Curiosity

Textbook of Science for Grade 7

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 0777 – Curiosity ISBN 978-93-5729-039-5
Textbook of Science for Grade 7

First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

April 2025 Chaitra 1947  No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without the prior permission of the publisher.
 This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by
way of trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed
of without the publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or
PD 1500T GS cover other than that in which it is published.
 The correct price of this publication is the price printed on
this page, Any revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or
© National Council of Educational by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should
be unacceptable.
Research and Training, 2025
OFFICES OF THE PUBLICATION
DIVISION, NCERT

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 Foreword
The National Education Policy 2020 envisages a system of education
in the country that is rooted in an Indian ethos and its civilisational
accomplishments in all fields of knowledge and human endeavour.
At the same time, it aims to prepare students to engage constructively
with the opportunities and challenges of the twenty-first century.
The basis for this aspirational vision has been well laid out by the
National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF-SE) 2023
across curricular areas at all stages. By nurturing students’ inherent
abilities across all five planes of human existence (pañchakośhas), the
Foundational and Preparatory Stages set the Stage for further learning
at Middle Stage. Spanning Grades 6 to 8, the Middle Stage serves as
a critical three-year bridge between the Preparatory and Secondary
Stages.
The NCF-SE 2023, at the Middle Stage, aims to equip students with
the skills that are needed to grow, as they advance in their lives. It
endeavours to enhance their analytical, descriptive, and narrative
capabilities, and to prepare them for the challenges and opportunities
that await them. A diverse curriculum, covering nine subjects ranging
from three languages—including at least two languages native to
India—to Science, Mathematics, Social Sciences, Art Education, Physical
Education and Well-being, and Vocational Education promotes their
holistic development.
Such a transformative learning culture requires certain essential
conditions. One of them is to have appropriate textbooks in different
curricular areas, as these textbooks will play a central role in mediating
between content and pedagogy—a role that will strike a judicious
balance between direct instruction and opportunities for exploration
and inquiry. Among the other conditions, classroom arrangement and
teacher preparation are crucial to establish conceptual connections
both within and across curricular areas.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training, on
its part, is committed to providing students with such high-quality
textbooks. Various Curricular Area Groups, which have been
constituted for this purpose, comprising notable subject-experts,
pedagogues, and practising teachers as their members, have made
all possible efforts to develop such textbooks. Curiosity, Textbook
of Science for Grade 7 aligns with NEP 2020 and NCF-SE 2023,
fostering experiential learning through real-world examples. It
encourages curiosity, exploration, questioning, and critical thinking.

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 The content attempts to integrate science subjects such as physics,
chemistry, biology, and earth science with cross-cutting themes like
environmental education, value education, inclusive education, and
Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS). By incorporating hands-on activities,
the textbook engages students in an integrated approach, promoting
reflection and group discussions. The textbook emphasises creativity
and innovation, positioning students as active learners. Additionally,
the adopted pedagogy encourages critical thinking, reasoning, and
decision-making. The textbook provides ample opportunities for
peer learning, which enhances the overall learning experience for
both teachers and students. The focus is on collaboration and active
engagement through student-centred approach to education.
However, in addition to this textbook, students at this stage should
also be encouraged to explore various other learning resources.
School libraries play a crucial role in making such resources available.
Besides, the role of parents and teachers will also be invaluable in
guiding and encouraging students to do so.
With this, I express my gratitude to all those who have been
involved in the development of this textbook and hope that it will meet
the expectations of all stakeholders. At the same time, I also invite
suggestions and feedback from all its users for further improvement
in the coming years.

 Dinesh Prasad Saklani

 Director
New Delhi  National Council of Educational
March 2025  Research and Training

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 About this Book

We hope you enjoyed exploring the wonderful world of science in

Grade 6, guided by the textbook Curiosity. You might still have more
questions in science that you wish to explore! The Grade 7 textbook,
the second in the Curiosity series picks up where we left off in Grade 6,
continuing this exciting journey and helping you explore even more
questions that you may wonder about.
The Grade 7 textbook has been carefully crafted in alignment with
the recommendations of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020
and the National Curriculum Framework for School Education
(NCF-SE) 2023. The textbook has been designed to meet curricular
goals, covering key scientific concepts like matter, the physical and
living world, health, hygiene, and the connection between science,
technology and society. Like the Grade 6 textbook, this textbook
also focuses on the nature of science and its processes. Each chapter
includes creative activities, thought-provoking questions, and helpful
illustrations. The textbook combines concepts from biology, chemistry,
physics, and earth science, while weaving in cross-cutting themes like
value education, inclusive education, environmental education, and
the Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS). The goal is to encourage hands-
on learning rather than rote memorisation. Through this approach,
the Curiosity series aims to help learners think critically and become
responsible members of society.
Curiosity, Textbook of Science for Grade 7, has twelve chapters.
Chapter 1, titled ‘The Ever-Evolving World of Science’, gives an overview
of the ideas covered in the book and aims to get the readers excited
about learning more about science. It develops a thread connecting
all other chapters, showing how they are all linked together. It also
highlights that science is primarily a way of thinking, observing,
asking questions, and discovering by doing. It is a process rather than
a compilation of facts. This fun introductory chapter is meant to excite
the students and is non-evaluative.
The chapters start with real-life situations to grab the students’
attention and to help them relate with their previous knowledge.
The activities in the book are designed to give learners hands-on and
minds-on experiences. These activities are inclusive and encourage
working together to promote collaborative learning. After each
activity, there are questions to help learners check their understanding
and see how much they have learnt. We hope the questions make the
students think deeply, reflect, and analyse ideas critically to arrive at
a conclusion.

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 To sustain the readers’ interest, some challenging ideas,
additional information, interesting facts, and other engaging
materials are presented in various boxes.

The box ‘Fascinating

Fascinating Facts
Facts’, highlights fun facts,
interesting observations, and
curiosity-driven questions.

Dive
The ‘Dive Deeper’ boxes
contain advanced concepts eeper
that lead to questions for
in-depth exploration of a
topic.

Holistic Lens
The ‘Holistic Lens’ offers
horizontal connections to a concept
from multiple perspectives.

‘Science and Society’ links

with real-life applications Science and Society
showing how science has
contributed to societal
development.

Some chapters also feature

sections called ‘Know a Scientist,’
where students can learn about
Know a Scientist the contributions of Indian and
international scientists related
to the relevant topics.

This section includes brief biographies and shows how

scientists have made a difference. Each chapter includes
highlighted words that emphasise key concepts explained in
the chapter. Some highlighted words outline the procedures
in scientific activities. An interesting non-evaluative
element that has been incorporated in some of the chapters
is the introduction of certain verses from various Indian
texts to promote rootedness in the learners as envisaged in
NEP 2020.

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 In a Nutshell

‘In a Nutshell’ presents the summary of a chapter,

offering an overview of the key ideas discussed.

Let Us Enhance Our Learning

Innovation

‘Let Us Enhance Our Learning’ includes a range of Discovery

exercises, from pictorial questions and puzzles to Enquiry

multiple-choice questions, offering a challenging and

engaging experience. Exploration

These questions not only help in self-evaluation

Curiosity

but also evaluate the competencies developed in each

chapter. We recommend that questions for evaluation
be similar to the ones in this section.

Exploratory Projects

A unique feature of the book is ‘Exploratory Projects’, which

Disciplinary
involves activities designed to encourage the interaction of
learners with their peers, parents, teachers, experts, and the
community.
Learners are encouraged to gather diverse information and
draw their own conclusions. Some projects may require prior
preparation and collaboration.
The textbook is just one way to learn. Learners should also
explore and observe their surroundings. Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) can further enhance learning
when used appropriately. The QR codes across the textbook
Inter

provide access to interactive resources like audio and video

clips, puzzles, games, quizzes, and additional content, allowing
learners to explore at their own pace and convenience.
The journey of each learner through this science textbook is
expected to be filled with joy. We hope that the curiosity sparked
by this book will continue in the higher grades! We express
our gratitude to all the members of the Textbook Development
Committee for their contributions in shaping this textbook. We
look forward to the feedback of the readers.
Textbook Development Team

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 CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 – 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
• before law and equal protection of laws;
• irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
• of opportunity in public employment;
• by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
• of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
• of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
• of protection of life and personal liberty;
• of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
• of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
• for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
• for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
• freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
• freedom to manage religious affairs;
• freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
• freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
• for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
• for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
• by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.

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 National Syllabus and Teaching
Learning Material Committee (NSTC)

1. M.C. Pant, Chancellor, National Institute of Educational Planning

and Administration (NIEPA), (Chairperson)
2. Manjul Bhargava, Professor, Princeton University,
(Co-Chairperson)
3. Sudha Murty, Acclaimed Writer and Educationist
4. Bibek Debroy, Chairperson, Economic Advisory Council to the
Prime Minister (EAC – PM)
5. Shekhar Mande, Former Director General, CSIR; Distinguished
Professor, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune
6. Sujatha Ramdorai, Professor, University of British Columbia,
Canada
7. Shankar Mahadevan, Music Maestro, Mumbai
8. U. Vimal Kumar, Director, Prakash Padukone Badminton Academy,
Bengaluru
9. Michel Danino, Visiting Professor, IIT – Gandhinagar
10. Surina Rajan, IAS (Retd.), Haryana, Former Director General, HIPA
11. Chamu Krishna Shastri, Chairperson, Bharatiya Bhasha Samiti,
Ministry of Education
12. Sanjeev Sanyal, Member, Economic Advisory Council to the Prime
Minister (EAC – PM)
13. M.D. Srinivas, Chairperson, Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai
14. Gajanan Londhe, Head, Programme Office
15. Rabin Chhetri, Director, SCERT, Sikkim
16. Pratyusha Kumar Mandal, Professor, Department of Education in
Social Sciences, NCERT, New Delhi
17. Dinesh Kumar, Professor, Department of Education in Science
and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
18. Kirti Kapur, Professor, Department of Education in Languages,
NCERT, New Delhi
19. Ranjana Arora, Professor and Head, Department of Curriculum
Studies and Development, NCERT, (Member-Secretary)

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 x

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 Textbook Development Team

Contributors
Arnab Bhattacharya, Centre Director, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science
Education (HBCSE), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR),
Mumbai; Professor, Department of Condensed Matter Physics and
Material Science, TIFR, Mumbai (Team Leader and Leader, Physics
Sub-group)
Saroj Ghaskadbi, Former Senior Professor, Savitribai Phule Pune
University, Pune (Leader, Biology Sub-group)
Uday Maitra, Honorary Professor and INSA Senior Scientist, Indian
Institute of Science, Bengaluru (Leader, Chemistry Sub-group)
R. Shankar, Adviser, International Geoscience Education Organisation,
Coordinator, International Earth Science Olympiad and Former
Professor, Mangalore University, Mangaluru (Leader, Earth Science
Sub-group)
Abhay Kumar, Assistant Professor, Central Institute of Educational
Technology, NCERT, New Delhi
A.K. Mohapatra, Former Professor, Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics, RIE, Bhubaneswar
Anand Arya, Associate Professor, Regional Institute of Education,
NCERT, Ajmer
Arun Pratap Sikarwar, Associate Professor, Department of Education
in Science and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Ashish Kumar Srivastava, Assistant Professor, Department of
Education in Science and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
B.K. Tripathi, Former Professor, Department of Education in Science
and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Charu Maini, Principal, DAV Public School, Sector 7, Gurugram,
Haryana
C.V. Shimray, Associate Professor, Department of Education in Science
and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Dinesh Kumar, Professor, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Fanindra Sharma, Educator and Consultant, Programme Office, NSTC,
NCERT, New Delhi

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 Gagan Gupta, Associate Professor, Department of Education in Science
and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Gauri Roy, PGT (Physics), Demonstration Multipurpose School,
Regional Institute of Education, Mysuru
Indrani Das Sen, Scientific Officer, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science
Education, TIFR, Mumbai
Jaya P. Swaminathan, Teacher Developer, Royal Society of Chemistry,
Bengaluru
Karthick Balasubramanian, Scientist F, Agharkar Research Institute,
Pune
Lalminthang Kipgen, Assistant Professor, Division of Educational Kits,
NCERT, New Delhi
Linto Alappat, Assistant Professor, Christ College Autonomous,
Irinjalakuda, Thrissur, Kerala
L.K. Tiwary, Professor, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Manasi Goswami, Professor, Regional Institute of Education, NCERT,
Bhubaneswar
Manjushree Chaudhuri, Former PGT (Physics), St. Columba’s School,
New Delhi and La Grande Boissière Campus of International School of
Geneva, Switzerland
Meher Wan, Scientist, CSIR-National Institute of Science
Communication and Policy Research, New Delhi
Munindra Ruwali, Associate Professor, Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Neeraja Dashaputre, Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Science
Education and Research, Pune
Nicole Ann Fae Sequeira, Assistant Professor, Goa University, Goa
Poonam Katyal, Former TGT, Zeenat Mahal Sarvodaya Kanya
Vidyalaya, Jafrabad, Delhi
Pramila Tanwar, Professor, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Praveen Pathak, Scientific Officer, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science
Education, TIFR, Mumbai
Preeti Khanna, Rehabilitation Professional (Visual Impairment),
National Association for the Blind, New Delhi
Puneet Sharma, Associate Professor, Division of Educational Kits,
NCERT, New Delhi

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 Pushp Lata Verma, Associate Professor, Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
P.V. Raghavendra, Associate Professor, Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Ravijot Sandhu, PGT (Chemistry), Navyug School, Laxmibai Nagar,
New Delhi
Ravindra Kumar Parashar, Professor, Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Ravi S. Nanjundiah, Professor, Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic
Sciences (CAOS), Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru
Reena Mohapatra, Former PGT (Biology), DAV School, Bhubaneswar
Ritika Anand, Principal, St. Mark’s Senior Secondary Public School,
Meera Bagh, New Delhi
Ruchi Verma, Professor, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Sarat Phukan, Professor, Department of Geological Sciences, Gauhati
University, Guwahati
Sarita Kumar, Professor, Acharya Narendra Dev College, University of
Delhi, Delhi
Sarita Vig, Professor, Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
(IIST), Thiruvananthapuram
Smita Chaturvedi, Assistant Professor, Interdisciplinary School of
Science, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune
Sudesh Kumar, Associate Professor, Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
Surhud More, Professor, Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and
Astrophysics (IUCAA), Pune
Tarun Choubisa, Director, Pedagogy, Seed2Sapling Education
Foundation; and Senior Consultant, Programme Office, NSTC, NCERT,
New Delhi
T.A. Viswanath, Former Associate Professor, Goa University, Goa
Sunita Farkya, Professor and Head, Department of Education in
Science and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi (Coordinator, Biology
Sub-group)
Rachna Garg, Professor, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi (Coordinator, Physics Sub-group)

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 R.R. Koireng, Associate Professor, Department of Curriculum Studies
and Development, NCERT, New Delhi (Coordinator, Earth Science
Sub-group)
Anjni Koul, Professor, Department of Education in Science and
Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi (Member-Coordinator and
Coordinator, Chemistry Sub-group)

Reviewers
Shekhar C. Mande, FNA, FASc, FNASc, Former Director General, CSIR,
Distinguished Professor, Bioinformatics Centre, Savitribai Phule Pune
University, Honorary Distinguished Scientist, National Centre for Cell
Science, Pune (Chairperson, Curricular Area Group: Science)
Manjul Bhargava, Professor, Princeton University and Co-Chairperson,
NSTC
Anurag Behar, CEO, Azim Premji Foundation, Member, National
Curriculum Framework Oversight Committee
Gajanan Londhe, Director, Samvit Research Foundation, Bengaluru
Adithi Muralidhar, Scientific Officer, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science
Education, TIFR, Mumbai
Ankush Gupta, Associate Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science
Education, TIFR, Mumbai
B.K. Sharma, Former Professor, Department of Education in Science
and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
K.K. Arora, Former Professor, Zakir Husain Delhi College, University of
Delhi, Delhi
K.V. Sridevi, Associate Professor, Regional Institute of Education,
NCERT, Ajmer
Lakshmy Ravishankar, Former Professor, KET’s V.G. Vaze College of
Arts, Science and Commerce, Mumbai
Manoj Yadav, Professor, Government College, Ajmer
Mayuri Rege, Reader, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education,
TIFR, Mumbai
Monika Koul, Professor, Hansraj College, University of Delhi, Delhi
Mridula Arora, Principal, Navyug School, Sarojini Nagar, New Delhi
M.S. Sriram, Former Professor and Head, Department of Theoretical
Physics, University of Madras, Chennai and President, K.V. Sarma
Research Foundation, Chennai

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 Parmananad Burman, Scientist and Associate Editor, NISCPR, CSIR,
New Delhi
Pooja Gokhle, Assistant Professor, Sri Venkateshwara College,
University of Delhi, New Delhi
Pushpanjali Bhagat, Principal, Sarvodaya Kanya Vidyalaya, Pushp
Vihar, New Delhi
Pushpa Tyagi, Former Head of Department (Physics), Sanskriti School,
Chanakyapuri, New Delhi and Former PGT (Physics), Kendriya
Vidyalaya, Delhi
Saket Bahuguna, Assistant Professor (Linguistics), Central Institute of
Hindi, Delhi Centre, Ministry of Education, Government of India
Sanjay P. Sane, Professor, National Centre for Biological Sciences,
TIFR, Bengaluru
Sanjeev Kumar, Professor, School of Sciences, Indira Gandhi National
Open University, New Delhi
Santosh Gharpure, Professor, IIT Bombay, Mumbai
Satyajit Rath, Visiting Professor, Indian Institute of Science Education
and Research, Pune
Savita Ladage, Professor, Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education,
TIFR, Mumbai
Sujata Bhargava, Former Professor, Savitribai Phule Pune University,
Pune
Surendra Ghaskadbi, Former Scientist G, Agharkar Research Institute,
Pune
Vijay Sarda, Former Associate Professor, Zakir Husain Delhi College,
University of Delhi, Delhi
V.P. Srivastava, Former Professor, Department of Education in Science
and Mathematics, NCERT, New Delhi
V.B. Bhatia, Former Professor, Department of Physics and Astrophysics,
University of Delhi, Delhi
Yukti Sharma, Professor, Department of Education (CIE), University of
Delhi, Delhi

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 Constitution of India
Part IV A (Article 51 A)

Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India —
(a) to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the
National Flag and the National Anthem;
(b) to cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle
for freedom;
(c) to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India;
(d) to defend the country and render national service when called upon to
do so;
(e) to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all
the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or
sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of
women;
(f) to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture;
(g) to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures;
(h) to develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and
reform;
(i) to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;
(j) to strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective
activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour
and achievement;
*(k) who is a parent or guardian, to provide opportunities for education to
his child or, as the case may be, ward between the age of six and
fourteen years.

Note: The Article 51A containing Fundamental Duties was inserted by the Constitution
(42nd Amendment) Act, 1976 (with effect from 3 January 1977).
*(k) was inserted by the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act, 2002 (with effect from
1 April 2010).

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 Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
acknowledges the guidance and support of the esteemed Chairperson
and members of the National Curriculum Framework Oversight
Committee for their invaluable contributions in overseeing the
translation of NCF-SE 2023 perspectives into the textbook. NCERT is
also deeply grateful to the Chairperson, Co-Chairperson, and members
of the National Syllabus and Teaching-Learning Material Development
Committee for their continuous guidance and thorough review of
the textbook. Furthermore, NCERT extends its heartfelt thanks to the
Chairperson and members of the Sub-Group: Science, as well as other
relevant CAGs, for their support and guidelines on the cross-cutting
themes.
The Council is thankful to the Indian Institute of Astrophysics,
Bengaluru; Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences,
Nainital; National Council of Science Museums, Kolkata and Priti
Gupta, Former Researcher, TIFR for providing the photographs for
Chapter 12 ‘Earth, Moon and the Sun’; and T.A. Viswanath, Former
Associate Professor, Goa University, Goa for providing photographs for
Chapter 5 ‘Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical’.
The Council gratefully acknowledges the contribution of Jatinder
Mohan Mishra, Professor, DEL, NCERT, New Delhi; Suparna Diwakar,
Educator and Development Sector Professional, Chief Consultant,
Programme Office, NSTC; M. Pramod Kumar, Assistant Professor,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Coimbatore, and Senior Consultant,
Programme Office, NSTC; Ankeeta Bezboruah, Freelance Editor,
New Delhi; Vaishali Sukhija, Consultant, Programme Office, NSTC,
NCERT, New Delhi; Ruchi Shukla, Assistant Professor, Department of
Educational Psychology and Foundations of Education, NCERT, New
Delhi; Stuti Dalal, Designer and Founder, Simmering, Ahmedabad.
Acknowledgements are due to Sridhar Srivastava, Joint Director,
NCERT; Amarendra P. Behera, Joint Director, CIET, NCERT; Ranjana
Arora, Professor and Head, DCS&D, NCERT; Sunita Farkya, Professor
and Head, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi for providing academic,
administrative and technical support.
The Council acknowledges the efforts of Archana, Divya Mittal,
Dharmendra Kumar, Monika Lamoria, Nidhi Saini, Senior Research
Associates, Nitika Rani, Course Administrator, and Amar Kumar,
Monal, Neha, Shubham, Junior Project Fellows, Brijesh and Mansi
Rastogi, Graphic Designers, DESM, NCERT, New Delhi. The Council

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 acknowledges the support provided by the APC office and
administrative staff of DESM, NCERT, New Delhi.
The Council acknowledges the contribution of Pawan Kumar
Barriar, In-charge, DTP Cell, Publication Division, NCERT;
Sachin Tanwar, Manish Kumar, Naresh Kumar, Manoj Kumar,
DTP Operators (Contractual); Ilma Nasir, Editor (Contractual), and
Ariba Usman, Praveen Kumar, and Ambuj Mishra, Proofreaders
(Contractual), Publication Division, NCERT, New Delhi for giving this
manuscript a final shape.

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 Contents
Forewordiii
About this Book v
Chapter 1
The Ever-Evolving World of Science  01
Chapter 2
Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic, and Neutral  07
Chapter 3
Electricity: Circuits and their Components  23
Chapter 4
The World of Metals and Non-metals  41
Chapter 5
Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical 57
Chapter 6
Adolescence: A Stage of Growth and Change 73
Chapter 7
Heat Transfer in Nature  89
Chapter 8
Measurement of Time and Motion  105
Chapter 9
Life Processes in Animals  121
Chapter 10
Life Processes in Plants  137
Chapter 11
Light: Shadows and Reflections  153
Chapter 12
Earth, Moon, and the Sun 169

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 The Ever-Evolving
1 World of Science

The Ever-Evolving World of Science

We hope you enjoyed your adventures with Curiosity in
Grade 6, and are now ready to continue our journey into the
wonderful world of science. This again, is not just a textbook with
facts — it is an invitation to question, to perform experiments,
and to explore, as we try to understand the beautiful world we
live in. The world of science covers everything — small and large,
near and far. We may be looking at tiny cells inside a leaf, or
the movement of the sun and the stars. We may be testing out
the materials around us at home, or discussing how water flows
underground. As you go through the chapters in this book, you
will start new adventures that challenge your thinking, expand
your knowledge, and help you become an explorer, making small
discoveries for yourself.
Before we dive into our exciting journey, take a moment to
observe something special about this book. Look at the page
numbers — they follow the playful flight of a butterfly and the
soaring of a paper plane! Just as a butterfly flutters freely and a
paper plane flies into the sky, learning takes flight when curiosity
leads the way. Did you know that something as simple as a paper
plane inspired real scientific explorations of flight? From early
inventors studying bird wings to modern engineers designing
aircraft, the dream of flying started with simple observations and
experiments. So, as you turn each page, let your imagination take
flight — exploring new ideas, discovering wonders, and reaching
for the skies!

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 Exploration, of course, isn’t just about discovering new facts
or learning about different things in nature. Science, as we said
in Grade 6, is a process, so it is about a way of thinking that
welcomes curiosity, asks questions, and is open to the unknown.
In Grade 7, we will try to ask deeper questions: How do things
work? Why do events happen the way they do? And what can
we learn from the patterns that we see in nature?
To do this, we have to step out of this book, step out of the
classroom perhaps, and experience the world through activities
and experiments. These are experiences that we hope will not
just be interesting or exciting but also serve as stepping stones
to a deeper understanding of the environment we live in and of
our place on this planet. We believe that this will also help you
to see science as an ongoing process of discovery. And not just
about discovery alone, but also about responsibility. As young
science explorers, you will soon see how human activities are
linked to what happens in the natural world and are connected
to the society we live in. You will, we hope, also see the role that
science can play in addressing environmental challenges and
help in creating a more sustainable world.
But let’s get back into this book for now. You will read about
topics in different fields of science, from physics and chemistry
to biology and earth sciences. While they might appear as
different chapters, just as we had said in Grade 6, they are
all interconnected. Scientific ideas in one area often inspire
discoveries in another, or at least allow us to ask questions in
another area. So, let’s take a quick journey through our book for
this year. We will start by looking at the properties of materials
around us, mostly the things we experience but perhaps never
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

ask questions about — why are some fruits sour? What happens
when we wash a haldi stain on our school uniform?

