both (mixed-methods)

Role in Research:
● Understanding behavior: direct insight, natural settings
● contextual insight (strength of obs)
● exploratory research
● Triangulation (multiple methods to develop comprehesive understanding= to validate)
● Capturing nonverbal behavior
● Rich qualitative data
● real time data collection (recording data as it happens)
● exibility in data collection (can be adjusted)

How will it be done?

Participant Observation-the researcher is part of the research
Non-participant/naturalistic observation- the researcher is not part of the group that being
observed.

Types of Observation

Structured Observation: sytematic

Unstructured: does not have system,
Overt:
Covert: not disclosed

what do you think is the most objective type of observation? (For next quiz)

Structured Observation
● de ning behavior categories to be recorded prior to commencing the main observational
sessions; (operational de nition)
● sampling of behavior in a consistent manner using one of the sampling devices;
● training of observers in the use of a coding system and to a good level of
agreement prior to main data-gathering sessions.
● Note: intervals and frequency (for consistent manner of behavior)

Full particpant: role is hidden

Participant as observer; not really hidden
Observer as participant: not hidden at all the subject know your purpose
Full observer: not interaction at all just observation (usually from a distance)
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 assignment: look for studies that uses the various ways to which an observer can participate
(encoded) to be passed next meeting.

Indirect Observation
Archives: events that are so unpredictable, used observed social statistics as data, often
involves less time.
(Knowledge elicitation: verbal protocols)
Verbal Protocols: recorded product of asking participants to talk or think aloud during an
activity; knowledge elicitation

Recording methods:
● eld notes
● Audio recordings
● Video Recordings
● Checklists and coding sheets
● Photographs (Eduardo masfarre)
● Diaries/Journals
● Mobile apps
● Digital recorders
● video cameras and drones
● wearable technology
● GIS geographic information system
● Social media monitoring tools

Selecting Participants and Settings

De ne Research Objectives
● Determine characteristics of the participants and setting relevant to research questions

Participant Selection
● Target Population
● Sampling methods (Random, purposive, convenience)
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Setting Selection
● Natural setting
● Controlled Setting (experimental)

Sampling techniques:
Time sampling
● Predetermine intervals
● Frequency
● Duration
● Time/digital tool

Event Sampling
● Events or behavior as they occur regardless of time intervals
● Clear de nition of behavior
● checklist to record occurrence and relevant details.

Ensure consistent and accurate observations

● Develop clear criteria (operational de nition)
● Training observers practice sessions
● Pilot testing
● Adjustments
● Use technology; review

Limitations:
● Observer Bias
● subjectivity (pov of the observer)
● limited scope; thoughts, reason/judgment, motives
● Time consuming
● participant reactivity (Hawthorne effect)
● sampling issues
● environmental in uences (extraneous variables)
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Interpreting Your observations

Descriptive:
● requires no inference- you see somethings and record it

Inferential
● Requires making inferences about somethings underlying what is observed

Evaluative:
● Requires making an inference and a judgement from the observed behavior

Coding
● observers need to code behavior either as it occurs or as they view a visual recording
● need an observation guide

debrie ng: taking care of them after the experiment

Issues of using observational methods
quiz: a situation w/ dilemma, how will you solve it
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Quantitative study
Experimental Design
● causal relationship
● experimental groups
● control groups
● Independent variable
● Dependent variable
Simple Experimental design: 1 IV and DV
● Independent samples design (Between-subjects design/ uncorrelated) different
participants assigned to each experimental condition, helps control for individual
differences. (independent t-test) comparing 2 groups RCT (randomize control trials)
● Repeated measures design ( Within-subjects design) same participants will undergo both
experimental and control condition. (Dependent T-test/correlated)
● Matched pair design (separate group for each condition, but each individual in one group
matched one-to-one with an individual in every other group) participants paired based on
speci c characteristics
● Single participant and small n Design (focus on the individual participant’s response over
time, commonly used in clinical psychology.
One way anova (post ho test- tukey)
Advance Experimental Design ( more than 1 IVs)
Factorial Design
● 2 or more Ivs
● Allows researcher to examine main effects and interaction effects.