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 3
We then move on and play with some
electric batteries, lamps and wires to try to
find other kinds of properties of materials.

The Ever-Evolving World of Science

What kind of materials do we need to make a
lamp glow? This will lead us to classifying
materials based on their properties — and we
will enter the world of metals and non-metals.
We know from our experience that a torch
battery runs out eventually, and can’t be used
again. We’ll explore what kind of changes happen around us.
Some changes can be reversed and others cannot be reversed.

Batteries run out, ice melts into water, fruits ripen, rocks break
into pebbles… what kind of changes are these? Some of these
happen, or happen faster, when things are heated. We will look
at how heat flows — whether it is the melting of an ice cube in a
glass, or the melting of a glacier. Water is, of course, everywhere,
and with the heat from the Sun, it evaporates from the seas and
falls as rain, perhaps trickling down into the ground, somewhere
far away.

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 However, it isn’t just changes in materials
around us that we see, or the hidden changes in
water that we do not see. As we are growing, our
bodies are changing as well. Especially around
the middle-school years, our bodies are changing
rapidly! Why? Not just us humans, there are
life processes that are essential to all animals
for their survival. To grow, we have to eat and
breathe, blood has to circulate the nutrients
from the food all over the body and so on. But
why animals alone? Don’t plants also need food
to grow? How do they get their food? Do they also
breathe? How? Over the time that life has evolved
on our planet Earth, it has figured out how to do this in a beautiful
and carefully balanced way. Ah, but what is time? The clock on
the wall or a wrist watch tells us the time and how it passes. We
get prepared to go to school in the morning and are ready to sleep
at night but have you thought about how we measure time? And
how fast does something happen?
Long before the age of electric clocks and digital watches, early
humans observed the shadows of objects in the Sun and used the
position of the shadows to tell the time. Light and shadows are
not just useful for shadow
puppets or to tell the time.
Naturally, light helps us see
and today, we’ve developed
a lot of ways to generate
light (so we can read a
book at night, even when
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

the Sun doesn’t shine). But,

more importantly, asking
questions about the nature

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 5
of light has given us a very deep understanding of the universe
we live in. While we’ll perhaps learn about it only later, light and
shadows are not just limited to things around us at home.

The Ever-Evolving World of Science

Even the Earth and the Moon can cast shadows, leading to
the fascinating phenomena of eclipses. And of course, we have
day and night that depend on receiving light from the Sun. To
understand all of this, we need to know how the Earth rotates
around its axis, how the Moon goes around the Earth, and the
Earth around the Sun. And the consequences of these movements
on life on our beautiful planet. While all this might have your
head spinning, think about it. Isn’t it amazing that we humans
can wonder about the wonderful world we live in?
In the chapters that follow, you’ll
also make simple observations and
do fun experiments, and dive into
topics that need careful thinking.
Each chapter builds on what you
already know and encourages you
to ask questions, explore, do hands-
on experiments, and think like a
scientist! As you will find out, even
those experiments that seem to
confirm what we think will happen,
might lead to some additional
questions that might need more
experiments and more questions.

1.1 Happy Exploring!

Activity 1.1: Question the Answer

In school or during tests, you’re usually given questions and

expected to find the answers. But let’s turn that around! To think

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 like a scientist, it is equally important to ask interesting questions!
Great scientists don’t just answer questions — they ask amazing
ones! (Remember last year we had said, “To be a wise person,
you must be a whys person”.)
Look at the answers below. Your task is to come up with a
curious, creative, and fun question or situations that could
lead to these answers. There are never any wrong questions, so
let your imagination run wild! Since such exercises might not
be very familiar, here is an example to help you! Suppose the
answer was ‘just make it half!’ — what all could this be a response
to? Well, it could range from “How do we ensure getting equal
shares of cake?” to “My essay is too long”, or “I can’t fit this in
the envelope” or even “I cannot dance to such a long song”... all
very different! So, let’s see what kind of creative questions you
can ask!

Question: ________________________________________________?

Answer: Just add some milk.

Question: ________________________________________________?

Answer: Because the cat’s teeth were crooked.

Question: ________________________________________________?

Answer: Don’t panic, I have my towel.

Question: ________________________________________________?

Answer: 42
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

(Please ask a more interesting, and not obvious questions

like “What is 32+10?”, or even “What is the answer to life, the
universe, and everything?”)

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 Exploring
2 Substances: Acidic,
Basic, and Neutral
On 28 February, the school hosted a science fair to celebrate
National Science Day. At the entry gate, siblings Ashwin and
Keerthi were greeted with a white sheet of paper. They were
curious to know why a white sheet of paper was given to them!
A few steps ahead, there was a volunteer spraying a liquid
on these sheets of paper. The siblings also got their white sheets
sprayed. To their surprise, the words ‘Welcome to the Wonderful
World of Science’ appeared on the papers the moment the liquid
was sprayed (Fig. 2.1). They were excited and eager to know how
this happened and the reason behind it.
Their curiosity was partly satisfied at the ‘Colourful World
of Substances’ stall. They saw many activities showing colour
changes on mixing different substances. They decided to explore
these changes further. Let us join them on this learning adventure.

Fig. 2.1: Scene of a science fair

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 2.1 Nature — Our Science Laboratory

2.1.1 Litmus as an indicator

Activity 2.1: Let us explore

 Collect samples of lemon juice, soap solution, amla juice,

tamarind water, vinegar, baking soda solution, lime water,
tap water, washing powder solution, sugar solution, and salt
solution.
 Take a strip of blue litmus paper
and cut it into small pieces.
 Spread these pieces on a clean
and dry white tile.
 Using a dropper, put one drop of
each of the samples, one-by-one,
on these litmus paper pieces, as
shown in Fig. 2.2a.
Fig. 2.2(a): Colour change in
blue litmus paper

 Do you observe any change

in the colour of the blue
litmus pieces?
 Record your observations
in Table 2.1.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 Repeat the same activity

with pieces of red litmus
paper as shown in
Fig. 2.2(b): Colour change in
Fig. 2.2b and record your red litmus paper
observations in Table 2.1.

How to prepare lime water?

Do not confuse lime water with the word lime, which is a fruit
similar to lemon.
Lime water (solution of calcium hydroxide in water) can be
easily prepared by mixing lime (chuna, i.e. calcium oxide) in water
and leaving it undisturbed for some time, say an hour. Filter the
liquid into another container and use it as lime water.

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 9

Table 2.1: Testing the nature of samples with blue and red litmus papers

Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic, and Neutral

Colour of blue Colour of red
litmus paper after litmus paper after
S.No. Name of the sample
putting a drop of putting a drop of
sample sample

1. Lemon juice

2. Soap solution

3. Amla juice

4. Tamarind water

5. Vinegar

6. Baking soda solution

7. Lime water

8. Tap water

9. Washing powder solution

10. Sugar solution

11. Salt solution

12. Any other

Now, let us analyse Table 2.1 and sort the samples into
three groups as follows —
 Group A with samples that turn the blue litmus paper to red.
 Group B with samples that turn the red litmus paper to blue.
 Group C with samples that do not affect either of the two
litmus papers.
Record the data in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2: Grouping of samples tested in Table 2.1

Group A Group B Group C

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 I am curious to know — what are these
red and blue litmus paper strips made of?
Why do they change colour when drops
of some samples are put on them?

Fig. 2.3: Blue and red litmus

Let us find out! paper strips

Litmus is a natural substance obtained from lichens. It is

available both as a solution and in the form of paper strips,
known as litmus paper. The litmus paper is available in two
colours—blue and red, as shown in Fig. 2.3.
Substances that turn blue litmus paper to red are acidic in
nature, while those that turn red litmus paper to blue are basic
in nature. Since litmus shows different colours in acidic and basic
solutions, it is called an acid-base indicator.
Some other substances, both natural and synthetic, can
also be used as indicators. Synthetic indicators are made in
laboratories, and you will learn more about them in higher
grades.

HOLISTIC LENS
Lichens are formed by the association of two
living organisms, a fungus and an alga. They grow
on rocks and trees in regions that have abundant
rainfall and clean air. Do you find lichens on trees
in your neighbourhood?
Lichens
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Now, let us classify the substances sorted in Group A, Group B,

and Group C in Table 2.2.
 The substances in Group A, such as lemon juice, amla juice,
tamarind water, and vinegar turned the blue litmus paper to
red, implying that these substances are acidic in nature.
 The substances in Group B, such as soap solution, baking
soda solution, lime water, and washing powder solution
turned the red litmus paper to blue. Hence, these substances
are basic in nature.
 The substances in Group C, such as tap water, sugar solution,
and salt solution, did not change the colour of either litmus
paper. Can you predict their nature?
These substances are said to be neutral because they are
neither acidic nor basic.

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 11

Activity 2.2: Let us relate and explore

Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic, and Neutral

Are all the substances in Group A of Table 2.2 edible? Have you
ever tasted these edible substances? Can you recall their taste?
You will find that all these substances taste sour. Thus, we can
say that substances that taste sour tend to contain acids and are
acidic in nature.
Caution — Do not taste anything until asked to do so. Do not taste any
unknown substance.
Some common edible substances and the names of the most
common acids present in them are given in Fig. 2.4.
Citric acid

Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

and Citric acid

Tartaric acid

Citric acid and Oxalic acid

Fig. 2.4: The most common acids present in some edible substances

Find out and write the names of the most common acids
present in the following substances —
Lemon________, Curd________, Tamarind________, Vinegar________.
Now, let us take one of the substances — baking soda
solution — from Group B. Rub the baking soda solution between
your fingers. What do you observe?
It feels soapy or slippery. Basic substances are generally
slippery to touch.
Also, bases generally taste bitter, but Now, I can check
everything that tastes bitter may not the nature of floor
contain a base. For example, bitter gourd cleaning liquid using
(karela) possesses a bitter taste but is not an indicator!
basic in nature.

If litmus is not available, are there

some other natural substances
that can serve as acid-base
indicators?

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 2.1.2 Red rose as an indicator
You might have observed many coloured flowers in your
surroundings. Try making your indicators using these flowers.

Activity 2.3: Let us prepare

 Collect some fallen petals of

red roses available in your
surroundings (Fig. 2.5). It is
advised not to pluck flowers. You
may pick petals or flowers fallen
on the ground.
 Take a fistful of the collected
petals of red roses and wash
them with water.
 Crush the petals using a mortar Fig. 2.5: Red roses
and pestle.
Fig. 2.6: Red rose
 Place them in a glass tumbler.
petals immersed in
hot water  Pour some hot water into the glass tumbler to ensure that
the crushed flower petals are completely immersed.
Caution — Perform this step under the supervision of an adult.
 Cover the glass tumbler with a lid. Wait for 5 – 10 minutes till
the water becomes coloured (Fig. 2.6), and filter it.
 The filtrate (liquid after filtration) is the required flower
extract (Fig. 2.7) to be used as an acid-base indicator.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Test tube

Test tube stand

Red rose extract

Fig. 2.7: Test tube containing the red rose extract

Activity 2.4: Let us find out

 Place 10 – 20 drops of the prepared red rose extract in each

of two small transparent bottles or test tubes. Mark them
A and B.
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 13
 Add 20 – 30 drops of
lemon juice in test tube A A B
and 20 – 30 drops of soap

Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic, and Neutral

solution in test tube B with
the help of droppers.
 Observe and record any
colour changes (Fig. 2.8) to
the extract in Table 2.3.
 Repeat the same with the
other samples used in Fig. 2.8: The changes in colour of the
Activity 2.1 and record your red rose extract on adding
observations in Table 2.3. lemon juice (A) and soap solution (B)

Table 2.3: Testing the nature of samples with the red rose extract

The colour of the

red rose extract Nature of the
S.No. Name of the sample after adding the substance
sample

1. Lemon juice

2. Soap solution

3. Amla juice

4. ...

Discuss your observations with your classmates.

 Are the samples that change the colour of the flower extract
to a shade of red the same as those that changed the colour
of blue litmus paper to red? (Group A, Table 2.2)
 Are the samples that change the colour of the flower extract
to a shade of green the same as those that changed the colour
of red litmus paper to blue? (Group B, Table 2.2)
 Are the samples that do not change the colour of the flower
extract the same as those that did not change the colour of
red and blue litmus papers? (Group C, Table 2.2)
From the above activity, we can conclude that the red rose
extract can also be used to test the nature of the substances;
hence, it is another example of an acid-base indicator. We can
conclude that the red rose extract seems to give red colour in an
acidic solution and green colour in a basic solution.
Can you now fill in the nature of the substances in Table 2.3?

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 We are sure that you will be excited about the above results.
You may repeat the process of preparing the extract and testing
substances with some vegetables, fruits, or flowers, such as
beetroot, purple cabbage, turmeric, Indian blackberry (jamun),
and red hibiscus (gudhal) flower. They can also act as acid-base
indicators.
FASCINATING FACTS
Hydrangea is a plant that
grows in cooler climates in
the Himalayan region and the
North-eastern states. It gives
flowers of different colours,
depending on the nature of the
soil. Acidic soil produces blue-
coloured flowers, whereas
Hydrangea flowers
in basic soil, the flowers are
pink or red. Can gardeners alter the colour of hydrangea flowers by
adjusting the acidic or basic nature of the soil?

2.1.3 Turmeric as an indicator

We have used blue and red litmus paper strips in Activity 2.1. Can
you also make paper strips with some other natural indicators?
Find out by performing the following activity.

Activity 2.5: Let us prepare

 Take a spoonful of turmeric (haldi) in a petri dish or container

and add a little water to make a paste (Fig. 2.9a). You may
also grind a piece of fresh turmeric.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 Carefully dip a piece of filter paper in the turmeric paste

until it gets yellow colour.
 Take it out and allow it to dry.
 Cut this yellow paper into thin strips, which are used as
‘turmeric paper’ (Fig. 2.9b).
Caution — Perform this step under the supervision of an adult.

(a) Turmeric paste (b) Turmeric paper strips

Fig. 2.9: Preparing turmeric paper

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 15
 Using a dropper, put a drop of each of the samples used in
Activity 2.1, one by one, on separate pieces of turmeric paper.

Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic, and Neutral

 Record your observations in Table 2.4.

Table 2.4: Testing the nature of samples with turmeric paper

The colour of the turmeric paper

S.No. Name of the sample
after putting a drop of the sample

1. Lemon juice

2. Soap solution

3. Amla juice

4. …

What did you observe?

 Do all samples change the colour of the turmeric paper?
 Group the samples which do not change the colour of the
turmeric paper.
Compare them with the
samples in Group A, Group B, I got a curry stain on my white
and Group C in Table 2.2. shirt and on applying soap it
Can turmeric paper be changed its colour! Wow! Now I
used as an indicator for acidic know the reason.
substances? Discuss your
observations with your classmates.
Based on the observations, we can conclude that turmeric
paper can be used to test basic substances. However, it cannot
differentiate between acidic and neutral substances.

FASCINATING FACTS
Why is turmeric known as a ‘Golden’ spice?
Turmeric is a member of the ginger family,
which is grown in India and other countries.
A common spice in daily households, it is being
researched for benefits beyond the taste and
Turmeric (Haldi)
colour it provides to the food! In the Ayurvedic
system of medicine, turmeric is considered to have numerous health
benefits, and is commonly used in several traditional home remedies.

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 Ashwin created a greeting card to pay gratitude to his teacher
on the day of Guru Purnima. He applied turmeric paste on white
paper and dried it. He wrote
his wishes in the teacher's
mother tongue (Odia
language) on the dried paper
using one of the solutions
tested in Table 2.4. Which
I respect my teacher as she nurtured
curiosity within me and bestowed solution can be used to write
upon me the gift of learning. I bow the message? His teacher
my head in gratitude to her! applauded his creative use
of this concept.

Are there any substances

whose odours change on
adding acidic or basic
substances?

There are some substances whose odours change in an acidic

or basic medium. These are called olfactory indicators.
Let us explore more!

Activity 2.6: Let us investigate

 Take some finely chopped onions in a container, along with

some strips of clean cotton cloth or filter paper.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 Tightly close the container and leave it overnight.

 Take two of the cotton cloth or filter paper strips from the
container and check their odour.
 Keep them on a clean surface and put a few drops of
tamarind water on one strip and a few drops of baking soda
solution on the other. Allow the drops to spread on the strips.
 Check the odour again.
 Do you notice any change in the odour of the onion strips
before and after putting tamarind water and baking soda
solution on them?
 Note your observations.
 Similarly, test the change in the odour with other acidic and
basic substances and record your observations.

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 17

KNOW A SCIENTIST

Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic, and Neutral

Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray (P.C. Ray) is known as the
‘Father of Modern Indian Chemistry’. He earned a doctorate
in chemistry from the United Kingdom and returned to
India. He contributed towards advancing
scientific research in India. He also
established India’s first pharmaceutical
company (a company in the field of
medicines) in 1901. He was a person rooted
in Indian culture and knowledge traditions.
Through his writings on the history of
chemistry in India, he highlighted the
achievements and expertise of ancient
Indian scientists to the modern world. Ray, a social reformer,
also advocated the use of the mother tongue as a medium of
instruction in educational institutions.

2.2 What Happens When Acidic Substances

Mix with Basic Substances?
Let us investigate by performing the following experiment.

Activity 2.7: Let us experiment

 Take one drop of lemon juice in a test tube and

add around twenty drops of water to it. Observe
the colour.
 Add a drop of blue litmus solution to it.
Fig. 2.10(a): The colour of the
 Do you observe any colour change (Fig. 2.10a)? solution on adding blue litmus
solution
 Slowly add drops of lime water to this test tube with
the help of a dropper and swirl it well.
 What do you observe? Is there any change in the
colour of the solution?
 A stage comes when the colour of the solution
changes from red to blue (Fig. 2.10b).
 Again, add one drop of lemon juice to the above
solution.
Can you predict why there is a change in colour? Fig. 2.10(b): The colour of the
solution on adding lime water

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 Initially, when a drop of blue litmus solution is added to the
lemon juice solution, the colour of the solution turns red. When
lime water is added to this test tube, the colour of the solution
eventually changes from red to blue. This shows that the solution
in the test tube is no longer acidic. Lime water has neutralised
the effect of the acid.
When the solution of an acid is mixed with the solution of a
base in sufficient quantity, we find that the resulting solution is
neither acidic nor basic. Such reactions are called neutralisation
reactions. In a neutralisation reaction, salt and water are formed
with the evolution (i.e., release) of heat.
Acid + Base → Salt + Water + Heat
There are many examples in everyday life where you can
observe the use of neutralisation processes.
Let us find out!

2.3 Neutralisation in Daily Life

Situation 1: Keerthi was observing a butterfly in
the garden with her hand resting on a tree trunk.
Suddenly, a red ant bit her, leaving her skin red
with stinging pain (Fig. 2.11). Her brother helped
her by applying moist baking soda to the affected
area, which relieved the pain. What do you think
might be the reason for this?
When an ant bites, it injects an acidic liquid
(formic acid) into the skin. The effect of the acid
can be neutralised by rubbing moist baking soda,
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

which is a base.
Fig. 2.11: Stinging effect What remedies do people use to treat ant bites
of an ant bite in your region?
Situation 2: On the Farmer’s Portal (an
online platform from the Department of
Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers
Welfare), a query from a farmer states, “My
plants are not growing well lately”. After
a detailed discussion, it was found that
the excessive use of chemical fertilisers
(substances added to soil to help plants
grow better) made the soil acidic. What
remedy might be provided to him?
When the soil is too acidic, the plants
Fig. 2.12: Neutralising the acidic do not grow well. It can be treated with
nature of soil lime, which is a base. (Fig. 2.12).
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 19
If the soil is basic, organic matter like manure and composted
leaves are added to it. Organic matter releases acids that
neutralise the basic nature of the soil.

Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic, and Neutral

Sometimes, the soil may be neutral, but the plants growing in
it may still show poor health, which can be due to the deficiency
of nutrients in the soil.
Situation 3: Ashwin’s friend Gurbir stays near an industrial area.
He shared with him that the fish population in his neighbourhood
lake was declining day by day! What do you think might be the
causes for this? It may be due to factory waste being released
into the lake.
If the factory waste is acidic in nature, what could be done to
save the fish in the lake?
The factory waste can be neutralised by adding basic
substances before releasing into the lake.
Let us wrap up!
Now, can you explain why the words ‘Welcome to the Wonderful
World of Science’ appeared on Ashwin and Keerthi’s paper sheets
when the liquid was sprayed on them?
Do you think that one possibility could be using a turmeric
solution for the spraying liquid and a soap solution for writing
on the paper?

In a Nutshell

 Substances around us may be classified as acidic, basic, and

neutral in nature.
 Extracts of lichen, red rose, red hibiscus, purple cabbage,
turmeric, etc., can be used to indicate the nature of substances.
 Substances that show different colours in acidic and basic
solutions are called acid-base indicators.
 Acids turn the colour of blue litmus to red. Bases turn the
colour of red litmus to blue.
 Extract of red rose gives red colour in acidic solutions and
green colour in basic solutions.
 The yellow colour of turmeric turns red in basic solutions
but remains unchanged in acidic and neutral solutions.
 An acid and a base neutralise each other, forming salt and
water, along with the evolution of heat.
 Many day-to-day problems like a red ant bite, acidic or basic
nature of soil, and industrial waste can be attempted to be
managed by the process of neutralisation.

Chapter 2.indd 19 4/3/2025 4:50:53 PM

 Let Us Enhance Our Learning

1. A solution turns the red litmus paper to blue. Excess addition

of which of the following solution would reverse the change?
(i) Lime water
(ii) Baking soda
(iii) Vinegar
(iv) Common salt solution
2. You are provided with three unknown solutions labelled A,
B, and C, but you do not know which of these are acidic, basic,
or neutral. Upon adding a few drops of red litmus solution
to solution A, it turns blue. When a few drops of turmeric
solution are added to solution B, it turns red. Finally, after
adding a few drops of red rose extract to solution C, it turns
green.
Based on the observations, which of the following is the
correct sequence for the nature of solutions A, B, and C?
(i) Acidic, acidic, and acidic
(ii) Neutral, basic, and basic
(iii) Basic, basic, and acidic
ENQUIRY (iv) Basic, basic, and basic
3. Observe and analyse Figs. 2.13, 2.14, and 2.15, in which
red rose extract paper strips are used. Label the nature of
solutions present in each of the containers.

?
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

WHY WHAT IF

WHERE W
H Fig. 2.13 Fig. 2.14
E Fig. 2.15
N
H WHAT
O COULD
W 4. A liquid sample from the laboratory was tested using various
CAN indicators:
L
O ? IT
W
N H Indicator Red litmus Blue litmus Turmeric
G I
C WHOSE
H Change No change Turned red No change in colour
WE
H L WHAT WILL
A S
T E
HAPPEN Based on the tests, identify the acidic or basic nature of the
liquid and justify your answer.
WHY WHAT
NOT SHOULD

20

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 21
5. Manya is blindfolded. She is given two unknown solutions to
test and determine whether they are acidic or basic. Which
indicator should Manya use to test the solutions and why?

Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic, and Neutral

6. Could you suggest various materials which can be used for
writing the message on the white sheet of paper (given at
the beginning of the chapter) and what could be in the spray INNOVATION
bottle? Make a table of various possible combinations and
the colour of the writing obtained.
DISCOVERY
7. Grape juice was mixed with red rose extract; the mixture got
a tint of red colour. What will happen if baking soda is added
to this mixture? Justify your answer. ENQUIRY

8. Keerthi wrote a secret message to her grandmother on her

birthday using orange juice. Can you assist her grandmother EXPLORATION
in revealing the message? Which indicator would you use to
make it visible? CURIOSITY
9. How can natural indicators be prepared? Explain by giving
an example.
10. Three liquids are given to you. One is vinegar, another is a
baking soda solution, and the third is a sugar solution. Can
you identify them only using turmeric paper? Explain.
11. The extract of red rose turns the liquid X to green. What will
the nature of liquid X be? What will happen when excess of
amla juice is added to liquid X?
12. Observe and analyse the information given in the following
flowchart. Complete the missing information.

Imagine a garden with plants

showing signs of poor health.

The soil can be ______ in nature. The soil can be ______ in nature.

Which indicator can be used

to test the nature of the soil?
_________________

The acidic soil can be treated The basic soil can be treated
with ________________________. with ________________________.

Chapter 2.indd 21 4/3/2025 4:50:55 PM

 DIVE
EEPER Aman accidentally spilt vinegar on some pieces
of an eggshell or marble and noticed bubbling.
He then poured a soap solution on another
piece of eggshell or marble, but no bubbles
appeared. Why did bubbles occur with vinegar
but not with soap solution?
Disciplinary

Exploratory Projects

 Create rangoli using acidic or basic substances and natural

indicators.
History Art
 You may discuss in your class the acidic, basic, or neutral
nature of water obtained from various sources. You may
like to test the water samples available from sources such as
Geography Society rain, taps, rivers, etc.
 Collect a soil sample of your area and find out whether it is
acidic, basic, or neutral in nature.
Technology Economy
Inter
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

22

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 Electricity:
3 Circuits and their
Components
Nihal and his classmates were excited for their school trip to the
Bhakra Nangal Dam. There they would visit the hydroelectric
power house where the force of falling water was used to generate
electricity. They also looked forward to the free 13 kilometre-
train ride from Nangal in Punjab to Bhakra in Himachal Pradesh,
along the beautiful Sutlej river and through the Shivalik hills.
Prior to the trip, Nihal and his classmates were given a group
assignment to prepare a presentation on the uses of electricity.
They began by looking around their houses, then their school,
followed by their neighbourhood, their city, and finally they
searched the internet. To their astonishment, their list kept
growing. They decided to organise the uses under different
headings.

Cooking Lighting Transportation Heating and Cooling

Electric kettle, mixer Homes, offices, Train, bus, Fan, room heater,
grinder, toaster, streets, markets, car, scooter, immersion rod, geyser,
oven, microwave, factories, lift, escalator, refrigerator, air
_______________ _______________ _______________ conditioner, _____

Entertainment Communication Others

Television, Mobile phone, Water pump,
radio, Internet, crane, computer,
_______________ _______________ _______________

Chapter 3.indd 23 4/3/2025 4:51:22 PM

 Can you help Nihal by adding some more uses to his lists?
Also, suggest some other ways of grouping the uses of electricity.
We use electricity all the time, so let us learn something more
about electricity. You have learnt earlier that electricity is
generated in multiple ways — by windmills, by using wind
energy, by solar panels capturing the Sun’s energy, by falling
water and by using natural gas or coal (in the chapter ‘Nature’s
Treasures’ in the Grade 6 Science textbook Curiosity). The electric
supply from these sources reaches our homes and factories via
wires. For example, at home we plug in various devices to the
electrical sockets in the wall. However, to learn about electricity,
we will focus on a portable source of electricity that most of us
may have used. Let us start with its use in a common device like
a torchlight.
Caution — The danger signs on electric poles and
other appliances warn people that electricity can
be dangerous if not carefully handled. Never ever
perform experiments with power supply at your
home or school. Even electricity from portable
generators can be dangerous. Use only batteries or
cells, like those in torchlights, wall clocks, radios, or
remotes, for experiments with electricity.

3.1 A Torchlight
You might have used a torchlight, also called a torch or a flashlight.

Activity 3.1: Let us explore

 Take a torchlight similar to the one shown in Fig. 3.1.

Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 Observe it carefully. Do you notice a lamp? And a switch?

 Slide its switch and observe. Does the torch lamp glow?
 Now slide the switch back to its original position and observe
the torch lamp.
Fig. 3.1: A torchlight You might have noticed that in the first position of the switch,
the torch lamp glows and in the other position the lamp does not
glow.
 Now, open the torchlight. What do you find inside?
Inside the torchlight, you may find two or more electric cells.

Why does the torch lamp

glow in one position of
its switch?

24

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 25

3.2 A Simple Electrical Circuit

Electricity: Circuits and their Components

To understand how a torch works, let us first find out about its
components.

3.2.1 Electric cell

Activity 3.2: Let us observe Negative
Positive
terminal terminal
 Take an electric cell, turn it around and look at
it carefully (Fig. 3.2). Do you notice a positive
(+) sign and a negative (–) sign marked on the
electric cell? Do you also notice that it has a
small protruding metal cap on one side and a
Fig. 3.2: An electric cell
flat metal disc on the other side?
All electric cells have two terminals; one is called positive (+ ve)
while the other is negative (– ve). The metal cap is the positive
terminal of the electric cell and the metal disc is the negative
terminal. The electric cell is a portable source of electrical energy.

3.2.2 Battery In a torch, we generally

use more than one cell.
Are those placed in any
Activity 3.3: Let us experiment
particular order?

 Take a torch which uses two cells. Open its cell compartment
and take out the cells.
 Put the cells back in a different order. Also, try reversing
the direction of one cell. Then, slide the switch and check
whether the lamp glows in each case.
 Check the order in which the cells were placed in the torch
when the lamp glows.
The lamp glows when the cells are placed in the order as
shown in Fig. 3.3. Notice how the terminals of the two cells are
connected. The positive terminal of one cell is connected to the
negative terminal of the next cell. Such a combination of two or
more cells is called a battery.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 3.3: A battery made up of (a) two cells (b) four cells

Chapter 3.indd 25 4/3/2025 4:51:26 PM

 For many devices, we may need more than one cell. So,
we connect two or more cells together as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Connecting more than one cell provides energy to the circuit for
a longer time and/or more energy.

FASCINATING FACTS
The term battery is also used for a single cell. We use the term battery
even for the single cell that powers our mobile phones.

3.2.3 Electric lamp

Incandescent Lamp

Activity 3.4: Let us observe

Glass bulb Filament For this activity, you will require a torchlight with an
incandescent lamp (or light bulb). Many old torchlights
still use such lamps. With your teacher’s help, confirm
that your torchlight uses an incandescent lamp.
Thick Thick
wire wire  Take the torch and examine its lamp. What do you
see? Do you notice a thin wire fixed in the middle
Insulator of the glass bulb?
(support) Metal case
(other  Now, switch on the torch. Which part of the lamp
Insulator terminal) glows?
Metal tip The thin wire inside the glass bulb of the lamp glows.
(one terminal) The glowing thin wire is called the filament of the lamp.
(a)
 Take out the lamp with the help of your teacher and
inspect it from all sides. How is the filament fixed?
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

The filament is attached to two thicker wires that

support it, as shown in Fig. 3.4a. One thick wire connects
to the metal case at the lamp’s base, while the other
connects to the metal tip at the centre of the base (Fig.
3.4b). These form the two terminals of the lamp, and
are fixed in a way that they do not touch each other.
In such incandescent lamps, the filament gets hot and
(b) glows to produce light.
Fig. 3.4: (a) A small incandescent
lamp used in a torch (b) its
simplified drawing showing
However, my torch has a
the connection of wires to the
terminals different kind of lamp. In fact, it
cannot be taken out of the torch
as it is fixed in it.

26

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 27
LED Lamp
Many torches in use today have a Light Emitting Diode (LED) lamp,
instead of an incandescent lamp, as shown in Fig. 3.5.

Electricity: Circuits and their Components

LED lamp

Fig. 3.5: An LED lamp for torch

Activity 3.5: Let us observe

 Take an LED of any colour (Fig. 3.6) and

observe. Do you see any filament inside it?
 Notice the length of two wires attached to - + - + - + -
+ + -
the LED. Do you find one of those longer
than the other?
Unlike incandescent lamps, LEDs do not
have filaments (Fig. 3.6). They also have two
terminals, but one is positive (attached to a
longer wire) and the other is negative (the
shorter wire). A torch may use one or more Fig. 3.6: LEDs of different colours
LEDs, sometimes of different shapes, in its
lamp.
After having learnt about the electric cell, battery, and electric
lamps, we are now ready to make the torch lamp glow using an
electric cell or battery.

3.2.4 Making an electric lamp glow using an

electric cell or battery
Activity 3.6: Let us construct

 Take an electric cell, an incandescent lamp used in a torch, a

cell holder, a lamp holder, and four lengths of electric wire.
 Remove about 1 cm of the plastic covering from both ends of
each wire to expose the metal.
 Attach two wires to the two ends of the cell holder as shown
in Fig. 3.7a.

Chapter 3.indd 27 4/3/2025 4:51:28 PM

 Spring

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.7: (a) An electric cell holder with two wires attached (b) An electric cell
inside the cell holder (c) Wires connected to an electric cell using electrical tape

 Insert the cell in the holder such that its negative terminal
is towards the spring side of the holder (Fig. 3.7b). In case a
cell holder is not available, fix the two wires to the cell using
electrical tape (Fig. 3.7c).
 Attach two wires to the screws of the lamp holder as shown
in Fig. 3.8a. Fix the lamp in the holder by turning it around in
the holder (Fig. 3.8b). In case a lamp holder is not available,
use electrical tape to attach two wires to the two ends of the
lamp (Fig. 3.8c).
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.8: (a) An electric lamp holder with wires attached (b) An incandescent
lamp inside the lamp holder (c) Wires connected to incandescent torch lamp
with electrical tape

Now, we are ready to connect the cell to the lamp to make it glow.
 We will conduct this activity in two parts — prediction and
observation. Some of the ways in which the lamp and the cell
can be connected are shown in Table 3.1.
 Predict, for each arrangement, if the lamp will glow or
not and write your prediction in Table 3.1.
 Now, connect the lamp and the cell, and observe if the
lamp glows or not. Note down your observation in Table
3.1. Also, for the lamps which glow, colour their glass
bulbs yellow.
28

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 29

Table 3.1: Trying to make the lamp glow

Note: The lamps are not shown glowing in any circuit

Electricity: Circuits and their Components

S.No. Arrangement of Cell and Lamp Prediction Observation

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Chapter 3.indd 29 4/3/2025 4:51:31 PM

 The lamp glows in the arrangements at S.No. 1 and 6 and does
not glow in the remaining arrangements. Now, carefully look at
the arrangements in which the lamp glows. Compare these with
those in which the lamp does not glow. Can you find the reason
for the difference?

3.2.5 An electrical circuit

The lamp glows when one terminal of the lamp is connected to
one terminal of the electric cell and the other terminal of the
lamp to the other terminal of the cell as shown in Fig. 3.9. This
setup forms an electrical circuit, which provides a
complete path for electric current to flow through
the lamp. The lamp glows only when current passes
through the circuit.
The direction of electric current in an electrical
circuit is taken to be from the positive to the negative
terminal of the electric cell. When the terminals of
the lamp are connected with those of the electric cell
by wires, the current passes through the filament
of the incandescent lamp and makes it glow. With
an incandescent lamp, it does not matter which of
its terminals connects to the positive or negative
terminal of the cell. The lamp will glow as long as
Fig. 3.9: An electrical circuit the circuit is complete and current flows through
the filament.

FASCINATING FACTS
Sometimes, an incandescent lamp does not glow even when
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

connected to a cell. We say the lamp has ‘fused’ usually due to

a broken filament. A broken filament stops the flow of current,
preventing the lamp from glowing.

Let us now try to make an LED glow.

Activity 3.7: Let us experiment

 Take two electric cells, an LED of any colour, a cell holder

that can fit two cells (Fig. 3.8a), and two lengths of electric
wire.
 Remove about 1 cm of the plastic covering from both ends of
each wire to expose the metal.
 Connect the two wires to the cell holder as shown in
Fig. 3.10a.

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 31
 Insert two cells in the holder, taking care
that for each cell, its negative terminal
is towards the spring side of the holder

Electricity: Circuits and their Components

(Fig. 3.10b) and the battery is ready to use.
+ –
How will you decide which is the positive
terminal of this battery?
The terminal of the holder which is connected
to the positive terminal of one cell is positive
and the one connected to the negative terminal
of the other cell is the negative terminal.
 Now, connect the free end of the battery
positive terminal wire to the longer wire of (a) (b)
LED, and the free end of the second wire to
the shorter wire of LED (Fig. 3.10c). Does the
LED glow?
+ – – +
 Repeat the above step but interchange the
wires connected to the LED (Fig. 3.10d).
Does the LED glow again?
You would have observed that the LED glows + – + –
in the first case (Fig. 3.10c) and does not glow in
the other (Fig. 3.10d). It is because the current
can pass through the LED in one direction only.
The current passes through the LED only when
the positive terminal (longer wire) of the LED is
connected to the positive terminal of the battery,
and negative terminal (shorter wire) of the LED
is connected to the negative terminal of the (c) (d)
battery. When current passes through the LED,
it glows. Always take care to connect an LED Fig. 3.10: Making an LED glow
correctly in a circuit to make it glow.

Sometimes you may come across a device in which the cells are placed
side by side. Then, how are the terminals of the cells connected?
If you carefully look inside
DIVE
EEPER
the battery compartment, you
will usually see a thick wire
or metal strip connecting the
positive terminal of one cell
to the negative terminal of
the next. To help with proper
placement, ‘+’ and ‘–’ symbols
are typically printed inside.

Chapter 3.indd 31 4/3/2025 4:51:34 PM

 3.2.6 Electric switch How does a switch turn
Let us first make a simple on or off the torchlight?
switch on our own.

Activity 3.8: Let us construct

 Collect two drawing pins, a safety pin (or a

paper clip), two wires, and a small piece of
cardboard.
(a)  Insert a drawing pin through the ring of the
safety pin and fix it to the cardboard piece,
ensuring that the safety pin can rotate freely
(Fig. 3.11a).
 Fix the second drawing pin to the cardboard
piece so the free end of the safety pin can
(b) touch it (Fig. 3.11b).
Fig. 3.11: A switch
 Connect a wire to each drawing pin — our
(a) in ‘OFF’ position
(b) in ‘ON’ position switch is ready!
Let us now test our switch.

Activity 3.9: Let us test

 Connect the electric cell, lamp, and switch

as shown in Fig. 3.8a. Does the lamp glow?
 Rotate the free end of the safety pin till it
touches the other drawing pin as shown in
Fig. 3.8b. Does the lamp glow now?
When the safety pin touches both drawing
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

(a)
pins, it closes the gap and completes the path, and
allows the current to flow. We call this the ON
position (Fig. 3.8b) where the circuit is closed
and current flows from the cell’s positive to
negative terminal making the lamp glow. When
the safety pin does not touch the second drawing
pin, the gap in the circuit prevents current flow,
and the lamp does not glow. In this OFF position
(Fig. 3.8a), we say that the circuit is open.
Note that a switch can be placed anywhere in
(b) a circuit. A switch is a simple device that either
completes or breaks a circuit. The switches used
Fig. 3.12: An electrical for lights and other devices at home work the
circuit with a switch in same way, though they are designed differently.
(a) ‘OFF’ position
(b) ‘ON’ position

32

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 33

3.3 Circuit Diagrams

Can we represent

Electricity: Circuits and their Components

The various components of an electrical the circuits in a
circuit can be represented by symbols simpler manner?
shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Electrical components and their symbols

S.No. Electrical component Symbol

1. Electric cell

2. Battery

3. Electric lamp

4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

5. Switch in ‘ON’ position

6. Switch in ‘OFF’ position

7. Wire

In the symbol for an electric cell, the long line represents the
positive terminal, while the short line represents the negative
terminal (Fig. 3.13a).

Chapter 3.indd 33 4/3/2025 4:51:40 PM

 In the symbol for an LED, the triangle
points to the direction in which the current
+ - + - can flow. The two arrows indicate that light
is emitted by an LED (Fig. 3.13b).
By using symbols to represent
(a) (b)
electrical components, it is easier to draw
Fig. 3.13: Positive and negative and understand electrical circuits. A
terminals in the symbols of
representation of an electrical circuit using
(a) a cell (b) an LED
symbols is called its circuit diagram.

Activity 3.10: Let us draw

 Using symbols shown in Table 3.2, draw the circuit diagram

of an electrical circuit given in Fig. 3.12a and Fig. 3.10c.
Are your circuit diagrams similar to Fig. 3.14a and Fig. 3.14b
respectively?

(a) (b)
Fig. 3.14: A circuit diagram (a) with an incandescent lamp (b) with an LED lamp

D IVE International organisations, such as the International

EEPER Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), American National
Standards Institute (ANSI), and the Institute of Electrical
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) create standard symbols

for electrical and electronic parts. Using the same
symbols across the world helps people from different
countries and industries understand each other easily.

3.4 Electrical Conductors and Insulators

Why did we use metal wires for

making electric circuits? Can we
not use some other materials for
wires?

Also, why are electric wires

covered with plastic or
rubber?
34

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 35
Suppose, we make wires of materials other than
metal and use them for making the electrical
circuit. Do you think the electric current will

Electricity: Circuits and their Components

pass through those materials in such a circuit?

Activity 3.11: Let us identify

 Connect an electric cell and a lamp while

leaving the two ends of wires free as shown (a)
in Fig. 3.15a.
 Touch the two free ends of the wires
momentarily. Does the lamp glow? If yes,
our tester is ready. We can use this tester
to identify the materials through which
electric current passes.
 Collect objects of different materials, such
as metal spoons, coins, cork, rubber, glass,
keys, pins, plastic scale, wooden block, (b)
aluminium foil, candle, sewing needle,
cardboard, paper, and pencil lead. Fig. 3.15: (a) Conduction tester
 One by one, touch the free ends of the tester’s (b) Using the conduction tester for
testing a material
wires to both ends of each object you have
collected (Fig. 3.15b). Make sure the wires don’t touch each
other. Does the lamp glow every time?
 Record your observations in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3: Identifying Conductors and Insulators

Material it Lamp glows Conclusion

S.No. Object is made up (Yes/No) (Conductor/
of Insulator)

1. Stick Wood No

2. Scale Plastic

3. Bangle Glass

4. Paper strip Paper

5. Candle Wax

6. Key Metal

7. Eraser Rubber

8.

9.

Chapter 3.indd 35 4/3/2025 4:51:42 PM

  Analyse your observations. Did the lamp glow for all
materials?
The lamp glows for some materials only. This means that
electric current can pass easily through some materials but not
through others. The materials through which electric current
can flow easily are called good conductors, or conductors of
electricity. The materials through which current cannot pass
through are called insulators, or poor conductors of electricity.
 Based on the observations you have recorded in Table 3.3,
conclude which materials are conductors of electricity and
which are insulators. Note it in Table 3.3.
From your conclusions in Table 3.3, you would have realised
that metals are conductors of electricity, and thus, are used for
making wires.

DIVE
EEPER Silver, copper, and gold are the best electrical conductors.
However, for making electrical wires, mainly copper is used
due to its comparatively lower cost and abundant supply.
Different types of electrical wires are used for different uses.

From Table 3.3, you would have also realised that plastic,
rubber, and ceramics are electrical insulators. Have you now
understood why wires are covered with those materials?
Conductors and insulators are both important. Electrical
wires, switches, connectors of plugs, and sockets are made of
conductors. Insulators like rubber, plastics, and ceramics are
used to cover wires, plug tops, and switches to protect people
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

from electric shocks.

Caution — Our body is a conductor of electricity. Electric current
passing through our body may cause severe injury or even death.
Always handle electrical appliances with care. Never touch switches or
plugs with wet hands, or use electrical devices in wet areas, or handle
equipment with damaged insulation or broken plugs.

DIVE
EEPER Have you ever wondered how the electricity from a cell or
battery is different from the electricity coming from a wall
socket? Electricity from batteries usually powers small
devices and is of a type called Direct Current (DC). In contrast,
the electricity from power plants that come to the wall socket
is known as Alternating Current (AC) and can run larger
appliances.

36

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 37

In a Nutshell

Electricity: Circuits and their Components

 An electric cell is a portable source of electrical energy.
 An electric cell has two terminals; one is called positive (+ve)
while the other is negative (–ve).
 In an incandescent electric lamp, there is a thin wire called
the filament, which gets hot and glows to produce light when
electric current passes through it.
 An LED has two terminals, one is positive (attached to a
longer wire) and the other is negative (the shorter wire).
 Electric current can pass through LED in one direction only.
 An LED lights up only when its positive terminal (longer
wire) connects to the positive terminal of the battery and
its negative terminal (shorter wire) connects to the negative
terminal of the battery.
 A switch is a simple device that either completes or breaks a
circuit.
 The direction of electric current in a closed electrical circuit
is taken to be from the positive to the negative terminal of
the electric cell.
 A representation of an electrical circuit using symbols is
called its circuit diagram.
 Materials through which electric current can flow easily are
called good conductors or conductors of electricity. ENQUIRY

 Materials through which current cannot pass through are

called insulators or poor conductors of electricity.

Let Us Enhance Our Learning ?

1. Choose the incorrect statement. WHAT IF WHY

(i) A switch is the source of electric current in a circuit. W WHERE

H
(ii) A switch helps to complete or break the circuit. E
N
WHAT H
(iii) A switch helps us to use electricity as per our requirement. COULD
O
W
CAN
(iv) When the switch is in ‘OFF’ position, there is an air gap IT ?
L
O
W
between its terminals. A H N
G
I
C
2. Observe Fig. 3.16. With which WHOSE
H
material connected between the WE
H L
B WHAT WILL
ends A and B, the lamp will not HAPPEN A S
T E
glow? WHAT WHY
SHOULD NOT

Fig. 3.16

Chapter 3.indd 37 4/3/2025 4:51:45 PM

 3. In Fig. 3.17, if the filament of one of the lamps is broken, will
the other glow? Justify your answer.

Fig. 3.17

4. A student forgot to remove the insulator covering from the

connecting wires while making a circuit. If the lamp and the
INNOVATION cell are working properly, will the lamp glow?
5. Draw a circuit diagram for a simple torch using symbols for
DISCOVERY electric components.
6. In Fig. 3.18:
ENQUIRY (i) If S2 is in ‘ON’ position, S1 is in ‘OFF’ position, which
lamp(s) will glow?
EXPLORATION (ii) If S2 is in ‘OFF’ position, S1 is in ‘ON’ position, which
lamp(s) will glow?
CURIOSITY (iii) If S1 and S2 both are in ‘ON’ position, which lamp(s) will
glow?
(iv) If both S1 and S2 are in ‘OFF’ position, which lamp(s) will
glow?
L1 S L2
2
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

S1
Fig. 3.18

7. Vidyut has made the circuit as

shown in Fig. 3.19. Even after
closing the circuit, the lamp
does not glow. What can be the
possible reasons? List as many
possible reasons as you can
for this faulty operation. What
will you do to find out why the
lamp did not glow?
Fig. 3.19

38

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 39
8. In Fig. 3.20, in which case(s) the lamp will not glow when the
switch is closed?

Electricity: Circuits and their Components

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Fig. 3.20
9. Suppose the ‘+’ and ‘–’ symbols cannot be read on a battery.
Suggest a method to identify the two terminals of this battery.
10. You are given six cells marked A, B, C, D, E, and F. Some of
these are working and some are not. Design an activity to
identify which of them are working.
(i) List the items that you require.
(ii) Write the procedure that you will follow.

Disciplinary
(iii) With the items, carry out the activity to identify the cells
that are working.
11. An LED requires two cells in series to glow. Tanya made the
circuit as shown in Fig. 3.21. Will the lamp glow? If not, draw
the wires for correct connections.
History Art
–

+ Geography Society
Fig. 3.21

Exploratory Projects
Technology Economy

 Suppose that due to some problem, the power supply is

Inter

disrupted in your area for two days. List out which actions
from your daily life you would not be able to do.

Chapter 3.indd 39 4/3/2025 4:51:46 PM

  Using a solar panel (Fig. 3.22a) as a source of electrical
energy, make a circuit to run a toy fan (Fig. 3.22b) as shown
in Fig. 3.22c.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.22

 Visit an electrical items shop. With the help of the

shopkeeper, identify the various types of cells available. For
each cell, also find out which device(s) it is used for. Prepare
a report.
 Prepare a list of objects in your home under three categories:
(i) Objects which are electrical insulators only
(ii) Objects which are electrical conductors only
(iii) Objects which are made of both, whose some parts are
insulators and some electrical conductors

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Electric cells or batteries are compact
portable sources of electrical energy
that make the use of some electrical
devices more convenient. These cells and
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

batteries come in various shapes and sizes

for different purposes, such as cylindrical
batteries for torchlights, clocks, remotes, - +
toys; button cells for watches, hearing
aids; rechargeable batteries for mobile
phones, laptops, and electric vehicles.