Non experimental Designs

● No manipulation
● Time variable (before and after testing
● the differences that are compared are already pre-existing
Quasi-experimental
● It lacks random assignment. Researchers use pre-existing groups, making this design
more applicable in real-world settings but with less control.
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Types of Quasi
● Ex post facto
● Non-equivalent groups (between subject design)
● longitudinal
● Coress-sectional
● Pretest/post test

Unit 2: Non-manipulation Studies

● do not involve the deliberate manipulation of variables
● often focus on observation, correlation, and naturalistic settings to gather data about
behaviors, attitude, outcomes
Quas-manipulation is the pre-existing difference
Non-manipulation studies:
● Observational studies
● Correlation studies (examine the relationship of 2 more variables, not looking at causal
effect) associations IV: predictor variable. DV: Outcome variable, relationship:they can
predictive, correlate. (direction of the relationship) (Degree/strength of relationship
r=correlational coef cient)
● case studies (in-depth investigations)
Cross sectional designs
strength:
● ethical considerations: unethical to manipulate variables
● real-world relevance:
● Exploratory research: valuable for generating hypotheses and understanding phenomena
● Complex variables: some psychological constructs are too complex to manipulate
effectively making observational methods are more suitable
● Resource constraints: non-manipulative studies can be more feasible of time, cost and
logistic.
● Constructs: thoughts to explain certain phenomenon
● inverse: the higher the x the lower the y
● positive: as x increases the y also increases
● Strength: higher value; strong r (positive or negative= 0.7-0.9)
● strength: if weak:
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Methodological approaches

Strengths:
● ethical
● applicability
● Exploratory
Group: ROSARIO, NAZIR, ALLER
Bivariate: 2 variables
ISSUES:
● Reliability- looking at the instruments that you will be using
Remedy: Make a reliability test
● Third variable (confounding variables) have an effect on the dv
Remedy: Partial Correlation, (mediator v: it mediates the relationship of the 2 variables,
suppressor v: makes the relationship more clear), Moderator: in uence the strength of the
relationship)
● Restricted Variation: not representative of the population (generizability)
Longitudinal study: same variables in the same people at several points in time.
Age and happiness
Categorical variable: (age:boomer, Z, alpha)
Interval period measure in 2024, 2028
Statistical analysis: T-Test
Interpretation:
● Autocorrelation: evaluate the associations of each variable with itself across time
●
Survey:
Open-ended questions: no format
Forced choice- options are provided (e.g multiple choice)
Rating scale- degree of agreement
Semantic differential format- numeric scale
Effectivity of study techniques in memory retention
Variables: study method (active/passive)
Dv - memory retention
objective: to identify which study method is more effective in terms of memory retention

E. Yes.
between samples design
sampling: systematic random sampling, participants: STELA students
data analysis: one way anova without replication (2 levels of IV)
Experiment Procedure:
● the researchers will be placing the participants into two different groups (group 1: Active
Learning and Group 2: Passive Learning)
● both groups will be given the same material (e.g. a short English story as the learning
material
● the active group will be assigned to do the Feynman technique (explaining a topic in a
simpli ed form or using our own words)
● while the passive group will be tasked to only use highlightiing as their study techniques
● after this, the participants will be given a test about the story to measure their memory
retention ability,
● higher obtained scores will interpreted as higher memory retention
● the researchers will then debrief the participants and answer any questions that they may
have as well as accept any feedback from the respondents.

F. Survey Method
sampling: convenience sampling
Procedure
● the researchers will administer a survey questionnaire to the participants using he rating
scales format.
● the questionnaire will contain statements about the participants learning technique and
whether it correlates with their memory retention ability (e.g. highlighting helps me
remember my lessons more.) the researchers will be making use of the Likert Scale

● the researchers will then identify which learning method is more effective for memory
retention
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 G. Materials: survey questionnaire
Both techniques (active, passive) will be analyzed using the Pearsons Correlation
Analysis

Module 8: Coding data

Code
● A short word or phrase describing the meaning and context of the whole sentence,
phrase, or parapgraph.

Data Coding
● What: process of systematically labeling, categorizing, organizing data to identify
patterns, themes, relationships.
● Why: to transform data into meaningful insights, making it possible to analyze and
interpret complex information

Types
Qualitative coding
● focuses on none numerical data ( ex. Interview transcripts, open-ended survey
responses, observational notes) approaches: thematic coding, content analysis,
grounded theory coding- coding data in terms of constructs, theories, concepts.
● In vivo coding- uses actual words or phrases spoken by participants as codes; helps
preserve original language and meaning, making the analysis more grounded in their
perspectives
● Key features: literal coding, participant-centered (participants’ own language and
expressions, ensuring their voices are prominently represented in the analysis) Grounded
theory: goal is to develop theories that are closely tied to the data.
Quantitative Coding
● Deals with numerical data, assigning numerical values to different categories or
responses; allows for statistical analysis to identify trends and relationships.
Approaches to coding (both)
Inductive coding: codes are developed from the data itself, allowing themes to emerge
naturally
Deductive coding: uses pre-established codes based on

Coding process:
Develop a coding framework: Creating as structured plan for categorizing data based on
research objectives
Training coders and establishing reliability: ensuring consistency and reliability in coding
through training and inter-rater reliability checks.
Implementing the coding process: systematically applying codes to the data
Analyzing coded data: Using code data to identify patterns, themes, and relationshi[s and
conducting statistical analysis for quantitative data.