40

Chapter 3.indd 40 4/3/2025 4:51:48 PM

 The World of Metals
4 and Non-metals
Yashwant and Anandi live in a village in Rajasthan. Their school
has assigned them a project to learn about craftspersons who
work with metals. They decide to visit the local ironsmiths who
practise this craft. Yashwant and Anandi request their grandfather
to accompany them (Fig. 4.1). They are curious to learn how these
ironsmiths make different items of daily use. They interact with
an elderly craftsperson, Sudarshan uncle.
Yashwant: Which items do you generally make?
Sudarshan: Generally, we make items of daily use, such as flat
pans (tawas), buckets (baltis), tongs (chimtas), and farming tools
like spades (phawras), axes (kulhadis), trowels (khurpis), and
rakes (jelees).
Anandi: What materials are they made of?

Fig. 4.1: Ironsmith making various items

Chapter 4.indd 41 4/3/2025 4:52:08 PM

 Sudarshan: We use iron metal to make these items. We also use
wood to prepare handles wherever required. Additionally, we
use coal in our furnaces to heat the iron.
Sudarshan is heating an iron block in the furnace. It has become
red hot. He starts beating it hard with a hammer.
Anandi is amazed and asks, “Why are you beating it?”
Sudarshan: I am beating it to shape it into an axe.
Anandi: Wow, a piece of iron can be beaten into a flat shape! Can
we do this with other metals as well?
You may also have many such questions — let us explore what
else we can do with metals.

4.1 Properties of Materials

4.1.1 Malleability

Activity 4.1: Let us explore

Caution — Conduct this activity under the supervision of your teacher

or an adult.
 Collect some waste pieces of copper and aluminium, an iron
nail, a piece of coal, a pea-sized lump of sulfur (gandhak),
and a block of wood.
 Recall the chapter ‘Materials Around Us’ in the Grade 6
Science textbook Curiosity and observe the appearances of
the above items. Are they lustrous? Also, note whether they
are hard or soft and record your observations in Table 4.1.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 Now, place each of these

items one by one on any
hard surface and beat them
with a hammer (Fig. 4.2).
 What do you think will
happen? Do the objects
become slightly flattened or
do they break into pieces?
 Record your observations in
Table 4.1.

Fig. 4.2: Beating an iron nail with a hammer

42

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 43

Table 4.1: Appearance, hardness, and effect of hammering on different

objects or materials

The World of Metals and Non-metals

Appearance Effect of hammering
S.No. Object/Material (lustrous/ Hard/Soft (flattens/breaks into
non-lustrous) pieces)

1. Piece of copper

2. Piece of aluminium

3. Iron nail

4. Piece of coal

5. Lump of sulfur
(pea-sized)

6. Block of wood

Analyse Table 4.1. Identify the objects that are lustrous in

appearance and hard. You might have observed that objects made
from copper, aluminium, and iron are lustrous in appearance
and are hard. Lustre shown by metals is known as metallic
lustre. Materials like copper, aluminium, and iron are known as
metals, whereas, coal, sulfur, and wood are non-lustrous and
not as hard as metals.
Are all metals hard and solid? Not really; some metals like
sodium and potassium are so soft that they can be cut with a
knife. There is one metal, mercury, that is found in a liquid state at
room temperature, which you might have seen in thermometers.
Recall the chapter ‘Temperature and its Measurement’ from the
Grade 6 Science textbook Curiosity.
Which objects did you find become flat on beating with a
hammer?
You must have observed that objects such as a piece of copper,
an iron nail, and a piece of aluminium become flat when beaten;
whereas other objects or materials behave differently. This
property by which materials can be beaten into thin sheets is
called malleability. Most metals possess this property. Can you
give some examples of metal sheets? You might have seen thin
silver foil on some sweets and aluminium foil used for wrapping
food items. These are formed due to their malleability. Gold and
silver are the most malleable metals.

Chapter 4.indd 43 4/3/2025 4:52:08 PM

 A piece of coal or a lump of sulfur does not show this behaviour.
They break into pieces and are said to be brittle. On the other
hand, wood neither gets flattened into a sheet nor breaks into
pieces. Therefore, wood is neither malleable nor brittle.

HOLISTIC LENS
The impact of iron on the progress of civilisation of India
In the Grade 6 Social Science textbook Exploring Society India and
Beyond, you learnt about the Harappans. They knew how to use
metals like copper and gold. They used these metals to make various
objects, from utensils to jewellery. However, you would hardly find
any evidence of the Harappans using a very prominent metal iron,
which you see a lot around you today. This is because it took a long
time before iron was used in day-to-day activities.
However, once the use of iron gained prominence in the times that
followed, it contributed significantly to the progress of civilisation in
India. For instance, due to its strength, agricultural tools like ploughs
made from iron were much superior to those used previously.
What could be the potential reason that it is generally considered
that copper was discovered earlier as compared to iron?

4.1.2 Ductility
Where do you find the use of metal wires?
You might have seen wires of metals like copper or aluminium
in electrical fittings. Some ornaments, like bangles, necklaces,
earrings, etc., are also made from metal wires. Metal wires play
important functions in a variety of stringed musical instruments,
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

such as veena, sitar, violin, and guitar.

This property of materials by which they can be drawn into
wires is called ductility.
This property of ductility is mainly possessed by metals.

Gold is so ductile The ductile nature of

that one gram of it metals enables for
can be drawn into a the creation of
2 kilometre-long wire! this tea strainer
with metal wire.

44

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 45
Have you ever seen wires made of coal or sulfur? Obviously
not! We can say that coal and sulfur are not ductile.

The World of Metals and Non-metals

Do you know that ropes made of steel [a mixture
of metal (iron) and non-metal (carbon)] wires can DIVE
EEPER
support heavy loads? Therefore, they are used in
suspension bridges and in cranes to lift heavy objects.

Suspension bridge

4.1.3 Sonority
Have you ever noticed the sound produced when a metal spoon,
or a metal plate, or a metal coin is dropped on the floor? How is it
different from the sound produced when a piece of coal or wood
is dropped on the floor?
I use the difference in
Activity 4.2: Let us investigate sound when my stick
hits wood or metal to
Caution — Be careful while dropping the help find my way.
objects.
 Take a few objects, such as a metal
spoon, a coin, a piece of coal, and
a block of wood.
 Drop them one by one from a certain height.
 Do you notice any difference in the sound
produced by these objects?

Chapter 4.indd 45 4/3/2025 4:52:13 PM

 You would observe that the metal spoon and the metal coin
produce a ringing sound. Coal and wood, on the other hand,
produce dull sounds.
This property of metals that enables them to produce a ringing
sound is called sonority, and metals are said to be sonorous in
nature.

Oh! The ringing sound Now, I understand!

of my ghungroos The ringing sound
is also due to the of the school bell is
sonority of metals. due to the sonority
of metals.

4.1.4 Conduction of heat

Have you ever observed the vessels used for cooking in the
kitchen? You might have noticed that the vessels used for heating
are made of metals. Can you name some metals that are used for
making cooking vessels? Do you know why these metals are used
for this purpose?
Let us find out!

Activity 4.3: Let us investigate

Caution — This activity must be performed under the supervision of

your teacher or an adult. Be careful while handling hot water.
 Place a glass tumbler on a table.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Metal
spoon Wooden  Fill it with hot water.
spoon
 Take a metal spoon and a wooden
spoon of almost the same size and
thickness.
 Immerse both the spoons
simultaneously into the hot water
(Fig. 4.3) and leave them undisturbed
for a few minutes.
Fig. 4.3: Metal and wooden spoons  Now, carefully touch the upper end
immersed in hot water of each spoon.

46

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 47
Some discussion points:
 Which of the spoons get hotter?

The World of Metals and Non-metals

 What does this experiment tell us about heat transfer along
the two spoons?
You may have noticed that the metal spoon is hotter to touch
than the wooden spoon. Even though both spoons are immersed
in the water of the same temperature and for the same time. This
shows that the heat transfers through the metal spoon, making it
hotter. In contrast, the wooden spoon transfers heat poorly.
In such cases, the transfer of heat from one point to another
of a material is called conduction, and materials that transfer
heat are called conductors.
Based on the observations, one can say that metals are good
conductors of heat, whereas wood is a poor conductor of heat.
Now, we can understand why mostly metal vessels are used
for cooking, and their handles are made with wood or other
materials that do not conduct heat. You will learn more about
this in the chapter ‘Heat Transfer in Nature’.

4.1.5 Conduction of electricity

Have you ever seen an electrician using a screwdriver? What
type of material is used for making its handle? You may have
also noticed the electrician wearing rubber gloves and shoes
while working. What can be the reason for this?

Activity 4.4: Let us design and create

Design an electric circuit, like the ‘tester’ circuit in the chapter

‘Electricity: Circuits and their Components’. Repeat the same
activity using the materials listed below and record your
observations in Table 4.2.
 You may collect a few objects, such as a piece of aluminium
foil, an iron nail, a lump of sulfur (pea-sized), a copper wire,
a piece of coal, a piece of dry wood, a stone, an eraser made
of rubber and a piece of nylon rope.
 Predict which of these could make the bulb of the tester
glow and which could not.

Chapter 4.indd 47 4/3/2025 4:52:14 PM

 Table 4.2: Conduction of electricity by different objects or materials

Observation Good conductor of

S.No. Object/Material (bulb glows/does electricity or poor
not glow) conductor of electricity

1. Piece of
aluminium foil

2. Iron nail
Lump of sulfur
3.
(pea-sized)

4. …

You might have observed that objects made of aluminium,

iron, and copper make the bulb glow, whereas sulfur, coal,
wood, stone, eraser, and nylon rope could not make it glow. Do
you see any pattern in the glowing of bulbs when using different
materials in Activity 4.4? It is observed that all the materials that
make the bulb glow are metals.
Materials that allow electricity to flow through them easily
are called good conductors of electricity. In contrast, materials
that prevent the bulb from glowing by not allowing electricity to
pass through them are called poor conductors of electricity.
So, now we can understand that the plastic covering on
screwdrivers and rubber gloves protect the electrician from
electric shock because these materials are poor conductors of
electricity.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

We learnt that metals are generally hard, lustrous, malleable,

ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Now, let us
learn how metals behave in the presence of air and water.

4.2 Effect of Air and Water on Metals: Iron

You would have often noticed that iron objects develop brown
deposits when left in the open for a few days. In which conditions
would an iron object develop brown deposits?
 When it comes into contact with dry air only.
 When it comes into contact with water only.
 When it comes into contact with both air and water.

48

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 49

Activity 4.5: Let us experiment

The World of Metals and Non-metals

Caution — Be careful while handling iron nails.
 Take a few shining iron nails. If you are using old iron
nails, make sure to remove brown deposits from their
surface by scrubbing them with the help of a small Thread
A
piece of sandpaper.
 Take three clean, dry glass bottles or test tubes with Iron nail
tight-fitting caps or stoppers. Label them A, B, and C.
Silica gel
 Take three iron nails and tie each iron nail with a thread. Fig. 4.4(a)
 Place one iron nail and some silica gel in the glass bottle
‘A’, and tighten the cap or stopper (Fig. 4.4a). Silica gel
makes the air dry. It is the substance that is used in
B Thread
small pouches in some medicine bottles, water bottles,
shoe boxes, etc., to keep them dry. Oil

 Place one iron nail in the glass bottle ‘B’. Pour freshly Iron nail
boiled and cooled water (to remove dissolved gases) Water
into it until the iron nail is completely dipped in it. Now, Fig. 4.4(b)
pour some oil to form a layer over the surface of the
water (Fig. 4.4b). The layer of oil on the surface of the
water prevents the air from dissolving in the water. Cap
C Thread
the glass bottle tightly.
 Place one iron nail in the glass bottle ‘C’, and pour some
water so that the iron nail is partially dipped. Keep this Iron nail
glass bottle unstoppered. This allows the iron nail to Water
come into contact with both water and air, as shown in Fig. 4.4(c)
Fig. 4.4c.
Fig. 4.4: Glass bottles
 Place all the glass bottles undisturbed at room containing iron nails
temperature and observe the changes for 8 – 10 days.
 Record your observations in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3: Formation of brown deposit on iron nails

Conditions
Glass
Bottle Observations
Presence of water Presence of air
(Yes/No) (Yes/No)

A No Yes

Chapter 4.indd 49 4/3/2025 4:52:14 PM

 What can you conclude from this experiment?
It is observed in glass bottles A and B that the iron nails do not
show any brown deposits. What does this observation indicate?
This indicates that brown deposits or discolouration on the iron
nails do not develop when the iron nail is kept in dry air alone
(bottle A) or water alone (bottle B). However, in glass bottle C, the
iron nail shows the presence of brown deposits. This indicates that
the presence of both water and air is essential for these deposits
to develop. Thus, moist air is responsible for the development of
brown deposits on objects made of iron. This brown deposit is
called rust. The process of formation of rust on objects made of
iron is called rusting.
Many other metals also exhibit discolouration when kept open
in the atmosphere. Have you noticed the formation of a green
coating on the surface of copper objects or a black coating on the
surface of silver objects? Gradual deterioration of metal surfaces
caused by air, water, or other substances is known as corrosion.
Do you know that rusting of iron is a serious problem in our
country? Every year, an enormous amount of money is spent to
replace or repair iron structures damaged due to rusting.
The rusting of iron can be prevented by several methods such
as painting, oiling, greasing, and applying a protective layer of
zinc metal on iron (galvanisation). We will learn about this in
higher grades.

FASCINATING FACTS
The wonder of ancient Indian metallurgy!
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

The Iron Pillar of Delhi was made in the time of

Chandragupta II more than 1600 years ago. It is about
8 metres high and weighs more than 6000 kilograms.
What is interesting about this iron pillar is that despite
all these years of facing winds, rainfall, and intense
weather, it has barely any rust.
In other words, it has been made in
a way that it resists rusting. This tells us
about the skills that were developed in
metal technology in India.

The Iron Pillar (Delhi)

50

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 51

4.3 Effect of Air and Water on Other

Metals

The World of Metals and Non-metals

Activity 4.6: Let us investigate (demonstration activity)

The teacher may demonstrate this activity.

Caution — It is advisable for students to wear protective eyeglasses
and keep safe distance.
 Take a magnesium ribbon about
3 – 4 centimetres long. Clean
it by rubbing with a piece of
sandpaper.
 Hold it with a pair of tongs.
Ignite the other end using a
spirit lamp or a candle (Fig. 4.5).
 Let the magnesium ribbon burn.
 What do you observe?
Fig. 4.5: Burning magnesium ribbon
 You must have observed that
magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling white flame and
changes into a white powder. Collect it on a watch glass. This
powder is magnesium oxide. It is formed due to the reaction
between magnesium and oxygen present in the air.
 Add a few drops of warm water to this white powder, stir it
well, and check its nature.
 Recall the chapter ‘Exploring Substances: Acidic, Basic, and
Neutral’. Find out whether the solution of magnesium oxide
is acidic or basic or neutral in nature. You can use any
acid-base indicator.
Blue litmus
 What effect does this solution have paper
on blue and red litmus papers?
Red litmus
You would observe that it changes paper
the colour of red litmus paper to blue
(Fig. 4.6); hence, it is basic in nature.
Generally, oxides of metals are basic in
nature. Watch
glass
We will discuss this burning of
magnesium ribbon further in the
chapter ‘Changes Around Us: Physical Fig. 4.6: Testing the nature of
and Chemical’. magnesium oxide

Chapter 4.indd 51 4/3/2025 4:52:16 PM

 Do you know that sodium is a metal which is stored in kerosene
because it reacts vigorously with oxygen and water. A lot of heat
is generated in the reaction. Storing sodium in kerosene prevents
its exposure to moisture and air. Can you predict the nature of
its oxide?
Let us now discuss some substances that do not behave like
metals.

4.4 Substances that Behave Differently

from Metals in Air and Water

Activity 4.7: Let us experiment (demonstration activity)

The teacher may demonstrate this activity.

Caution — This activity must be performed in a fume hood
or well-ventilated area. Burning sulfur produces gases, which
can be harmful if inhaled.
Fig. 4.7(a): Deflagrating
spoon
 Take a small amount of powdered sulfur in a
deflagrating spoon (it is a long-handled metal
spoon used in experiments to safely heat and burn
substances Fig. 4.7a). If a deflagrating spoon is not
available, you may take a metallic cap of any bottle,
wrap a metallic wire around it and give it the shape
as shown in Fig. 4.7b.
 Heat it on a flame, and as soon as the sulfur starts
burning, introduce the deflagrating spoon into a
Fig. 4.7(b): Improvised
gas jar or glass tumbler (Fig. 4.7c). Cover the gas jar
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

deflagrating spoon
or glass tumbler with a lid to ensure that the gas
produced does not escape.
 Remove the lid after 3 – 4 minutes and take out the
deflagrating spoon. Add a small quantity of water
into the gas jar, quickly place the lid back and shake
it so that the gas dissolves.
 Again, recall the chapter ‘Exploring Substances:
Acidic, Basic, and Neutral’. Using an acid-base
Gas jar indicator, check whether the solution obtained
after the addition of water to the gas jar is acidic or
Sulfur basic or neutral.
 What do you observe?
Fig. 4.7(c): Burning of sulfur

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 53
Blue litmus
You would observe that it is acidic in paper
nature (Fig. 4.7d).
Red litmus
On burning sulfur in air (oxygen),

The World of Metals and Non-metals

paper
sulfur dioxide gas is formed. On dissolving
sulfur dioxide gas in water, sulfurous acid
is formed. Watch glass
Does sulfur behave in water the same
way metals do?
Fig. 4.7(d): Testing of solution with
Activity 4.8: Let us explore litmus papers

 Take some sulfur powder in a glass tumbler.

 Add a small amount of water to it.
 What do you observe?
You may have noticed that there is no reaction when sulfur is
placed in water.
Substances like sulfur and phosphorus behave differently
with air and water than metals. Phosphorus is stored in water
as it catches fire when exposed to atmospheric air. These
substances are usually soft and dull in appearance. They are
neither malleable nor ductile, and they are not sonorous. They
are also poor conductors of heat and electricity. These are called
non-metals. Their oxides are acidic in nature.
Some other non-metals are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon,
etc. These must not be confused with materials such as plastic,
glass, wood, rubber, and paper. These materials are not classified
as metals or non-metals because they are not elements.

DIVE
Metals and non-metals are sub-categories of
substances called elements. An element is a substance EEPER
that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
Presently 118 elements are known. These
elements are the basic building blocks of all matter.
Some are naturally occurring, while others are
artificially made in the laboratory, and do not exist
in nature. You will study more about elements in
higher grades.

4.5 Are Non-metals Essential in

Everyday Life?
You often observe many metals in your day-to-day lives because
of their distinct properties, such as their lustrous nature, heat

Chapter 4.indd 53 4/3/2025 4:52:18 PM

 and electrical conductivity, and high strength. However, this
should not give an impression in your mind that non-metals are
not important in our lives.
We breathe in oxygen, which is a non-metal, and without it,
we would not be able to survive. Can you think of any other uses
of oxygen?
Carbon is essential in everyday life because it is the building
block of all life forms. It is a key component of proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates, which are necessary for growth and energy.
Nitrogen is used in the manufacturing of fertilisers and other
chemicals. It is an essential nutrient for the growth of plants.
Chlorine is a non-metal commonly used in water purification.
A solution of iodine, a non-metal, is applied on wounds as an
antiseptic.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Do you know that many metals and their alloys (mixtures of two or
more metals or a metal and a non-metal) are important for daily use as
utensils and tools. These are also important for modern technologies
and essential in almost every industry. Some special metals are also
used in atomic energy (such as zirconium), aerospace (titanium), etc.
In India, many metals, especially iron and aluminium, are recycled to
minimise waste and contribute to sustainability.

In a Nutshell

 Metals and non-metals are differentiated based on their

properties.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 Generally, metals are lustrous, whereas most non-metals are

non-lustrous.
 Metals are generally malleable and ductile, while non-metals
do not have these properties.
 Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, but
non-metals are generally poor conductors.
 Metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides which are
basic in nature.
 Non-metals react with oxygen to produce oxides which are
acidic in nature.
 Generally, non-metals do not react with water.
 Metal objects get damaged when exposed to moist air, and
the process is known as corrosion.
 Metals and non-metals have wide applications in
everyday life.
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 55
Let Us Enhance Our Learning

1. Which metal is commonly used to make food packaging

The World of Metals and Non-metals

materials as it is cheaper, and its thin sheets can be
folded easily into any shape?
ENQUIRY
(i) Aluminium (ii) Copper
(iii) Iron (iv) Gold
2. Which of the following metal catches fire when it comes
in contact with water?
(i) Copper
(iii) Zinc
(ii) Aluminium
(iv) Sodium
?
3. State with reason(s) whether the following statements WHAT IF WHY
are True [T] or False [F].
W WHERE
(i) Aluminium and copper are examples of non-metals H
E
used for making utensils and statues. [ ] N
WHAT H
(ii) Metals form oxides when combined with oxygen, COULD
O
W
the solution of which turns blue litmus paper to CAN
L
red. [ ] IT ? W O
H N
(iii) Oxygen is a non-metal essential for respiration. [ ] I G
WHOSE C
(iv) Copper vessels are used for boiling water because H
they are good conductors of electricity. [ ] WE
WHAT WILL H L
4. Why are only a few metals suitable for making HAPPEN A S
T E
jewellery?
WHAT WHY
5. Match the uses of metals and non-metals given in SHOULD NOT
Column I with the jumbled names of metals and
non-metals given in Column II.

Column I Column II

(i) Used in electrical wiring (a) E N X Y G O

(ii) Most malleable and ductile (b) N E C O H I R L

(iii) Living organisms cannot survive without it. (c) P E P O R C

(iv) Plants grow healthy when fertilisers (d) T E N G O I N R

containing it are added to the soil.

(v) Used in water purification (e) O G D L

6. What happens when oxygen reacts with magnesium

and sulfur. What are the main differences in the nature
of products formed?

Chapter 4.indd 55 4/3/2025 4:52:19 PM

 7. Complete the following flow chart:
? Air Heat Ash
Water
INNOVATION
?

DISCOVERY
Add blue and red litmus
solutions separately
ENQUIRY

Change in blue Change in red

EXPLORATION litmus solution litmus solution

CURIOSITY ? Blue

8. You are provided with the following materials. Discuss which

material would be your choice to make a pan that is most
suitable for boiling water and why?

Iron copper sulfur coal plastic wood cardboard

9. You are provided with three iron nails, each dipped in oil,
water and vinegar. Which iron nail will not rust, and why?
10. How do the different properties of metals and non-metals
determine their uses in everyday life?
11. One of the methods of protecting iron from getting rusted is
to put a thin coating of zinc metal over it. Since sulfur does
not react with water, can it be used for this purpose? Justify
Disciplinary

your answer.
12. An ironsmith heats iron before making tools. Why is heating
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

necessary in this process?

Exploratory Projects
History Art

 Dhokra, Bidriware, Pembarthi, and Kamrupi are some of

India’s famous metal art styles. Find out the states where
Society
these artworks are made. Also, make a collage of their
Geography
photographs.
 On a map of India, mark the states where iron, gold,
aluminium and other metals are found.
Technology Economy  Explore the metals and non-metals found in smartphones
and find out how they help the phone work properly.
 Organise a classroom debate on whether the use of metals
Inter

for comfort and luxury should be increased or decreased.

56

Chapter 4.indd 56 4/3/2025 4:52:20 PM

 Changes Around Us:
5 Physical and Chemical

I placed a cube of ice

here half an hour ago.
It has now become
water!

A bud that I saw

yesterday on this rose
plant has become a
flower today.

The bottle containing

cold water is not cold
anymore.

Yesterday, I saw some

brown spots on a
banana, but today it
has more brown spots
and a strong smell.

These students are describing some changes. What kinds of

changes are they talking about?

Chapter 5.indd 57 4/3/2025 4:52:45 PM

 Activity 5.1: Let us think and reflect

You might have observed various changes happening around

you. Some of them are listed in Table 5.1, you may notice that
something is changing in each case. Take a moment to reflect on
the changes in each case. Record your observations in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Some changes observed around us

S.No. Change Observation(s)

1. Melting ice cubes

2. Chopping vegetables

3. Boiling water

4. Making popcorn from corn

5. Cutting a piece of paper

6. Adding beetroot extract to water

7. Burning wood

8. Drying wet clothes

9. Making small balls of dough

10. Rolling small balls of dough into chapatis

11. Any other

Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

You might have noticed that these changes could be in the size,
shape, smell, or other property of the substance or object. Can you
think of some other changes that happen in your surroundings?
Make a list of those changes too.
We observe the changes occurring around us with the help of
our senses of sight, smell, touch, hearing, and taste.

Can we arrange these

changes into categories?

Let us try to answer this question.

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 59

5.1 A Substance May Change in

Appearance but Remain the Same!

Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical

Activity 5.2: Let us create and discuss

A. Creating some objects with paper

 Take a few sheets of paper
and fold them to create
new objects (Fig. 5.1).
 Do you get the same paper
back when you unfold
these objects?
B. Playing with a balloon
 Take a balloon and inflate
it. Now, loosen your grip
and let the air escape out. Fig. 5.1: Objects made from paper

 Do you get the uninflated balloon back?

 Take another balloon; inflate it and grip the opening
tightly. Now, prick it with a pin.
Caution — Be careful while using a pin.
 What happens? Will you be able to get the uninflated
balloon back?
C. Crushing a piece of chalk
 Crush a small piece of chalk into powder.
 Can you get the chalk piece back from the powder?
Is there any similarity in the changes listed in A, B, and C?
During all these changes, materials, such as the paper, the
rubber sheet of the balloon, and the chalk, remained the same,
though their appearances (shape or size) may have changed. You
may also recall from the Grade 6 Science textbook Curiosity that
water can exist in different states (solid, liquid, and gas), and can
change from one state to another.
In all these cases, although we observe a change in the
appearance, no new substance is formed. Such changes in which
only physical properties like shape, size, and state of substances
change are called physical changes.
Let us explore a different type of change.

Chapter 5.indd 59 4/3/2025 4:52:46 PM

 5.2 A Substance May Change in
Appearance and Not Remain
the Same!

Activity 5.3: Let us explore

 Take two glass tumblers or small transparent bottles. Mark

them A and B.
 Fill one-fourth of glass tumbler A with tap water and
one-fourth of glass tumbler B with lime water.
 Now, blow air (exhale) into each glass tumbler, one at a time,
using separate straws (Fig. 5.2) and observe them.
Caution — Do not suck the water or lime water while doing this.

(a) (b)

Straw Straw

A Glass tumbler B Glass tumbler

containing tap containing
water lime water

Fig. 5.2: Blowing air in (a) tap water; (b) lime water
Do you notice any changes?
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

In glass tumbler A, blowing air into water creates bubbles

only, and there is no change in the appearance of the water. In
glass tumbler B, blowing air into lime water creates bubbles, and
turns the lime water milky (or cloudy). If we leave it for some
time, a white substance settles at the bottom of the glass tumbler,
indicating something new has formed. Such changes, in which
one or more new substances are formed, are called chemical
changes. New substances are formed through a process called
chemical reaction. In this case, carbon dioxide from the air you
breathe out (exhale) reacts with lime water, and forms a new
white-coloured substance (calcium carbonate) that is insoluble
in water. Therefore, the liquid in the bottle appears milky. Along
with this a small amount of water is also formed. This formation
of a new substance indicates a chemical change. The chemical
reaction involved in this change can be represented in short
form as a chemical equation.
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 61
Calcium hydroxide + Carbon dioxide Calcium carbonate + Water
(Lime water) (Insoluble substance)
The turning of lime water milky is also used as a test for

Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical

carbon dioxide. Let us explore this with another activity using
some substances from our kitchen.

Activity 5.4: Let us experiment

 Take a teaspoonful of vinegar or lemon juice in a test tube.

 Add a pinch of baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate)
to it.
 What do you observe?
 You would hear a fizzing bubbling sound and see the gas
bubbles forming.
 Pass this gas through freshly prepared lime water kept in
another test tube, as shown in Fig. 5.3a.
 What do you observe?
 The lime water turns milky. What do you infer about the gas
formed by mixing vinegar and baking soda?
This indicates that the gas formed is carbon dioxide.
This activity can also be performed using two small used
bottles instead of test tubes and a flexible straw, as shown in
Fig. 5.3b.

Lime water

Bubbles of
carbon dioxide gas

Vinegar and
baking soda
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.3: Reaction of vinegar and baking soda

Since a new substance, carbon dioxide, is formed in this
reaction, we say that a chemical change has occurred here as
well. It can be represented as—
Vinegar + Baking soda Carbon dioxide + Other substances
Repeat the above activity using baking soda and water. Do you
observe any bubble formation? Is this a physical or a chemical
change?

Chapter 5.indd 61 4/3/2025 4:52:48 PM

 5.3 Some Other Processes Involving
Chemical Changes

5.3.1 Rusting
In the rusting of iron, which you studied
in the chapter ‘The World of Metals and
Non-metals’, a new brown-coloured
substance called rust is formed. Thus,
rusting is also a chemical change because
it involves the formation of a new
substance, iron oxide (Fig. 5.4). Fig. 5.4: Rusted
iron nails
5.3.2 Combustion
Let us recall the burning of a magnesium ribbon
(Fig. 5.5) learnt in the chapter ‘The World of
Metals and Non-metals’. Can you predict if this is
a physical or a chemical change?
When the magnesium ribbon is burnt, a new
substance, magnesium oxide, is formed. So, the
burning of magnesium ribbon also involves a
chemical change. We observed that heat and light
Fig. 5.5: Burning magnesium ribbon are also produced along with the formation of a
new substance in this reaction.
The burning of magnesium ribbon can be represented as—
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide + Heat + Light
(Ribbon) (Air) (White powder)
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

A chemical reaction in which a substance reacts with oxygen

and produces heat and/or light is called combustion. Substances
that undergo combustion reactions are called combustible
substances. For example, wood, paper, cotton, kerosene, etc.,
are combustible substances.
Let us find out whether the presence of oxygen
is essential for combustion.

Activity 5.5: Let us investigate

 Place two identical candles on two separate

petri dishes and light them.
 Cover one of these with a glass tumbler, as
(a) (b) shown in Fig. 5.6.
Fig. 5.6: Candle (a) burning  What happens to the candle flames in the two
(b) covered with a glass tumbler
cases?
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 63
We observe that the candle that was not covered (Fig. 5.6a)
continues to burn, whereas the candle that was covered with a
glass tumbler (Fig. 5.6b) stops burning after some time. Why does

Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical

this happen?
Since the candle covered by the glass tumbler does not have
a continuous supply of air, the flame gets extinguished soon.
The component of air that supports combustion is oxygen. This
can be confirmed by the presence of carbon dioxide in the glass
tumbler inverted on the candle. How can you test the presence
of carbon dioxide gas?
You can test the carbon dioxide gas by adding a small amount
of lime water in the petri dish. You will notice that it turns milky.
This carbon dioxide was formed by the carbon from the wax and
the oxygen from the air. In other words, oxygen is required for
combustion.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

If a person’s clothes catch fire, what is the best way to extinguish
the fire?
Wrap a blanket or cloth around the person. This cuts off the
supply of air, and the fire gets extinguished.
Caution — Synthetic blanket or cloth should never be used to put
out a fire, as these can melt and stick to the skin.

FASCINATING FACTS
Nature’s wonders: You might have
seen some insects emitting light in
a garden or a field in late evenings.
These insects are called fireflies, and
their light is produced by a chemical
change. This type of light production
(without heat) in living organisms is
called bioluminescence.
Fireflies

Is the Presence of Air Enough for Combustion?

We learnt above that combustible substances and oxygen
are necessary for combustion. We also know that paper is a
combustible substance, but we can keep it in the air for any
length of time without it catching fire. What else is needed to
start combustion?
Let us learn about this.

Chapter 5.indd 63 4/3/2025 4:52:50 PM

 Activity 5.6: Let us investigate
Caution — Perform this activity under the supervision of your teacher
or an adult.
 Hold a piece of paper with a pair of
tongs and bring a lighted matchstick
to it. It quickly catches fire. Do we say
that we need a fire to start the burning
process?
 Take another piece of paper. Using a
magnifying glass, focus the sunrays to
make the smallest and brightest spot on
the paper, as shown in the Fig. 5.7a.
Hold it there for some time.
What do you observe?
Fig. 5.7(a): Focusing the sunrays using a
magnifying glass We observe that the paper starts to
emit smoke, and then catches fire
(Fig. 5.7b). Thus, we find that a substance
can burn even without fire. How do we
explain this change?
Focusing sunrays on the paper heats
it. The temperature of the paper increases
with time. After some time, the paper
becomes so hot that it starts burning.
This minimum temperature at which a
substance catches fire is called its ignition
temperature. Since the temperature of the
lighted matchstick was already higher than
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Fig. 5.7(b): Paper catching fire the ignition temperature of the paper, it
caught fire almost immediately.
So, we can conclude that for the combustion process to occur,
there are three requirements (Fig. 5.8) —
(i) A combustible substance, also called ‘fuel’
(ii) Oxygen
(iii) Heat that allows the fuel to reach its ignition temperature.

Fig. 5.8: Fire triangle

5.4 Can Physical and Chemical Changes
Occur in the Same Process?
What changes take place when a candle is lit? Let us explore!

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 65

Activity 5.7: Think, pair, and share

Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical

Look at the Fig. 5.9. Analyse what students are discussing about
the burning candle.
What do you think?

The wax melts and

evaporates... Wax melts, flows,
and solidifies in
different shapes...

I think the wax burns,

and new substances
are formed…

Maybe...

Maybe the wick

draws up the liquid
wax…

Fig. 5.9: What changes occur when a candle burns?

The wax of the candle melts, is carried up the wick, and

evaporates due to the heat of the flame. The vapour of wax burns
to produce a flame. The melting of wax, its solidification, and
evaporation are physical changes. The burning of vapour on the
other hand, is a chemical change. This shows that the burning of
a candle involves both physical and chemical changes.

KNOW A SCIENTIST
The candle you just observed has long been an object of curiosity for
several scientists including Michael Faraday, who made significant
contributions to several areas of science. In the
nineteenth century, Faraday delivered a series
of lectures called Chemical History of a Candle.
Faraday believed that the candle was the perfect
object to introduce scientific study. Through
it, he discussed differences between various
physical and chemical processes like melting,
vapourisation, and combustion.

Chapter 5.indd 65 4/3/2025 4:52:53 PM

 5.5 Are Changes Permanent?

Once something has undergone a change, can we get it back in

its original form?

Activity 5.8: Let us think

Think again about all the changes that we have discussed

or talked about so far. In which of these can we get back the
object or substance in the form we started with? Record your
observations in Table 5.2.

Table 5.2: Can changes be reversed?

S.No. Change The original state can be

brought back (Yes/No)

1. Melting ice cubes Yes

2. Chopping vegetables No

3. Boiling water Yes

4. Making popcorn from corn No

5.

...

12.
Returning to the original object or substance with which we
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

started shows that the changes we brought can be reversed. For

example, when ice melts, it can be refrozen into ice. Similarly,
when water evaporates, it can be condensed back into liquid
water. However, some changes cannot be reversed since we
cannot get the original object or substance back after the change.
For example, chopped vegetables cannot return to their original
size and shape, and making popcorn cannot go back to its original
form. Thus, changes around us could be grouped into those that
can be reversed and those that cannot be reversed.

5.6 Are All Changes Desirable?

Many useful changes happen in our daily life. For example, the
changing of milk into curd, ripening of fruits, cutting of fruits,
and cooking of food. All these are desirable changes. Can you
think of some other desirable changes happening around you?
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 67
On the other hand, some changes may be undesirable, such
as the rusting of iron or the decay of food during its storage.
A change that is undesirable in some situations may be desirable

Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical

in other situations. For example, decomposition of food can be
very useful in converting food waste into compost.
Some changes occurring over the years due to human activity
can have a long-term environmental impact. For example, the
increased consumption of fuels in cars, trains, aeroplanes, etc.,
is increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Drying of paint on walls, doors, furniture, etc., releases many
substances through evaporation, causing atmospheric pollution.

5.7 Some Slow Natural Changes

5.7.1 Weathering of rocks

Have you seen heaps of sand, soil, and stones lying at the base of
mountains as shown in Fig. 5.10a? These are called sediments. How
have these formed? These are formed by physical changes that
break up large rocks into smaller pieces. Temperature changes due
to climatic conditions, growing roots of trees, and even freezing of
water within cracks in the rocks can cause them to break.
Water or chemicals present in water, can also react with
the rocks and cause chemical changes in their composition. An
example of such a chemical change is shown in Fig. 5.10b. Here,
an originally black-coloured rock called basalt, which contains
iron, has chemically changed to produce a red-coloured layer. The
red colour is a result of the iron oxide produced when the rock
surface was exposed for a long time to water or air containing
water vapour. These physical and chemical changes in rocks are
collectively called weathering, which eventually leads to the
formation of soil.

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.10: (a) Sediments at the base of a cliff (b) red sediment layer

Chapter 5.indd 67 4/3/2025 4:52:54 PM

 5.7.2 Erosion
Have you noticed fine sand collecting on riverbeds or in lakes?
This sand is formed when rock pebbles, soil, and sediments are
broken down and moved from one location to another by natural
forces like wind and flowing water. This process is called erosion.
Erosion during a landslide is an example of a physical change.
River rocks and pebbles often appear smoother due to the
constant erosion caused by the flowing water. When the speed
of the water or wind decreases, such as in an ocean or a lake, the
material transported during erosion settles down at the bottom.
These sediments harden over time and become new rocks. Most
of these changes take place over thousands of years and cannot
be reversed.

In a Nutshell

 A physical change is one in which a substance or object

undergoes a change in its physical properties and no new
substance is formed.
 A chemical change is one in which one or more new
substances are formed. It involves a chemical reaction and
can be represented by a chemical equation.
 Combustion, cooking, and rusting are examples of chemical
changes.
 Substances that undergo combustion are combustible
substances. Heat and/or light are given out during
combustion.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 The lowest temperature at which a substance can catch fire

is called its ignition temperature.
 Some changes can be reversed and some cannot.
 Some changes are desirable and some are not.
 Rocks undergo physical and chemical changes due to
weathering to form soil.
 Erosion caused by flowing water and wind is a physical
change.

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 69

Let Us Enhance Our Learning

Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical

1. Which of the following statements are the characteristics of
a physical change?
(i) The state of the substance may or may not change.
(ii) A substance with different properties is formed.
(iii) No new substance is formed.
(iv) The substance undergoes a chemical reaction.
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (ii) and (iii)
(c) (i) and (iii) (d) (iii) and (iv)
2. Predict which of the following changes can be reversed and
which cannot be reversed. If you are not sure, you may write
that down. Why are you not sure about these?
(i) Stitching cloth to a shirt
ENQUIRY
(ii) Twisting of straight string
(iii) Making idlis from a batter
(iv) Dissolving sugar in water
(v) Drawing water from a well
(vi) Ripening of fruits ?
(vii) Boiling water in an open pan WHY
WHAT IF
(viii) Rolling up a mat
(ix) Grinding wheat grains to flour W WHERE
H
E
(x) Forming of soil from rocks N
WHAT H
3. State whether the following statements are True or False. In O
COULD W
case a statement is False, write the correct statement. CAN
L
IT ? O
(i) Melting of wax is necessary for burning a candle. W
H N
(True/False) I G
WHOSE C
(ii) Collecting water vapour by condensing involves a H
chemical change. (True/False) WE
WHAT WILL H L
HAPPEN A S
(iii) The process of converting leaves into compost is a T E
chemical change. (True/False) WHAT WHY
SHOULD NOT
(iv) Mixing baking soda with lemon juice is a chemical
change. (True/False)

Chapter 5.indd 69 4/3/2025 4:52:55 PM

 4. Fill in the blanks in the following statements:
(i) Nalini observed that the handle of her cycle has got
brown deposits. The brown deposits are due to ________,
and this is a________ change.
(ii) Folding a handkerchief is a _________________ change and
can be________.
(iii) A chemical process in which a substance reacts with
oxygen with evolution of heat is called _________, and this
is a __________ change.
(iv) Magnesium, when burnt in air, produces a substance
called __________. The substance formed is _________ in
nature. Burning of magnesium is a _________ change.
5. Are the changes of water to ice and water to steam, physical
or chemical? Explain.
6. Is curdling of milk a physical or chemical change? Justify
your statement.
7. Natural factors, such as wind, rain, etc., help in the formation
of soil from rocks. Is this change physical or chemical
and why?
INNOVATION
8. Read the following story titled ‘Eco-friendly Prithvi’, and tick
the most appropriate option(s) given in the brackets. Provide
DISCOVERY a suitable title of your choice for the story.
Prithvi is preparing a meal in the kitchen. He chops vegetables,
ENQUIRY
peels potatoes, and cuts fruits (physical changes/chemical
changes). He collects the seeds, fruits, and vegetable peels
into a clay pot (physical change/chemical change). The fruits,
EXPLORATION vegetable peels, and other materials begin to decompose
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

due to the action of bacteria and fungi, forming compost

CURIOSITY (physical change/chemical change). He decides to plant
seeds in the compost and water them regularly. After a few
days, he notices that the seeds begin to germinate and small
plants start to grow, eventually blooming into colourful
flowers (physical change/chemical change). His efforts are
appreciated by all his family members.
9. Some changes are given here. Write
physical changes in the area marked
‘A’ and chemical changes in the area
marked ‘B’. Enter the changes which A C B
are both physical and chemical in
the area marked ‘C’.

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 71
Process of burning a candle; Tearing of paper; Rusting;
Curdling of milk; Ripening of fruits; Melting of ice; Folding
of clothes; Burning of magnesium and Mixing baking soda

Changes Around Us: Physical and Chemical

with vinegar.
10. The experiments shown in Fig. 5.11a, b, c, and d were
performed. Find out in which case(s) did lime water turn
milky and why?

Vinegar and Lemon juice and

baking soda vinegar
Lime water Lime water

(a) (b)

Vinegar and Lemon juice and

common salt baking soda
Lime water Lime water

(c) (d)
Fig. 5.11

Exploratory Projects

Disciplinary
 Write a message on a piece of paper using lemon juice as
ink and let it dry. The message will become invisible. Now
use a warm iron over the paper (or hold the paper over the
flame of a candle, taking care that it does not catch fire). The
invisible letters turn dark brown as the paper gets warm.
Can any of these changes be reversed? History Art
Caution — Perform this activity under the supervision of an adult.
 We hear a lot of news about landslides and breaking of rocks
in hilly regions these days, causing a lot of damage to life and
Geography Society
property. Discuss what steps we can take to reduce landslides
and rock erosion.
 Observe the activities going on in the kitchen and note any
changes that can be reversed. Are these physical or chemical Technology Economy
changes?
Inter

Chapter 5.indd 71 4/3/2025 4:52:56 PM

  Yeast is added while baking bread to make it fluffy and soft.
How does yeast work? Try and find out!
 Take a small bottle, some sugar, fresh yeast, water, and
a balloon. Make a sugar solution in the bottle by mixing
two teaspoons of sugar and a small amount of water. Now
add a spoonful of yeast and cover the mouth of the bottle
with a balloon. Leave it undisturbed for about an hour.
 What do you observe?
 Carefully take off the balloon, holding its mouth tightly
closed and attach it to another small bottle containing
freshly prepared lime water. Shake the bottle so that the
contents of the balloon get mixed with lime water.
 What do you observe?
 What can you conclude from this experiment?
 Identify all the changes occurring in the experiment and
state which of them are physical and chemical changes.
 Chameleons (Girgits) change colour to blend in with their
surroundings and also when they are angry or sense danger
(Fig. 5.12). Is this a change that can be reversed? Explore
from the internet or from your school library.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Fig. 5.12: A chameleon

72

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 Adolescence:
6 A Stage of Growth
and Change
The journey of a plant generally begins with the germination of a
seed. With proper nourishment, the seed becomes a sapling and
matures into a young plant. This journey is marked by some specific
changes. Some of the visible changes are an increase in its height, the
appearance of more leaves, and the development of flowers, fruits,
and new seeds. From these seeds, new plants emerge.
It is quite unlikely that a seedling will develop the capabilities
to produce its own seeds immediately after germination. It needs
to grow and reach maturity to become capable of producing
seeds. Similarly, animals also need to grow and reach maturity
before they can reproduce. Some animals lay eggs that hatch
into young ones, while others, like humans, directly give birth to
young ones. In both cases, the young ones gradually grow in size
and develop over time.

Chapter 6.indd 73 04-04-2025 04:25:25

 The journey of life of a human can be divided into different
stages—infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
Each person experiences these stages at their own pace, and the
duration of each stage may vary from one individual to another.
From infancy to adulthood, our bodies undergo various changes.
Until around 10–12 years of age, most changes are related to
height and weight. After this, other noticeable changes begin to
occur, marking the onset of adolescence. This is a period of rapid
growth and development, typically occurring between the ages
of 10–19. During adolescence, the body prepares for adulthood.
Humans, like most other living beings, can not reproduce
immediately after their birth. Their bodies need to grow and
reach a stage of maturity to be able to reproduce.
As humans grow and develop, they experience significant
physical, emotional, and behavioural changes, along with the
ability to reproduce. Some of these changes may be quite clearly
observable, while others occur internally and may go unnoticed.
In this chapter, you will explore adolescence, understand its
importance, and learn how to handle it with a sense of responsibility.

6.1 Growing With Age: The Teenage Years

During the summer vacation, Venkatesh visited his grandparents.
As he entered the house, his 12-year-old cousin, Devyani came
running to greet him.

Venkatesh, you
have a thin
moustache now!!
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

You have become

Your voice has so tall, Devyani!
also changed!

Let us try to understand this interesting conversation

between Venkatesh and Devyani.

Activity 6.1: Let us discuss

™ Take a jar and some paper slips.
™ Write down the changes you can notice among students as
they go from Grades 5 to 8. These could be related to height,
strength, behaviour, or any other aspect. Please avoid writing
names on the slips.
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 75
™ Fold the slips and place them in the jar.
™ Mix all the slips received from the students in the class and

Adolescence: A Stage of Growth and Change

unfold the collected slips one by one. Based on the information
on the slips, discuss the changes with the students in the class.
What were the most commonly observable changes among
students, as mentioned on the slips? List these in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: Most common changes during growing up

S.No. Changes Your observations

1. Height

2. Weight and strength

3. Appearance

4. …

Have you also experienced some of these changes? If yes, then

it is because you are also reaching this stage gradually. This stage
starts around 10 years of age and can continue up to the age of
19. It is usually a stage of development between childhood and
adulthood, and is called adolescence.
While analysing Table 6.1, you might have noticed the following:

Increase in height
From birth, our body undergoes continuous growth
and development including an increase in height.
However, the increase in height becomes more
prominent during adolescence.

Changes in body structure, weight gain, and

strength
As boys grow, it might be seen that along with growing
taller, they gain weight, their shoulders might become
a bit broader, and their chests may get wider.
Girls also undergo changes in height and weight,
and other body changes like development of breasts.

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 Changes in voice
In adolescent boys, the growth of the voice box leads
to a voice that sounds hoarse. The voice box is a
structure in our throat that helps us to speak. The
growth may be seen as a bump in the throat region
and is called the Adam’s apple. However, it is not
Adam's noticeable in every individual. The voice box also
apple grows in adolescent girls but it is not as big as in the
boys, leading to only slight changes in voice.

Appearance of hair in different parts of body

Both boys and girls experience the growth of hair in
different parts of their bodies, such as the armpits and
pubic region.
Boys often develop facial hair, which later grows
into a moustache and a beard as they move towards
adulthood. Some boys may also develop chest hair and
back hair, though few boys may have no significant
hair growth. Variations in and timing of appearance of
hair growth is completely normal.

Changes in facial skin: emergence of pimples

Another common occurrence during the adolescent
years is a skin condition called acne, in which small,
reddish pimples appear. These are commonly visible
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

on the face. Acne occurs due to an increase in oily

secretions from the skin during adolescence that can
clog the skin pores and lead to infections. While acne
is a condition, pimples are a manifestation of it.

A key point to remember

Whether it is a change in height, voice, or facial hair, it is
important to recognise that the timing, nature, and extent
of these changes vary among individuals. These variations
are completely normal.
Each person experiences adolescence at his or her
own pace, and its duration also varies from one person to
another.