Examples of Coding :
Clinical psychology: coding therapy sessions or patient narratives to identify cognitive
distortions or behavioral patterns
Developmental psychology: Coding observational data of children to study developmental
stages and behaviors
Social Psychology: coding interview data to understand social interactions and behaviors.

Challenges
maintaining Consistency
Dealing with large volumes of data (age, gender, year-level, course)
ensuring objectivity

Best practices
● using software tools for coding
● regularly viewing and re ning codes
● maintaining clear documentation
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Step by step example of thematic coding:
1. data colllection
2. Initial coding
3. generating themes
4. Reviewing themes
5. de ning and naming themes (title)
6. writing up

Quantitative
1. data collection: how many hours do you spend studying each week
2. developing a coding scheme
3. Assigning codes
4. Data entry
5. Analyzing the data
6. Interpreting results

Qualitative
● Context and meaning
● Subjective and interpretive
● in-depth exploration of complex phenomena
Advantages: (why?)
● provide deep insights
● exible and adaptive
● Contextual understanding
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Module 9: Qualitative research
● Scienti c Psychology and its philosophical Underpinings
Development of Scienti c Methods in Psychology:
● Concept of umiibig: cupid’s bow
● Establishment of Psychology as science: 18-something
● Father of scienti c psychology: Wilhelm Wundt
● Psychology started under philosophy
● Psychology in the Philippines: UST and San Carlos University, UP (became science)
● FATHER EVARIST IN SLU
● Wundt (1879- rst lab): experimental psychology; behaviors; cognitive revolution
● Cognition: through thought meter
Experimental Methods: controlled experiments; longitudinal studies; cross-sectional studies;
case studies
Technological Advancements: Neuroimaging; computational modeling,

Philosophy
Positivism-relying on emprical observation and objective (quantitative)
Post positivism-not always objective, knowledge of the reality being studied can only be
approximate and never exact. Critical thinking and tentative nature of knowledge
Constructivism-subjective, socially constructed, based on human interaction and
interpretation. Subjective and context dependent. How individuals create meaning in their
lives
Transformative- committed to social justice, aims to address power imbalances and
inequalities, giving voice to marginalized groups and promote change. (action research)
Pragmatism-practical outcomesad solutions

Postmodernism on Psychological Theory and Practice

Relativism: challenge to objective truths
Narrative: focus on stories, personal narratives
Critiques of Universalism:
● Cultural sensitivity; postmodernism promotes culturally sensitive approaches, recognizing
pthat psychological theories may not be universally applicable= solution-focused therapy:
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Postmodernism on Psych
● Subjectivity and context
● Critique of Objectivity and truth
● interdisciplinary approaches; more holistic understanding of psychological phenomena
● Focus on power and oppression
● Methodological pluralism: use of diverse research methods
● Narrative and storytelling
● deconstruction and critique

Ethical and Philosophical Considerations in modern psych

● informed consent
● con dentiality
● bias and representation
● Impact on society
● Integrity

use of quail research

● exploration of complex issues
● developing theories
● gaining in-depth insights
● context-speci c studies
● exibility in research

Use of quantitative:
1. testing hypothesis
2. generalizability (inferential stats)
3. Measuring of variables
4. statistical analysis
5. Comparing groups
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How do you determine whether to use quail or quanti
Quali: exploratory questions
Quanti: Explanatory and descriptive questions: aims to quantify (how)

Nature of Data
● Quali: non-numerical data
● Quanti: Numerical data; data that can be quanti es

context of the study

Quali: context-dependent
Quanti: wide coverage

Flexibility and structure

Outcomes:

Transcription:
1. accuracy
2. formats; can be verbatim (word-for-word) or edited for clarity and readability
3. Software: like NVivo, ATLAS.ti, transcription services
4. Challenges; can betime-consuming, very detailedf

Orthigraphic Transcription
● focus on the words which are said
Jeffersonian
● similar with ortho, but also focuses on how the words are said (symbols, intonation, vocal,
non-vocal elements), rich, visual representation

Issues
● Accuracy and consistency
●
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