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 77
Now, we have understood some of the changes that take place
during adolescence, particularly those that are easily observable.
Some of these characteristic changes, like change in voice, the growth

Adolescence: A Stage of Growth and Change

of facial and chest hair in boys, and the development of breasts
in girls are not directly involved in the process of reproduction.
However, these characteristic changes help distinguish males
from females. For this reason, they are called secondary sexual
characteristics.
Secondary sexual characteristics are natural signs that the
body is preparing for adulthood. They mark the onset of puberty.
Puberty is the stage in which the body of an adolescent undergoes
external and internal changes to develop into an adult capable of
reproduction.

6.2 Changes that Indicate Reproductive

Capability
Adolescence is marked not only by observable changes but also
by internal changes that are not visible from the outside. One such
change is the maturation of various parts involved in the process
of reproduction.
Both boys and girls experience such changes gradually, and
these changes are a natural part of the process of growing up.
An important internal change associated with adolescent girls is
the onset of the menstrual cycle. It recurs generally every 28–30
days and is more commonly known as ‘the period’. Many healthy
girls may have longer or shorter menstrual cycles ranging from
21–35 days. The menstrual cycle is an important natural process
and is one of the signs of good reproductive health. The phase of
the cycle when blood discharge occurs from the body is referred
to as menstruation. It may last for three to seven days. Some girls
may feel pain or discomfort in the lower abdomen during these
days. Usually, by the age of 45–55, menstruation stops naturally,
marking the end of the reproductive capability in a woman’s life.

Breaking myths about menstruation

There are many wrong beliefs about menstruation that
often lead to unnecessary fear, shame, or even guilt. These
beliefs have given rise to certain myths and taboos. Among
such myths and taboos, physical isolation of menstruating
girls is unfortunately still quite prevalent. Menstruation is a
natural process, and such myths have no scientific basis. By
encouraging a scientific outlook towards menstruation, we can
help society appreciate the need to promote good reproductive
health of women and contribute positively towards a healthier
lifestyle for women.

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 Adolescence is not just about physical changes or changes
associated with reproductive capability but also about emotional
and behavioural changes. Let us discuss them!

6.3 Emotional and Behavioural Changes

in Adolescents

Activity 6.2: Let us list

Take a moment to think if there are any changes in your emotions

or behaviour or that of your classmates and friends in the past
one or two years. These changes may be exciting, confusing, or
both.
Let us list some emotional changes in Table 6.2 along with
their probable effects on behaviour and ways for positive growth
and development.
Table 6.2: Emotional changes, their probable effects on behaviour, and
ways for positive growth and development

Key emotional Probable effects on Ways for positive growth

changes behaviour and development

Engage in varied Self-exploration and involvement

Mood swings activities like music, in activities that may lead to
dance, or sports creativity and innovation
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Strong emotions Increased sensitivity Compassion, involvement in

social work

Any other

While discussing Table 6.2, you may have explored the

diverse behavioural changes in adolescents. This is because
adolescence is often marked by stronger emotions than
childhood. These emotions might affect adolescents’ behaviour
like taking up/joining social initiatives to support the needy and
the disadvantaged, or developing deeper interest in new areas.
Understanding how our emotions influence our behaviour
and actions, can help us make better choices and respond to
situations thoughtfully.
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 79

6.4 Making Adolescence a Joyful

Experience

Adolescence: A Stage of Growth and Change

The journey of adolescence is a unique experience. Heightened
curiosity and excitement during this stage of life give adolescents
a new viewpoint towards almost everything around them.
Good habits, thoughtful decisions, and small actions can have a
powerful positive impact on the overall well-being of adolescents.
Let us know about them!

6.4.1 Meeting nutritional needs

In Grade 6 chapter ‘Mindful Eating: A Path to a Healthy Body’,
you learnt about the need for a healthy diet. Since adolescence is
a period of growth and development marked by several changes
in the body, a nutritious diet is of utmost importance.

For proper growth, and to perform

well on the playground, we need
proteins and carbohydrates!

Not only that, we also need

an adequate amount of fats,
vitamins, and minerals as well!

Activity 6.3: Let us list

Based on the locally available foods, fill Table 6.3 with the healthy
food sources, nutrients present in them and how these nutrients
can help our growth and development.
Table 6.3: Food sources, nutrients present in them, and functions of
these nutrients
Food Nutrients we get Functions of these
sources from them nutrients

Milk, millets, curd, Calcium, proteins, fats To help optimal bone

cheese, and paneer _________________ growth _________________

To help proper growth, gain

_________________ Proteins
strength, and improve levels
_________________
of energy _________________
Spinach, kidney beans,
Iron To help in the formation
and dried fruits like
_________________ of blood
raisins, and figs

Chapter 6.indd 79 04-04-2025 04:25:34

 Science and Society
Adolescents, especially girls, may sometimes suffer from
blood-related health problem(s) because of a deficiency of
iron or vitamin B12 in the body.
™ Find out about such health problem(s).
™ How can we manage iron deficiency in our body?
™ Find out about government schemes aimed to prevent
such deficiencies.

Know a Scientist
Dorothy Hodgkin was a brilliant scientist who studied the
structure of vitamin B12. In 1964, she became the third
woman to win the Nobel Prize in the
field of chemistry. Did you know that
vitamin B12 is required for the proper
functioning of the human body? Like
most vitamins, it cannot be made in the
human body and has to be obtained
from the food we eat. Discuss the sources
of vitamin B12 with your teacher.

6.4.2 Personal hygiene

Besides nutrition, personal hygiene is also crucially important during
adolescence. Maintaining body hygiene, particularly in the armpits
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

and the pubic region, may protect us from potential infections.

For girls, maintaining proper hygiene during menstruation
is essential for both comfort and health. Menstrual hygiene can
be maintained using items such as sanitary pads (Fig. 6.1) and
reusable cloth pads designed for this purpose.
The government also attempts to provide these products free
of charge or at a low price to improve the menstrual hygiene of
Fig. 6.1: Sanitary pad
girls and women. As a society, we should all make efforts to ensure
the availability of necessary facilities in schools and public places
to promote menstrual hygiene. Collectively, we should move
forward, reducing any stigma around sanitary pads and helping
in menstrual hygiene.
It is important to dispose of used sanitary pads properly by
wrapping them in newspaper and disposing inside a dustbin. This
is to ensure community health and environmental cleanliness.
These days, biodegradable sanitary pads are also available that
are environment-friendly.
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 81

Science and Society

Adolescence: A Stage of Growth and Change

To support menstrual hygiene, the government has introduced
several initiatives—
™ Menstrual Hygiene Scheme (MHS): Under this scheme by the
Government of India, sanitary pads are provided free of charge
or at a reduced price to adolescent girls in rural areas. Awareness
programmes are also conducted to educate girls about menstrual
hygiene and health.
™ Rashtriya Kishor Swasthya Karyakram (RKSK): It aims to
improve the overall health of adolescents, including menstrual
health and hygiene. It encourages peer education, where older
students help younger ones learn about these topics.
™ Suvidha Sanitary Napkin Initiative: Under this initiative,
biodegradable sanitary pads are provided at affordable prices
through Jan Aushadhi Kendras. The initiative aims to improve access
to menstrual hygiene products for women and adolescent girls.
™ State-Level Initiatives: Various state governments have their
own programmes, such as the ‘Shuchi Scheme’ in Karnataka
and free sanitary napkin schemes in states like Tamil Nadu and
Odisha. These programmes aim to distribute free sanitary pads in
government schools.

6.4.3 Physical activities

Regular exercise and physical activities are also very important
during adolescence. Do you exercise regularly or participate in
games and sports? What kinds of exercises do you do? These
activities will keep your body and mind fit and healthy, build up
your stamina and boost your mood (Fig. 6.2).

Fig. 6.2: Physical activities for fitness

Chapter 6.indd 81 04-04-2025 04:25:38

 6.4.4 Balanced social life
We all live in a society and interact with each other in our day-to-day
life. We should all be polite and respectful towards each other
(Fig. 6.3). This helps create a favourable and safe environment.
Since adolescence is a stage of life marked by new experiences
and emotions, we must be thoughtful and responsible while
interacting with others — whether in person or through social
media. This is the time adolescents may feel attracted to their
peers, and mimic their behaviour. Today, they often interact
with each other online.

Fig. 6.3: Collaborative learning in action

ng
Maki fun Modern technologies have made online platforms
available for all to obtain information, make
connections, interact, and share information with
each other. We should use these platforms responsibly
for the collective well-being of all. Sometimes, we,
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

knowingly or unknowingly, use social media platforms

carelessly. Seeking guidance from elders and teachers
can help use these platforms positively.

Fig. 6.4: Cyberbullying

Science and Society

Cyberbullying involves the use of digital devices such as phones,
computers, or online platforms to harass others by sending misleading
messages, spreading false rumours, or sharing personal information
without consent (Fig. 6.4). However, if someone tries to bully you, it is
important not to feel scared or helpless. Rather, handle it wisely and
seek help from parents and teachers.
Additionally, you should be cautious when uploading any picture
online or sharing personal information with strangers.

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 83

Activity 6.4: Let us spread awareness

Adolescence: A Stage of Growth and Change

Work in groups to design posters and pamphlets about various
aspects of responsible social media behaviour and paste them
at designated places in the school. Also, fill in Table 6.4 based on
your collective observations.

Table 6.4: Dos and don’ts to be followed on social media

Dos Don’ts

Do not share personal photos with

Be respectful and kind. strangers/ virtual friends.

Think before posting. ___________________

Protect privacy ___________________

6.4.5 Avoiding harmful substances — learn to

say NO
Some people, including your peers, may tempt, persuade, force or,
create pressure on you to consume harmful substances such as
tobacco, gutka, cigarettes, beedi, alcohol, or even life-threatening
illegal drugs. Since adolescence is marked by curiosity and
excitement, adolescents might get influenced by such people and try
these substances.
These substances are not just harmful to physical and mental
health but are also addictive. This means that once people start
consuming them, they develop a strong urge to take them again Someone who
and again. Over time, they start using them regularly. This is called is addicted
substance abuse. today, might
have started
once with ‘just
one time’!

Lungs Say no to
addictive
substances the
first time and
every time!

(a) Before (b) After

Fig. 6.5: Condition of the lungs before and after prolonged

exposure to bidi/cigarette smoke

Chapter 6.indd 83 04-04-2025 04:25:40

 Using these substances can cause serious health problems,
such as breathing difficulties, memory loss, and damage to the
lungs (Fig. 6.5), depending on the substance. To stay healthy, it is
important to completely avoid these substances and make healthy
choices instead. It is important to remain firm and confident in
your decision to say ‘NO’.
The first step to overcoming addiction is seeking help and
support from family and friends, and talking to trusted people,
such as parents or teachers. Counselling and medical advice can
also be helpful in handling such situations. Remember, your
health and your future are in your hands — choose wisely!

Science and Society

Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan
The Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan was launched by the Ministry
of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government of India. It
intends to reach out to the masses and spread awareness on the
issue of avoiding substance abuse through active participation of
the youth, women, and the community. The special focus is on the
prevention of substance abuse among early-age children.

The Government has launched a National De-addiction Helpline—

14446, to deal with drug addiction and to help drug addicts.

6.5 The ‘Why’ Question for Adolescence

We now understand the different

Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

changes in adolescence and also know

some ways to handle it with a sense of
responsibility.

But I wonder why these

changes occur at this stage
of life!

Many changes in adolescence, including menstruation and

other signs of puberty, are mainly due to hormones — certain
chemicals produced in our bodies. Hormones play a crucial
role in regulating various aspects of growth and development,
contributing to the proper functioning of the body. They are
produced in different parts of the body and are released at an
appropriate time in response to signals from the brain. Some
hormones influence mood and behaviour.
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 85
By staying informed, seeking support and guidance when
needed, and making healthy decisions, you can build a strong
foundation for your life ahead.

Adolescence: A Stage of Growth and Change

In a Nutshell

™ Adolescence is the period of change from childhood to

adulthood. It generally begins around the age of 10 years
and usually lasts until 19 years.
™ Adolescence is marked by significant and characteristic
physical, biological, and emotional changes.
™ Features that help to distinguish the male from the female
but are not directly involved in reproduction are called
secondary sexual characteristics.
™ Puberty is the stage in which the body of a child undergoes
observable and internal changes to develop into an adult
capable of reproduction.
™ Adolescence in girls is also marked by start of the menstrual
cycle, during which there is a discharge of blood generally
after every 28–30 days, a process called menstruation.
Menstruation begins at puberty and generally ends by the
age of 45–55 years.
™ Adolescents face several emotional and behavioural changes.
™ Eating a balanced and healthy diet, maintaining good
personal hygiene, and participating in physical activities
help adolescents to stay healthy.
™ Addictive substances, such as tobacco, alcohol, and drugs,
have adverse effects on the body and mind. It is wise to say
‘NO’ to these substances and stay away from them.
™ Changes that take place in the body during adolescence are
primarily controlled by certain chemicals produced in the
body. These chemicals are called hormones.
™ Proper guidance and awareness help adolescents manage
physical, emotional, and behavioural changes effectively.

Let Us Enhance Our Learning

1. Ramesh, an 11-year-old boy, developed a few pimples on

his face. His mother told him that this is because of ongoing
biological changes in his body.
(i) What could be the possible reasons for the development
of these pimples on his face?
(ii) What can he do to get some relief from these pimples?

Chapter 6.indd 85 04-04-2025 04:25:42

 2. Which of the following food groups would be a better option
for adolescents and why?

(i) (ii)
3. Unscramble the underlined word in the following sentences:
(i) The discharge of blood in adolescent girls which
generally occurs every 28–30 days is nstmnoiaretu.
(ii) The hoarseness in the voice of adolescent boys is due to
enlarged iceov xob.
(iii) Secondary sexual characteristics are natural signs that
the body is preparing for adulthood and mark the onset
of urtypeb.
(iv) We should say NO to lahoclo and srugd as they are
Enquiry addictive.
4. Shalu told her friend, “Adolescence brings only physical
changes, like growing taller or developing body hair.” Is
she correct? What would you change in this description of

?
adolescence?
5. During a discussion in the class, some of the students raised
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

the following points. What questions would you ask them to

Why What if check the correctness of these points?
(i) Adolescents do not need to worry about behavioural
Where W changes.
h
E
n (ii) If someone tries a harmful substance once, they can stop
H What
o could
anytime they want.
w
Can 6. Adolescents sometimes experience mood swings. On some
l
o W ? it days, they feel very energetic and happy, while on other
n h
g I
days, they may feel low. What other behavioural changes
c Whose are associated with this age?
h
We 7. While using a toilet, Mohini noticed that used sanitary pads
h l What will
a s happen were scattered near the bin. She got upset and shared her
t e
feelings with her friends. They discussed the importance
Why What
not should

86

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 87
of menstrual hygiene and healthy sanitary habits. What
menstrual hygiene and sanitary habits would you suggest to
your friends?

Adolescence: A Stage of Growth and Change

8. Mary and Manoj were classmates and good friends. On
turning 11, Mary developed a little bulge on the front of Innovation
her neck. She visited the doctor who gave her medication
and asked to take iodine-rich diet. Similarly, a bump was
developed on the front of Manoj’s neck when he turned 12. Discovery

However, the doctor told him that it was a part of growing

up. According to you, what could be the possible reason for Enquiry
advising Mary and Manoj differently?
9. During adolescence, the boys and girls undergo certain
Exploration
physical changes, a few of which are given below.
(i) Change in voice
Curiosity
(ii) Development of breasts
(iii) Growth of moustache
(iv) Growth of facial hair
(v) Pimples on the face
(vi) Growth of hair in the pubic region
(vii) Growth of hair in armpits
Categorise these changes in the table given below:

Physical changes during adolescence

Observed only Observed only Common in

in boys in girls boys and girls

10. Prepare a poster mentioning the tips for adolescents to live

a healthy lifestyle.

Chapter 6.indd 87 04-04-2025 04:25:45

 Exploratory Projects
Disciplinary
™ Find out about some personalities and organisations
working in your locality to improve mental health of youth.
Interview them. List at least five questions that you will ask
History Art in the interviews.
™ Perform a role play on the theme ‘Child marriage: A social evil’,
highlighting how it negatively impacts the overall well-being
of children, particularly the health of young girls.
Geography Society
™ 21 June is celebrated as International Yoga Day. Organise a
small camp with the help of your teachers and practise some
asanas.
Technology Economy
Inter
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

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 Heat Transfer
7 in Nature
Pema and her brother Palden reside in Gangtok. On a cold winter
evening, they are sitting around a fireplace. Palden shares his
experiences of visiting Kerala during the winter vacation. He
says that compared to Gangtok, winter in Kerala is comparatively
warm and humid. Both Pema and Palden are curious about why
some places are so cold and others quite hot.
Hearing them express their curiosity, their grandfather, a
retired science teacher, says, “Kerala is closer to the equator than
Sikkim and it also has a long coastline, which results in warmer
and more humid weather conditions”. Palden replies, “Yes, we
learnt in Grade 6 Science and Social Science that for us on the
Earth, the Sun is the main source of heat and light, and around
the equator, the climate is generally hot”.
As they are talking, Pema is keenly observing her grandmother
cooking thukpa (a traditional Sikkimese dish) in a large metal
pan. Pema asks, “Why are cooking utensils generally made of
metals?” Palden immediately responds that they had studied
in the chapter ‘The World of Metals and Non-metals’ that such
materials are good conductors of heat.

Chapter 7.indd 89 4/3/2025 4:53:55 PM

 How does heat get
transferred in these
materials?

Let us perform an activity to learn why certain materials are

good conductors of heat.

7.1 Conduction of Heat

Activity 7.1: Let us experiment

Caution — This activity should be carried out under the supervision of

a teacher or an adult.

 Take a strip of a metal, such as aluminium

Stand Pin Metal or iron, about 15 cm long.
strip
 Attach four pins to the strip with the help
of wax such that they are arranged at
nearly equal distances (about 2 cm apart),
as shown in Fig. 7.1.
 Secure the strip to a stand and label the
Burning
candle pins as I, II, III, and IV, as shown in Fig. 7.1.
(If a stand is not available, place the strip
between two bricks for support.)
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 Heat the end of the strip that is away from

Fig. 7.1: Heat transfer in a metal strip
the stand with a candle or a spirit lamp.
 What will happen to the pins? Will they remain attached to
the strip or will they fall?
 Predict the order in which the pins will fall from the strip.
 Record your observations in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1: Falling of pins

Pin falling first

Reasons for what you
Prediction observed
Observation

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 91
You observed that the pin closest to the candle flame (pin I)
falls first, followed by pins II, III, and IV. Why does pin I fall before
pin II? Why did all the pins not fall together?

Heat Transfer in Nature

From your observations, what can you infer? Do you think
that heat is being transferred along the metal strip from the
end that is being heated? As the heat travels along the strip and
approaches a pin, the wax holding it melts and the pin falls. Here,
the transfer of heat takes place from the hot end of the strip to the
colder end. The process of heat transfer from the hotter part of
an object to the colder part is called conduction. In this process,
the particle that gets heated, passes the heat on to its neighbour,
and so on. However, the particles themselves do not move from
their positions.
Materials like metals that allow heat to pass through them
easily are called good conductors of heat. Because metals are
good conductors of heat, we use utensils made of metals for
cooking. In solids, heat transfer takes place mainly through the
process of conduction.
If we use a strip made of a material like wood or glass in place
of a metal strip to perform Activity 7.1, the pins will not fall. Can
you think of the reason for this based on our learning from the
chapter ‘The World of Metals and Non-Metals’?
Materials such as glass and wood do not
allow heat to pass through them easily and Now, I know, why we
are poor conductors (insulators) of heat. generally use metal
Clay and porcelain are also poor conductors utensils for cooking,
of heat — that is why tea or coffee kept in whereas we prefer clay
such cups stays hot longer. and porcelain cups for
drinking tea or coffee.
List some materials around you and
classify them as good or poor conductors
of heat in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: List of good or poor conductors of heat

S.No. Material Good or Poor conductor of heat

1. Steel Good conductor

2. Wood

3.

Does your list include air? If it is there on the list, where have
you placed it?
You must have experienced that during winters, we prefer
wearing woollen clothes to keep ourselves warm.

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 Woollen fabric traps air in its pores
and as air is a poor conductor of heat,
it reduces heat flow from our bodies to
Air our surroundings. As a result, we feel
warm. Similarly, air trapped between
the layers of clothing acts as a poor
conductor of heat and keeps us warm.
The presence of air between two thin
blankets is the reason why we prefer
Fig. 7.2: Air trapped between two thin blankets them over one thick blanket to keep
acts as an insulator us warm (Fig. 7.2).
Is it possible to construct houses that are not affected much
by the outside heat and cold? Houses constructed in places with
a very hot or cold climate often use the concept of heat transfer
to keep them cool or warm.

FASCINATING FACTS
The upper regions of the Himalayas, such as the Mori block of Uttarkashi
in Uttarakhand, experience an extremely cold climate and heavy
snowfall during winters. Houses here are often built to stay warm
during winters, with walls made of two wooden layers filled with cow
dung and mud between them. As wood and mud are poor conductors
of heat, they prevent heat loss and help in keeping the houses warm.

There are houses with outer walls that are constructed using
hollow bricks that keep them warm in winters and cool in
summers. This happens because the air that gets trapped in the
hollow bricks is a poor conductor of heat.
Pema draws Palden’s attention to the
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Why is the smoke rising smoke from the burning firewood,

going up? around which they are sitting.

7.2 Convection
To understand why smoke rises, let us perform an activity.
Wooden
stick Activity 7.2: Let us investigate

 Take two identical paper cups.

Thread
 Hang them using threads of equal length in
Paper an inverted position on the two ends of a
cup wooden stick, as shown in Fig. 7.3a.
Fig. 7.3(a): Initial set-up

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 93
Wooden
 Now, adjust the positions of the cups, stick
so that the stick is horizontal.

Heat Transfer in Nature

 Place a burning candle below one of Thread
the cups (Fig. 7.3b). Paper cup
 Observe what happens to the cup.
Burning
 Record your observations in Table 7.3 candle
and think of probable reasons.
Fig. 7.3(b): Hot air rising up

Table 7.3: Recording observations and probable reasons

Observation about the cups Probable reasons for the observation

You observed that the cup under which the candle

was placed, rises up (Fig. 7.3b). Why is it so? The air
around the candle flame heats up. As the air in the
cup warms up, it expands and occupies more space. Inflated
balloon
As a result, it becomes lighter and rises up.
You can experience the expansion of air on
heating it by placing a partially inflated balloon in
the Sun (Fig. 7.4). After the air in the balloon gets
heated, it expands and the balloon becomes larger.
Fig. 7.4: An inflated
You must have observed that when an incense balloon in the Sun
stick (agarbatti) is burnt, smoke rises up. Smoke is a
mixture of hot gases and tiny solid particles that are released
when something burns. As it is warmer than the surrounding air,
it rises up.
Let us find out how heat transfer How does heat transfer
takes place in liquids by performing take place in liquids?
the following activity. Do liquids also rise up
when heated like air?
Activity 7.3: Let us find out

Caution — This activity should be carried out under the supervision of

a teacher or an adult.
 Take a 500 mL beaker, half-filled with water as shown in
Fig. 7.5a.
 With the help of a straw, place a grain of potassium
permanganate at the centre of the beaker’s base (Fig. 7.5a).
 Place a candle right below the centre of the base of the beaker.

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  Observe the movement of the coloured streak in the
Straw water.
Beaker  As you supply heat, a streak of colour starts moving
Water up and then coming down from the sides (Fig. 7.5b).
Tripod Why does the streak of coloured water go up in the
stand middle and come down from the sides? The water at the
Candle bottom of the beaker gets heated up and becomes hot.
It expands, becomes lighter, and rises. The water on the
Fig. 7.5(a): Initial set-up sides of the beaker is comparatively cooler and heavier,
for demonstration and comes down to take the place of the rising water.
Then, this water gets heated and in turn also rises.
This cycle continues until the entire volume of water
Coloured gets heated. In this case, the entire volume of water gets
streak heated through the actual movement of water particles.
This process of heat transfer is known as convection. It
is because of convection that we see the movement of the
Burning coloured streak inside the beaker.
candle
Thus, we can conclude that water, like air, gets heated
up by the process of convection. Here, heat transfer takes
Fig. 7.5(b): Demonstration of
place by the actual movement of particles of liquids and
convection in heated water gases from one place to another.

7.2.1 Land and Sea Breeze

Palden shares his experience of visiting a beach in Kerala during
winter vacation and says, “During the day, the sand or soil near
the beach is hotter than the water in the sea. However, at night,
the sand or soil is cooler than the water.” Pema replies, “Yes,
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

different objects get heated and cooled differently.”

Let us check how land and water get heated and cooled by
performing an activity.

Activity 7.4: Let us investigate

Caution — This activity should be carried out on a clear,
sunny day under the supervision of a teacher or an adult.
 Take two identical bowls as shown in Fig. 7.6.
Stand
 Fill one bowl halfway with soil and the other bowl
halfway with water.
Thermometer
 Fix a laboratory thermometer in each bowl as
shown in Fig. 7.6. Make sure that the bulbs of the
Soil Water
thermometer are immersed in soil and water, and
do not touch the bottoms or the sides of the bowls.
Fig. 7.6: Measurement of the
temperature of soil and water  Place the set-up in sunlight.
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 95
 Measure the temperature of soil and water every 5 minutes
and record the data in Table 7.4.

Heat Transfer in Nature

Table 7.4: Temperature of soil and water when heated

S.No. Time (min) Temperature of Temperature of

soil (°C) water (°C)

1. 0
2. 5
3. 10

4. 15
5. 20

 Study the rise in temperature of soil and water.

 Did the temperature rise by the same amount for both the
soil and the water at the same time?
 If not, which one got heated faster?
 How much was the rise in temperature of the soil and the
water in 20 minutes?
After 20 minutes, you will find that the temperature of the
soil rises more than that of the water. This indicates that the soil
heats up faster than water.
Does the soil also cool faster than water? After letting the soil
and water get heated, bring the set-up indoors and let it cool for
20 minutes. You will observe that
the soil cools faster than water,
just as it gets heated faster. Warm air

People living in coastal

areas experience an interesting
phenomenon caused by the
heating and cooling of land and
water at different rates. As the
land gets heated faster than water Warmer
during the day, it causes warm Cool sea breeze land
air above the land to rise. This Cooler sea
causes cooler air to move from
the sea towards the land. This
movement of cooler air from the Fig. 7.7(a): Sea breeze
sea to the land is called sea breeze
(Fig. 7.7a). Hence, in hot places, sea breeze relieves people from
the heat. That is why, windows of the houses in coastal areas are
placed facing the sea.

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 At night, the process
Warm air reverses. In the absence of
sunlight, land cools down
faster than the water in the
sea. As a result, the air above
the sea is warmer and rises
up. Cooler air from the land
Cooler then moves towards the
Warmer sea
land sea, creating a land breeze
(Fig. 7.7b).
Cool land
breeze Thus, people living near
the seashore experience that
Fig. 7.7(b): Land breeze the direction of the wind
reverses in the day and night.

7.3 Radiation
Do you remember when Pema and Palden were sitting around
the fireplace? They felt warm.
Their grandfather tells them that the
I wonder how heat transfer, in this case, takes place
heat from the directly from the fire (hot object) to us by a
fire reaches us? process known as radiation. The heat of the
Sun reaches us through this process. Heat
transfer by radiation does not require any medium.
All objects radiate heat. You must have observed that a hot
utensil kept away from the flame cools down after some time.
What is the reason for it? The hot utensil cools down by radiating
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

heat to its surroundings.

DIVE
EEPER
Why is it more comfortable to wear white or light-coloured
clothes during summers and dark-coloured clothes during
winters?

Light-coloured clothes reflect most of the heat that falls on

them, and therefore, we feel more comfortable wearing
them during summers. Dark surfaces, on the other hand,
absorb more heat, and therefore, we feel more comfortable
with dark-coloured clothes during winters.

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 97
There are many examples in our daily life, where we can
observe conduction, convection, and radiation happening
together.

Heat Transfer in Nature

Consider the case of water being heated up, as
shown in Fig. 7.8. Let us identify the various ways in
which the pan and the water get heated up, as well
as the warmth we feel around the flame and the hot
pan. Heat is transferred from the flame to the utensil
by conduction. Subsequently, water in the utensil
gets heated up by convection. The warmth that we
Fig. 7.8: Heating water in a pan
feel around the flame and the hot utensil is due to
radiation.
Let us wrap up!
From the activities, examples, and discussions so far, we find that
there are three processes by which heat gets transferred. These
are conduction, convection, and radiation.
 In conduction, heating takes place when one particle receives
heat, transfers heat to the next particle in contact, and so
on. The particles themselves do not move away from their
positions.
 In convection, heat transfer takes place by the actual
movement of particles.
 Note that in conduction and convection, a medium must be
present whose particles help in the transfer of heat.
 In the case of radiation, heat travels from one place to
another and no material medium is required for its transfer.

FASCINATING FACTS
In the upper reaches of the Himalayan
region, a traditional room heater locally
known as bukhari is used to keep rooms
warm during winters. It consists of an iron
stove in which wood or charcoal is burnt.
A long pipe attached to the upper part of
the heater serves as a chimney, venting
out the smoke. Additionally, the bukhari
can be used for cooking, as its flat top
provides a platform for placing utensils.
All the three processes of heat transfer
are involved when this device is used for
cooking and warming up the room. Bukhari

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 You have learnt in the Grade 6 Science textbook Curiosity, that
the Sun is the main source of heat for the Earth. You have seen
your parents drying wet clothes on the clothesline at home. Wet
clothes dry faster on a sunny day since the heat from the Sun
makes the evaporation of water faster.
Thus, heat from the Sun plays an important role in the
evaporation of water, be it from clothes drying on a line or from
water bodies like oceans and lakes. Let us look at the phenomenon
of water cycle to understand this in more detail.

7.4 Water Cycle

You have also learnt in the Grade 6 Science textbook Curiosity,
that water exists in three states in nature. As a liquid, it fills
the oceans, rivers, and lakes on the Earth. As a solid, it forms
snow, ice sheets, and glaciers in the mountains and the polar
regions. As a gas, it exists in the form of water vapour in the
Earth’s atmosphere. During summers, some of the snow and
ice gets converted to water due to the Sun’s radiation and flows
down as rivers, and ultimately into the oceans. The melted ice is
replenished by fresh snow during winters.
Water in the oceans,
rivers, and lakes gets
Sun
heated due to the Sun, and
as a result, it evaporates
Precipitation as water vapour. Water
Condensation
also evaporates from
trees and plants through
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

transpiration.
Evaporation Transpiration When water vapour
rises up, it cools down
and condenses to form
clouds. Clouds bring
rain, snow, and hail.
This process is called
Fig. 7.9: Water cycle precipitation.
The continuous movement of water — upward as water vapour
and downward through precipitation, passing through soil, rocks,
and plants, and finally returning to water bodies, is called water
cycle (Fig. 7.9). Thus, the water cycle helps in redistributing and
replenishing water in rivers, lakes, and oceans. It also serves to
conserve the total amount of water on the Earth. Rainwater that
falls on the surface of the Earth, flows into ponds, lakes, rivers,
and oceans or seeps into the ground.
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 99

KNOW A SCIENTIST
Varahamihira was an astronomer and mathematician of the

Heat Transfer in Nature

sixth century CE in Ujjaini (modern-day Ujjain), Madhya Pradesh.
In his work Brihatsamhita, he gave methods for predicting seasonal
rainfall. His predictions of seasonal rainfalls were based on factors,
such as cloud formation, wind patterns, position of stars and the
moon, and other natural phenomena.

You may have seen people drawing water

from wells or handpumps. This is the water that How does water
has seeped into the ground. seep through the
surface of the
Let us understand how water seeps through
Earth?
the surface of the earth by performing an activity.

7.4.1 Seepage of water beneath the

Earth
Activity 7.5: Let us investigate Clay Sand Gravel

 Take three transparent, used plastic bottles

of 1 L capacity.
 Cut them in the middle and make a small
hole in the cap of each bottle.
 Keep them inverted and put some clay in 1 2 3
one bottle, sand in the second, and gravel Fig. 7.10: An activity to compare the flow of
in the third, as shown in Fig. 7.10. water through clay, sand and gravel
 Place three identical beakers below each bottle.
 Add 200 mL of water to each bottle.
 Predict the amount of water flowing out of each bottle.
 Collect the water that flows through each bottle for 10 minutes.
 Compare the amount of water that comes through each
bottle.
Table 7.5: Seepage of water

Prediction Observation
Bottles
filled with Seepage of water Seepage of water
(very slow/slow/fast) (very slow/slow/fast)

Bottle 1 (Clay)

Bottle 2 (Sand)

Bottle 3 (Gravel)

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 Do your findings match with your predictions?
You may have observed that water seeps fastest through
Open gravel, slower through sand, and slowest through clay. Why
spaces
is it so? The spaces between gravel particles are wider when
compared to those in sand and clay. Hence, water can seep
through the gravel more easily. In this way, water seeps
beneath the surface of the Earth. This process of surface water
seeping through soil and rocks is called infiltration. Water
can infiltrate more readily if the spaces between soil and
rock particles are wider, open, and interconnected (Fig. 7.11).
The water that seeps through gets stored in the pore spaces
Gravel
of sediments and the openings in rocks beneath the surface
as groundwater. The underground layers of sediments and
Soil rocks that store water in pore spaces are called aquifers
(Fig. 7.12). This is the water we extract by digging wells or
drilling bore wells into aquifers. This water may be a few
metres to hundreds of metres below the ground, depending
Fig. 7.11: Water readily on the location.
moves, and is stored where
spaces are wide, open and
connected
Rain

Well
Infiltration
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Aquifer

Fig. 7.12: Aquifer

However, groundwater is not unlimited. The growing water
requirements of an increasing population have led to excessive
groundwater extraction. Additionally, decreased vegetation cover
and increased concrete surfaces in urban areas have limited
water infiltration. As a result, groundwater is getting depleted.
To address this, rainwater harvesting and recharge pits are used
to replenish groundwater. Hence, the water cycle ensures that
groundwater sources are recharged, thereby helping to ensure a
sustainable groundwater supply.

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 101
Since water scarcity makes life difficult, people have
developed different ways to conserve water. For example, in
Ladakh, people have developed innovative ways to conserve

Heat Transfer in Nature

water by making ice stupas (Fig. 7.13) during the winters.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Ice Stupa
During the spring season in
Ladakh, streams often dry
up, leading to scarcity of
water as the heat from the
Sun’s radiation is not enough
to melt the snow on the
mountains. During winters,
water from mountain
streams is channeled down
through underground pipes.
This water is then sprayed
into the cold air. As it falls, it Fig. 7.13: Ice stupa
freezes due to extremely low
temperatures.
The ice builds up layer by layer, creating a tall, cone-shaped
structure called an ice stupa as shown in Fig. 7.13. The ice stupa
melts slowly during spring, providing water for farming and other
needs throughout the summer.

In a Nutshell

 There are three ways in which heat is transferred from one

place to another — conduction, convection, and radiation.
 The process of heat transfer from the hotter part of an object
to a colder part is called conduction. In this process, particles
do not move from their positions.
 Materials that allow heat to pass through them easily are
called good conductors of heat.
 Materials that do not allow heat to pass through them easily
are called poor conductors (insulators) of heat.
 In solids, heat is mainly transferred through the process of
conduction. In liquids and gases, heat is transferred by the
process of convection.

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  In convection, heat transfer takes place by the actual
movement of particles. Land and sea breezes are examples
of the process of convection.
ENQUIRY  Heat from the Sun reaches the Earth through radiation.
 All objects exchange heat with their surroundings through
the process of radiation.
 Processes of conduction and convection require a medium

? for heat transfer but no medium is required for the radiation

process.
 The principles of heat transfer are utilised in designing
WHY WHAT IF houses and clothing.
 The continuous movement of water — upward as water
WHERE W vapour and downward through precipitation, passing
H
E through soil, rocks and plants, and finally returning to water
N bodies, is called water cycle.
H WHAT
O
W COULD  The process of surface water seeping through soil and rocks
L
CAN is called infiltration.
O W ? IT
N H
 Groundwater is the water that seeps through and gets stored
G I in the pore spaces of sediments and the openings in rocks
C WHOSE
H beneath the surface.
WE
WHAT WILL
 The underground layers of sediments and rocks that store
HL
AS HAPPEN water in pore spaces are called aquifers.
TE
WHY
NOT
WHAT
SHOULD Let Us Enhance Our Learning

1. Choose the correct option in each case.

(i) Your father bought a saucepan made of two different
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

B materials, A and B, as shown in Fig. 7.14. The materials

A and B have the following properties —
(a) Both A and B are good conductors of heat
A
(b) Both A and B are poor conductors of heat
Fig. 7.14: Saucepan (c) A is a good conductor and B is a poor conductor of
heat
Pin Metal (d) A is a poor conductor and B is a good conductor of
Stand strip heat
(ii) Pins are stuck to a metal strip with wax and a burning
candle is kept below the rod, as shown in Fig. 7.15. Which
IV III II I
of the following will happen?
Burning
candle (a) All the pins will fall almost at the same time
(b) Pins I and II will fall earlier than pins III and IV
Fig. 7.15: Heat (c) Pins I and II will fall later than pins III and IV
transfer set-up (d) Pins II and III will fall almost at the same time
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 103
(iii) A smoke detector is a device that detects smoke and
sounds an alarm. Suppose you are fitting a smoke
detector in your room. The most suitable place for this

Heat Transfer in Nature

device will be:
(a) Near the floor
(b) In the middle of a wall
(c) On the ceiling
(d) Anywhere in the room
2. A shopkeeper serves you cold lassi in a tumbler. By chance,
the tumbler had a small leak. You were given another tumbler INNOVATION
by the shopkeeper to put the leaky tumbler in it. Will this
arrangement help to keep the lassi cold for a longer time?
DISCOVERY
Explain.
3. State with reason(s) whether the following statements are
True [T] or False [F]. ENQUIRY

(i) Heat transfer takes place in solids through

convection. [ ] EXPLORATION
(ii) Heat transfer through convection takes place by the
actual movement of particles. [ ] CURIOSITY
(iii) Areas with clay materials allow more seepage of water
than those with sandy materials. [ ]
(iv) The movement of cooler air from land to sea is called
land breeze. [ ]
4. Some ice cubes placed in a dish melt into water after
sometime. Where do the ice cubes get heat for this
transformation?
5. A burning incense stick is fixed, pointing downwards. In
which direction would the smoke from the incense stick
move? Show the movement of smoke with a diagram.
6. Two test tubes with water are heated by a candle flame as
shown in Fig. 7.16. Which thermometers (Fig. 7.16a or
Fig. 7.16b) will record a higher temperature? Explain.
Thermometer

Thermometer

Water
Water

Burning Burning
candle candle

Fig. 7.16(a) Fig. 7.16(b)

Fig. 7.16: Two thermometers dipped in two test tubes

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 7. Why are hollow bricks used to construct the outer walls of
houses in hot regions?
8. Explain how large water bodies prevent extreme temperature
in areas around them.
9. Explain how water seeps through the surface of the Earth
and gets stored as groundwater.
10. The water cycle helps in the redistribution and replenishment
of water on the Earth. Justify the statement.

Exploratory Projects

 Society: Visit a site of water harvesting or a recharge pit.

Find out from people how they are constructed and how
Disciplinary

they work. Prepare a report with illustrations.

 Activity: Tightly wrap a thin paper strip around a metallic
rod. Try to burn the paper with a candle while rotating
the rod continuously. Does the paper burn? Explain your
observations.
History Art
 Activity: Take a sheet of paper. Draw a spiral on it, as shown in
Fig. 7.17a. Cut the paper along the spiral. Suspend the paper
as shown in the Fig. 7.17b above a burning candle. Observe
Geography Society what happens. Provide an explanation for your observation.

Technology Economy
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Inter

Fig. 7.17(a): Cutting paper Fig. 7.17(b): Spiral paper

in spiral above a burning candle

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 Measurement of
8 Time and Motion

Prerna and her younger sister are watching a sports channel

on television. Prerna enjoys running and she has been declared
the fastest runner among the girls in her district for winning
the 100 metre sprint at an interschool competition held at the
district level. She is now training to compete at the state level.
She dreams of representing India at the international level in 100
metre sprint contests in future.
While watching the rerun of sprints at the Olympic games held
in the past, Prerna is always amazed that the measurement of
the time taken for the race is so advanced that they could identify
the winner even when two sprinters seemed to cross the finish
line almost together. However, in her school, the sports teacher
only used a special kind of watch called a ‘stopwatch’ for timing
the school races. She had noticed her mother wearing a watch on
her wrist and her sister looking at her mobile phone when she
needed to check the time. Her uncle used a Braille watch and had
recently acquired a talking watch that announced the time at the
touch of a button. There was also a large clock on the wall near
the school entrance. Her thoughts turned to people in the ancient
past, who did not have the modern gadgets we have today and
she wondered…

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 How was time
measured when there
were no clocks and
watches?

8.1 Measurement of Time

Humans got interested in keeping track of time long ago. They

started noticing that many events in nature repeat themselves
after definite intervals of time. For example, the rising and setting
of the Sun, the phases of the Moon and the changing seasons.
They started using the cycles of these events for timekeeping.
First, they devised calendars. A day was defined by the cycle of
rising and setting of the Sun. Then began the quest to find ways
of knowing the time of day.
So, they made many devices which
helped them to measure smaller intervals
of time within a day. Some of these were
sundials, water clocks, hourglasses, and
candle clocks.
In a sundial, time is determined with
the changing position of the shadow of an
object cast by the light of the Sun during
Fig. 8.1 A sundial the day (Fig. 8.1).
The water clocks used the flow of water
out or into a vessel to measure time. In
one type, water flowed out from a vessel
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

which had markings for time (Fig. 8.2a). In

the other type, there would be a bowl, with
a fine hole at the bottom, which was
(a) (b) floated on the surface of water (Fig. 8.2b).
Fig. 8.2 A water clock (a) Water flowing out-type
It gradually filled up in a fixed time and
(b) Floating bowl-type finally sank. Then, it was lifted up and
floated again.
In an hourglass (Fig. 8.3), time was
measured on the basis of the flow of sand
from one bulb to another.
Candle clocks (Fig. 8.4) were candles
with markings that indicated the passage
of time when burned.
Fig. 8.3 An hourglass Fig. 8.4 A candle clock

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 107

FASCINATING FACTS
The world’s largest stone sundial,

Measurement of Time and Motion

the Samrat Yantra, was built
around 300 years ago at the Jantar
Mantar, in Jaipur, Rajasthan,
a UNESCO World Heritage site
that houses several astronomical
instruments. With its imposing
height of 27 metres, its shadow
moves at about 1 millimetre per
second and falls on a scale finely marked to measure time intervals as
short as 2 seconds. Like any sundial, it measures local or ‘solar time’,
requiring a correction to determine Indian Standard Time.

Should we make a simple water clock?

Activity 8.1: Let us construct

 Take a used transparent plastic bottle (1/2 litre or larger)

with its cap.
 Cut it into two, roughly in the middle as shown in Fig. 8.5a.
 Using a drawing pin, make a small hole in the cap of the
bottle (Fig. 8.5b).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 8.5: Making a simple water clock

 Place the upper part of the bottle in an inverted position over

the lower half (Fig. 8.5c).
 Fill the upper part of the bottle with water. You may add a
few drops of ink or colour to make the water level easily
visible (Fig. 8.5d).
 The water will start dripping into the lower part of the bottle.
Using a watch, mark the level of water after every one minute
till all the water drips down.
Your water clock is ready. Can you now guess how to use it?
Pour the water from the lower part back into the top part and
watch the level of water dripping into the lower part. Every time
it touches a mark made by you, one more minute has passed.

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 FASCINATING FACTS
In ancient India, time was measured using both shadows and water
clocks. The earliest reference to shadow-based time measurement
appears in the Arthasastra by Kautilya (was composed and revised
between the second century BCE – third century CE). An accurate
expression for time in terms of the shadow of a vertical stick was
given by Varahamihira around 530 CE. The water clock with water
flowing out was described in the Arthasastra, Sardulakarnavadana,
and some other texts (early CE centuries). These clocks were not very
accurate because as water levels dropped, the flow rate decreased.
This led to the development of the sinking bowl water clock
(Fig. 8.2b), or Ghatika-yantra,, first mentioned by Aryabhata, and then
in several astronomical texts later. Time was measured constantly
with Ghatika-yantra at Buddhist monasteries, royal palaces, town
squares, and each time the bowl sank, it was announced by drums,
conch shells, or striking a gong. Though the Ghatika-yantra was
progressively replaced by pendulum clocks in the late nineteenth
century, it continued to be used at the religious places for rituals.

As human civilisation advanced, and

as people began to travel long distances,
the measurement of time became very
critical. This led to the development of
increasingly better mechanical devices
for the measurement of time, driven
by weights, gears, and springs from the
fourteenth century onwards. However,
Pendulum
the invention of the pendulum clock
in the seventeenth century marked
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Fig. 8.6: Huygens’ a major breakthrough in mechanical

Pendulum clock timekeeping.

KNOW A SCIENTIST
The pendulum clock was invented in 1656 and patented in 1657 by
Christiaan Huygens (1629 –1695). He was inspired by the investigations
of pendulums by Galileo Galilei (1564 –1642). It is said that once while
sitting in a church, Galileo’s attention was drawn to a lamp suspended
from the ceiling, which was swinging back and forth. Using his pulse
to measure time, Galileo found that the lamp took the same time for
each swing. After experimenting with different pendulums, Galileo
concluded that the time taken to complete one oscillation was always
the same for a pendulum of a given length.

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 109

8.1.1 A simple pendulum

A simple pendulum We did an activity in the chapter

Measurement of Time and Motion

consists of a small ‘Measurement of Length and Motion’
metallic ball (called the in the Grade 6 Science textbook
bob of the pendulum) Curiosity, where we observed the
suspended from a rigid oscillatory motion of an eraser hung
support by a long thread with a thread. Is the pendulum
similar to that?
as shown in Fig. 8.7a.

Rigid
support

Long
thread

B A
Extreme O Extreme
Bob position Mean position
position
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.7 A simple pendulum
The pendulum at rest is in its mean position. When the bob of
the pendulum is moved slightly to one side and released, it starts
oscillatory motion. Its motion is periodic in nature because it
repeats its path after a fixed interval of time.
The pendulum is said to have completed one oscillation when
its bob, starting from its mean position O, moves to extreme
position A, changes direction and moves to another extreme
position B, changes direction and comes back to O (Fig. 8.7b). The
pendulum also completes one oscillation when its bob moves
from one extreme position A to another extreme position B and
comes back to A. The time taken by the pendulum to complete
one oscillation is called its time period. Let us now set up a
pendulum and measure its time period.
Activity 8.2: Let us experiment

 Collect a piece of string around 150 cm long, a heavy metal

ball with hook/ a stone (bob), a stopwatch/ watch, and a ruler.
 Tie the bob at one end of the string.
 Fix the other end of the string to a rigid support such that the
length of the string in between support and bob is around
100 cm.
 Wait for the bob to come to rest. Your pendulum is now
ready.

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  Gently hold the bob, move it slightly to one side and release
it. Take care not to push the bob while releasing it and that
the string is taut. Is your pendulum now oscillating?
 Using a watch, measure the time it takes for the pendulum
to complete 10 oscillations. Record the time in Table 8.1.
 Repeat this activity 3–4 times.
 Divide the time taken for 10 oscillations by 10 to calculate
the time period of your pendulum. Note it down in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 Time period of a simple pendulum

Length of the string = 100 cm

Time taken for 10 oscillations Time period
S.No.
(seconds) (seconds)
1.

2.

3.

Is the time period of your pendulum almost the same every

time? What do you conclude from this observation? The time
period of the pendulum is almost the same every time.

THINK LIKE A SCIENTIST!

You just did an important historical experiment which was first done
by Galileo, except you used a watch to measure time in place of your
pulse beat. Suppose you were Galileo experimenting with pendulums,
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

what all would you investigate? What questions could you ask? Would
all pendulums have the same time period? How would you test this?
Repeat Activity 8.2 using the same bob but with pendulums of two
or three different lengths. Does the time period change? If so, how does
the length affect it? If changing the length influences the time period,
does the bob’s mass also matter? Test this by repeating Activity 8.2
with a fixed pendulum length but with bobs of different mass. Do you
observe any change?
The time period of a simple pendulum depends on its length but
not on the bob’s mass. All pendulums of the same length have the same
time period at a given location.

The time period of a simple pendulum of a given length is

constant at a place. This property is used in the measurement of
time.

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 111
All clocks, old or modern, are based on some process repeating
continuously, which can be used to mark equal intervals of time.

Measurement of Time and Motion

Modern clocks measure time using the same basic principle —

DIVE
periodically repeating processes — but use tiny and very rapid
vibrations either from a quartz crystal (quartz clocks) or from some EEPER
specific atoms (atomic clocks). While Huygens’ early pendulum
clocks could gain or lose 10 seconds each day, today’s atomic clocks
are so precise that they lose only one second in millions of years!
Scientists are constantly searching for even better ways to measure
time with greater accuracy.

Fig. 8.8: Some common clocks and watches

8.1.2 SI unit of time

The SI unit of time is the second. Its symbol is s. The larger units
of time are minute (min) and hour (h).

60 s = 1 min 60 min = 1 h

D
Units of time, such as second, minute, and hour begin with a
IVE
EEPER lowercase letter, except at the beginning of a sentence. Their
symbols ‘s’, ‘min’, and ‘h’ are also written in lowercase letters
and in singular. Note that a full stop is not written after the
symbol, except at the end of a sentence. While writing the time,
always leave a space between the number and the unit. Also,
note that writing ‘sec’ for second and ‘hrs’ for hour is incorrect.

FASCINATING FACTS
The hole in the bowl of Ghatika-yantra was made in such a manner
that it took 24 minutes to fill and sink. The time unit measured by this
clock was called ghatika or ghati. It became the standard unit of time
measurement and continued until the end of the nineteenth century.
A 24-hour-long day was, thus, divided into 60 equal ghatis.

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 Activity 8.3: Let us identify

 Look at the wall clock shown in Fig. 8.9 carefully.

What is the smallest interval of time you can
measure with it?
One second is the smallest interval of time that we can
Fig. 8.9: A wall clock measure using this clock.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

In today’s world, measuring tiny fractions of a second is very
important! For example, in sports, timekeeping devices can
record events down to one-hundredth or even one-thousandth of
a second (a millisecond) to determine the winners in a race. In
medicine, heart monitors like Electrocardiogram (ECG) machines
measure the millisecond variations in heartbeats to detect health
issues. In music, digital recordings capture sound thousands of
times per second for smooth playback. Many devices use even
shorter intervals, smartphones, and computers process signals
in microseconds (one-millionth of a second), allowing them
to operate very fast. Scientists continue to develop even more
precise time-measuring tools for space exploration, medicine, and
advanced science experiments. The faster and more accurate our
clocks become, the more they help society in ways we may not
even notice!

For races covering the same

Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

distance, we can tell who was

faster by measuring time. But how
can we tell that when comparing
races for different distances?

8.2 Slow or Fast

What do we mean when we say something is moving fast or
slow? Suppose you are watching a 100 metre race on a straight
track. All the players begin from the starting line together but
after sometime they are not running together (Fig. 8.10). How do
you decide who is running faster amongst them?

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 113

Measurement of Time and Motion

Fig. 8.10: Boys running a race on a straight track

Someone who is ahead of others at some instant of time, is

running faster than them. Hence, someone who has covered
more distance within the same time is running faster.
The distances moved by objects in a given interval of time
decide which one is faster or slower. We often say that the faster
runner has a higher speed. You are probably familiar with the
word ‘speed’.

8.3 Speed
By comparing the distances moved by two or more objects in a
unit time, it can be found out which of them is moving faster. The
unit time may be one second or one minute or one hour. We call
the distance covered by an object in a unit time as the speed of
the object.
How can we determine the speed of an object? It can be
calculated, if we know the total distance covered by an object
and the time taken to cover it. The speed of an object is the total
distance covered divided by the total time taken to cover it. Thus,
Total distance covered
Speed =
Total time taken
What would be the unit of speed? We know the SI units of
length and time. Since the speed is distance/time, the SI unit of
speed is metre/second and is expressed as m/s.
Speed can also be expressed in other units. If we express the
distance in kilometre and time in hour, then the unit of speed is
kilometre/hour, expressed as km/h.

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 Example 8.1: Swati’s school is 3.6 km from her house. It took her
15 min to reach her school riding on her bicycle. Calculate the
speed of the bicycle in m/s.
Distance covered
Solution: Speed of the bicycle =
Time taken
3.6 km
=
15 min
m
3.6 km ×1000
km
= s
15 min × 60
min
3.6 × 1000 m
=
15 × 60 s
= 4 m/s
Activity 8.4: Let us calculate

 Look up at the railway timetable on the internet.

 Identify a train stopping at the railway station nearest to
your place of stay.
 Find out the name of the next station where this train stops.
Also, find the distance to that station as given in the timetable.
 Note the time at which the train departs from your station and
arrives at the next station. Find the difference to calculate the
time taken by the train to cover the distance till the next station.
 Calculate the speed of the train between the two stations and
record it in Table 8.2.
 Repeat for 4–5 different types of trains (Passenger/ Express/
Superfast).
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Table 8.2: Finding the speed of trains

Name of the railway station nearest to your place of stay

____________________________.

Name of Distance till Time taken Speed of the train

S.No. Name of the next the next station till the next between these two
the train
station (km) station (h) stations (km/h)

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 115
 Compare the speeds of the trains. Which is the fastest train?
The train which has covered the maximum distance in unit time

Measurement of Time and Motion

is the fastest train, that is, the one with the highest speed.

8.3.1 Relationship between speed, distance,

and time
We already know how to calculate speed using
Total distance covered
Speed =
Total time taken
if the distance travelled and time taken for it are known to us.
We can write this equation in a different form to calculate the
distance covered by an object, if we know its speed and the time
taken, by using
Total distance covered = Speed × Total time taken
Similarly, we can also calculate the time an object will take to
cover a distance, if the distance and speed are given, by using
Total distance covered
Total time taken =
Speed
Example 8.2: Raghav is going to a neighbouring city in a bus
moving at a speed of 50 km/h. If it takes him 2 h to reach that
city, how far is that city?
Solution: Distance covered by bus = Speed × Time
km
= 50 ×2h
h
= 100 km
Example 8.3: A train is travelling at a speed of 90 km/h. How
much time will it take to cover a distance of 360 km?
Distance covered
Solution: Time taken by the train =
Speed
360 km
=
km
90
h
=4h
In all the examples so far, we have found the speed of an
object by using ‘the total distance covered divided by the total
time taken’. However, the object might not have travelled with
the same speed during the entire duration of time. The object
might have sometimes moved slower or sometimes faster. So, the
speed that we have calculated is the average speed, but, in this
book, we have used the term ‘speed’ for ‘average speed’.

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 SCIENCE AND SOCIETY
Vehicles such as scooters,
motorbikes, cars, and buses have
an instrument which measures and
displays the vehicle’s speed in km/h.
Speedometer
It is called a speedometer. Another
instrument, known as an odometer, Odometer
is also fitted in the vehicles that
measures the distance travelled by
the vehicle in kilometre.

I once watched a part of marathon on a straight

road stretch. I noticed that some people seemed to
be running at the same speed during that distance
while some people would speed up or slow down.
How were their motion different?

8.4 Uniform and Non-uniform Linear Motion

Do you remember learning about linear motion in the chapter

‘Measurement of Length and Motion’ in the Grade 6 Science
textbook Curiosity? When an object moves along a straight line,
its motion is called linear motion. Now, imagine a train on a
track which is along a straight line between two adjacent railway
stations. So, the motion of the train between these two stations is
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

an example of linear motion (Fig. 8.11). The train starts from the
first station A at a slow speed, then moves at a faster speed, then
slows down and comes to a halt at the next station D. In between
the two stations, for some distance (B to C), the train moves at a
constant speed, that is, at an unchanging speed.

A B
C D

Fig. 8.11: A train on a straight track

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 117
An object moving along a straight line with a constant speed
is said to be in uniform linear motion. So, the train is in uniform
motion between B and C (Fig. 8.11). On the other hand, if the speed

Measurement of Time and Motion

of an object moving along a straight line keeps changing, it is said
to be in non-uniform linear motion. The motion of the train
between A and B, as well as between C and D, is non-uniform
(Fig. 8.11).
An object in uniform linear motion covers equal distances
in equal intervals of time, while it covers unequal distances in
equal intervals of times when it is in non-uniform linear motion.
In Table 8.3, data are given for the distances travelled by two
trains, X and Y, between the time 10:00 AM and 11:00 AM.

Table 8.3: Distances travelled by two trains in equal time intervals

of 10 minutes

Train X Train Y
Time
(AM) Position Distance Position Distance
(km) (km) (km) (km)

10:00 0 0 0 0

10:10 20 20 20 20

10:20 40 20 35 15

10:30 60 20 50 15

10:40 80 20 75 25

10:50 100 20 95 20

11:00 120 20 120 25

Which of the two trains is in uniform linear motion between

10:00 AM and 11:00 AM? Train X covers equal distances in equal
intervals of time, so it is in uniform linear motion while Train Y
is in non-uniform linear motion.
Uniform linear motion is an idealisation. In everyday life,
we seldom find objects moving with a constant speed over long
distances or for long intervals of time. That is why we have to use
average speeds.

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 In a Nutshell

 The time taken by the pendulum to complete one oscillation

is called its time period.
 The time period of a simple pendulum of a given length is
constant at a place.
 The SI unit of time is the second. Its symbol is s.
 The average speed of an object is the total distance covered
divided by the total time taken to cover it.
 An object moving along a straight line with a constant speed
is said to be in uniform linear motion.
 If the speed of an object moving along a straight line keeps
changing, it is said to be in non-uniform linear motion.

Let Us Enhance Our Learning

ENQUIRY
1. Calculate the speed of a car that travels 150 metres in 10
seconds. Express your answer in km/h.
2. A runner completes 400 metres in 50 seconds. Another
runner completes the same distance in 45 seconds. Who has

?
a greater speed and by how much?
3. A train travels at a speed of 25 m/s and covers a distance of
360 km. How much time does it take?
WHY WHAT IF 4. A train travels 180 km in 3 h. Find its speed in:
(i) km/h
WHERE W (ii) m/s
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

H
E (iii) What distance will it travel in 4 h if it maintains the same
N
H WHAT
O speed throughout the journey?
W COULD
CAN
5. The fastest galloping horse can reach the speed of
L approximately 18 m/s. How does this compare to the speed
O W ? IT
N H of a train moving at 72 km/h?
G I
C WHOSE 6. Distinguish between uniform and non-uniform motion using
H
the example of a car moving on a straight highway with no
WE
HL WHAT WILL traffic and a car moving in city traffic.
AS HAPPEN
TE 7. Data for an object covering distances in different intervals
WHY WHAT of time are given in the following table. If the object is in
NOT SHOULD
uniform motion, fill in the gaps in the table.
Time (s) 0 10 20 30 50 70

Distance (m) 0 8 24 32 40 56

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 119
8. A car covers 60 km in the first hour, 70 km in the second
hour, and 50 km in the third hour. Is the motion uniform?
Justify your answer. Find the average speed of the car.

Measurement of Time and Motion

9. Which type of motion is more common in daily life—
uniform or non-uniform? Provide three examples from your
experience to support your answer.
10. Data for the motion of an object are given in the following
table. State whether the speed of the object is uniform or
non-uniform. Find the average speed.

Time (s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Distance (m) 0 6 10 16 21 29 35 42 45 55 60

11. A vehicle moves along a straight line and covers a distance

of 2 km. In the first 500 m, it moves with a speed of 10 m/s
and in the next 500 m, it moves with a speed of 5 m/s. With
what speed should it move the remaining distance so that
the journey is complete in 200 s? What is the average speed
of the vehicle for the entire journey?
INNOVATION
Exploratory Projects
DISCOVERY
 Construct a floating bowl-type water clock. Experiment by
using bowls of different sizes and making holes of different
ENQUIRY
sizes in them so that the sinking time of the bowl can be close
to 24 minutes.
 Design an activity for measuring the pulse rate (number of EXPLORATION

times the pulse of a person beats in 1 minute) of your friends.

Think of an activity where you can use your pulse to measure CURIOSITY
time and develop a story over that idea.
 What might be the reasons for the slight differences in the
time periods of a pendulum of a given length in different
readings taken in Activity 8.2. Think of ways to control those
and repeat the activity to check if the difference in readings
is reduced.
 Visit a playground with a few swings. Measure the time taken
by a swing for 10 oscillations and calculate its time period.
Repeat it a few times with children of different weights to
find out if its time period is almost the same. Repeat this with
swings of different lengths. Find out how the time period
changes with increasing length of the swings. Is the swing
also an example of a pendulum?

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  Gather the timings of the winners of the races — 100 m,
200 m, and 400 m for men and women in the last two Olympic
games. Calculate and compare their speeds. In which event
is the speed the fastest?
Disciplinary

FASCINATING FACTS
Time started when our Universe was created and will
continue in the future. We cannot see or feel time but we
History Art can only measure its passage in terms of a time interval
between events. These time intervals can be fractions of
a second, or even days or months, or years or centuries.
We can only say when an event occurred or for how
Geography Society long it lasted. Though we have learnt to measure time
with increasing accuracy, and our lives are governed
by watches and clocks, ‘What is time?’ continues to be a
tricky question with no easy answer!
Technology Economy
Inter
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

120

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 Life Processes
9 in Animals

If your food is fully digested before you eat again, you won’t need medicine for pain.
(Thirukkural 942)

In the Grade 6 Science textbook Curiosity, chapter ‘Living

Creatures: Exploring their Characteristics’, we learnt about
processes essential for survival of living beings like nutrition,
respiration, excretion, and reproduction. These are collectively
called life processes. In this chapter, we will learn about life
processes such as nutrition and respiration in detail.

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 Observe your surroundings and notice what animals eat.
Animals eat different types of food. Bees and sunbirds suck the nectar
of flowers, while infants of humans and many other animals feed on
their mother’s milk. Snakes, like python, swallow the animals they
prey upon. Some aquatic animals filter tiny food particles floating
nearby and feed upon them.
Animals, including humans, obtain
energy from food, which enables them to
carry out various life processes. Animals
Mouth consume food that contains complex
components, such as carbohydrate, protein,
and fat. These complex food components
have to be broken down into simpler forms
Oesophagus before the body can use them. But how does
or Food pipe this process happen?
Breaking down of complex food
Liver
components into simpler forms occurs in a
Stomach
long tube called the alimentary canal. This
Pancreas
process starts in the mouth and ends at the
anus (Fig. 9.1). As food moves through this
Small intestine
canal, digestive juices secreted at different
Large intestine parts break it down into simpler forms.
Rectum This simpler form of food is absorbed by
Anus different parts of our alimentary canal and
transported to various parts of our body to
carry out various functions.
Fig. 9.1: Human digestive system

9.1 Nutrition in Animals

Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

How do the complex food components get broken down into

simpler forms and used by the body in various animals? Is this
process the same in all animals or does it vary? Let us first try to
understand this process in humans.

9.1.1 Digestion in human beings

Let us trace the journey of food inside our body as it passes
through different parts of the alimentary canal.
Beginning with the mouth cavity
The journey of the food you eat begins when it enters your
mouth. Your teeth break down food you eat into smaller pieces
by the processes of crushing and chewing. This process of initial
breakdown of food into fine pieces is called mechanical digestion.
Think about your favourite food. Does your mouth feel watery?
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 123
This happens because of more saliva that gets released when you
recall your favourite food.
What do you think is the role of saliva in your mouth? What

Life Processes in Animals

do you feel when you eat other types of food, such as chapati? Let
us find out.
Take a small piece of chapati or a bite-sized portion of boiled
rice and chew it properly for 30–60 seconds. At first, the chapati
or rice has its usual taste, but as you continue chewing, do you
notice a change in taste? The food begins to taste sweet! Have you
ever wondered why this happens?
Chapati or rice contains starch, which is a type of carbohydrate.
Our saliva contains a digestive juice that helps break down starch
into sugar. This explains why starchy food, like chapati, tastes
sweet when you chew it for a long time. Saliva helps to break
down components of food into simpler ones.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

A healthy mouth requires good oral hygiene. We should brush our
teeth and clean our tongue twice a day, and rinse our mouth with
water after each meal to prevent tooth decay and bad smell in the
mouth. Find out the ways our elders were maintaing oral hygiene.

Activity 9.1: Let us investigate

 Take two test tubes and label them as ‘A’ and ‘B’.
 Take one teaspoonful of boiled rice in test tube A, and take a
teaspoonful of boiled rice after chewing it for 30–60 seconds
in test tube B.
 Add 3–4 mL of water in both the test tubes.
 Note the initial colour of the rice-water mixture in Table 9.1.
 Add 3–4 drops of iodine solution into each test tube with the
help of a dropper. Mix the content of each test tube separately
and observe.
Record your observations in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1: Action of saliva on starch

Initial colour Final colour Possible reason

Test tube before adding after adding for the change
iodine iodine in colour, if any

A: Boiled rice

B: Chewed boiled rice

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 Did you observe that the colour of boiled rice turned blue-black
in test tube A, while in test tube B, chewed boiled rice either did
not change colour or turned only a very light blue-black colour?
What causes the change of colour in test tube A? In Grade 6, we
learned that iodine gives a blue-black colour when it reacts with
starch. In test tube A, the appearance of the blue-black colour
indicates the presence of starch. In test tube B, which contains
chewed boiled rice, if there is no change in colour, it indicates
that the starch is no longer present; if there is only a slight
change in colour, it indicates that starch is present only in very
small amount. It has been broken down into simple sugars by
the action of saliva. If the colour still appears in test tube B, what
changes would you make in the activity to explore it further?
Would the colour change if chewing time is increased? Try to
find out by repeating the activity.
Now, we know that saliva secretion in the mouth helps break
down starch into sugars. This process of breaking complex food
components into simpler forms in the body is called digestion. Food
is partially digested in the mouth. Let us learn how this partially
digested food gets further digested through the alimentary canal.
Food pipe (Oesophagus): A passage from the mouth to the
stomach
Site of contraction When you chew your food, your
saliva not only helps in digesting
the starch but also moistens
Food it, making it soft and easy to
swallow. Your tongue helps in
Food mixing chewed food with saliva
Site of
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

relaxation and pushing this softened food

Food into a long, flexible tube called
the food pipe or oesophagus
(Fig. 9.2). But how does the food
Stomach Stomach
move down?
Fig. 9.2: Movement of food in the food pipe

The walls of the food pipe gently contract and relax in a

wave-like motion to push the food down into the stomach. This
movement takes place throughout the alimentary canal and
pushes the food forward.
Stomach
In the stomach, the walls contract and relax to churn the food. The
churned food is then mixed with a secretion from the inner lining
of the stomach. The secretion from stomach contains digestive juice,
acid, and mucus.

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 125
The digestive juice of the stomach breaks Digestive juice,
down proteins present in the food into simpler acid and mucus
components.

Life Processes in Animals

The acid not only helps break down proteins
but also kills many harmful bacteria. The mucus
protects the stomach lining from the acid, preventing
damage. In the stomach, the food is partially digested
Stomach wall
and transformed into a semi-liquid mass, preparing
it for the next stage of digestion. Fig. 9.3: Stomach

FASCINATING FACTS
How did scientists learn about digestion in the human body?
The discovery of how the stomach works happened
by chance. In 1822, a man named Alexis St. Martin
was accidentally shot in the stomach. He was treated
by a doctor, William Beaumont. However, his wound
never fully healed, leaving a small permanent hole.
This opening allowed Dr. Beaumont to observe
digestion in the stomach as it happened. He conducted
Alexis St. Martin’s
shotgun wound experiments on how different foods were broken
down and studied how emotions affect digestion.

Small Intestine
Mouth
After its journey through the stomach, the partially Food pipe
digested food moves into the small intestine. Look (Oesophagus)
at Fig. 9.4. It is a sketch of a stretched-out alimentary
canal. Guess how long it is. You will be surprised Stomach
that although it is called small intestine, it is almost
6 metres long—almost twice the height of your Liver Pancreas
classroom! You will be surprised to know that the
small intestine is the longest part of the alimentary
canal. Small
intestine
The small intestine receives digestive secretions
from three sources—the inner lining of the small
intestine itself, and two more structures associated
with the alimentary canal—the liver and the
pancreas (Fig. 9.4). The liver secretes bile, which
is mildly basic in nature. Recall the neutralisation Large
reaction in chapter ‘Exploring Substances: Acidic, intestine
Basic, and Neutral’. Bile neutralises acids present
in the food moving down from the stomach and Anus
breaks down fats into tiny droplets, making its
digestion easier. Fig. 9.4: Alimentary canal if it is
stretched out

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 The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, which is also
basic in nature and helps neutralise acids present in the food.
Additionally, pancreatic juice also breaks down carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats. The digestive juice secreted by the wall of the
small intestine further breaks down fats, proteins, and partially
digested carbohydrates into simpler forms.
The digested nutrients pass on
from the small intestine into the blood
present in blood vessels found in the
walls of the small intestine. This process
is called absorption of nutrients. How
are these nutrients absorbed from
the small intestine? The inner lining
of the small intestine is thin and has
thousands of finger-like projections
0.5 mm (Fig. 9.5) that increase the surface
area for efficient nutrient absorption.
Fig. 9.5: Inner lining of the small intestine
These finger-like projections allow
the digested nutrients to pass into the
blood, which carries them to different parts of the body. These
nutrients provide energy, support growth and repair, and help
the body function properly.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Celiac disease is a condition in which the body reacts
to gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye.
This reaction damages the inner lining of the small
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

intestine, where nutrients are absorbed. As a result,

the intestine cannot function properly. The only way
to manage celiac disease is to avoid foods that contain
gluten. Millets (like jowar, bajra, and ragi) are good
alternatives because they are naturally gluten-free.

Large intestine
After most of the nutrients are digested and absorbed in the
small intestine, what happens to the undigested food? It moves
into the large intestine. The large intestine is about 1.5 metres
in length. It is shorter than the small intestine. Then why is it
called the large intestine? The reason is that it is wider than the

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 127
small intestine. The large intestine absorbs water and some salts
from the undigested food, thus making the waste semi-solid. This
semi-solid waste is called stool. The stool is then stored in the

Life Processes in Animals

lower part of the large intestine, called the rectum, until the
body is ready to get rid of it. Eating fibre-rich foods like fruits,
vegetables, and whole grains helps the large intestine function
properly by making the stool easier to pass. Finally, it is expelled
through the anus—a process known as egestion. This is how your
body removes the waste it does not need, keeping you healthy!
Isn’t it fascinating how the digestive system works, absorbing
nutrients from food and eliminating waste?

FASCINATING FACTS
The large intestine contains various small living organisms,
such as bacteria, that help in digestion. They help in keeping our
digestive system healthy. They break down undigested food,
especially fibre, and produce essential nutrients. Fibre-rich
food, and especially ‘fermented foods’ (like curd, buttermilk,
shrikhand, kanji, pickles, gundruk, and poita bhat) are good for
a healthy digestive system and overall well-being.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

The importance of digestion in maintaining good health has been
recognised for centuries. The Charaka Samhita, an ancient Ayurvedic
text, highlights the role of easily digestible foods and the judicious use
of spices like ginger, black pepper, and cumin to enhance digestion.
Advances in science in the area of nutrition also emphasise eating
meals at proper timings, practising mindful eating, and avoiding
overeating as key factors in maintaining digestive health.

9.1.2 Do all animals digest food the same way as

humans do?

I have seen cows keep chewing

the food even when they are
not actively grazing or eating
anything. Why?

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 Grass-eating animals, such as
Small Intestine Pancreas Oesophagus cows (Fig. 9.6) and buffaloes,
partially chew the grass
and swallow it into their
stomachs. In the stomach,
partial digestion of the food
takes place. The partially
digested food is brought back
to the mouth for gradual
Rumen
chewing. This process is
called rumination, and these
animals are called ruminants.
A cow spends about 8 hours a
day just chewing the food! The
thoroughly chewed food again
Fig. 9.6: Digestive system of a ruminant passes down the alimentary
canal for further digestion.

Birds do not have teeth,

but they have a chamber
Oesophagus
called a gizzard (Fig. 9.7).
Food is broken down by the Stomach
contraction and relaxation Gizzard
of the walls of the gizzard, Intestine
often with the help of grit
(small stones) that the birds
swallow. Fig. 9.7: Digestive system in birds

This shows that animals exhibit variations in the structure

and function of the alimentary canal to adapt to different ways
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

of digesting different kinds of food.

We have learnt that the nutrients from digested food are
carried to different parts of the body. Some of the nutrients help
build and repair the body, while others, like sugar, are broken
down inside the body to release energy. The process by which
nutrients are converted into usable energy is called respiration.
Let us now explore how this process occurs in animals.

9.2 Respiration in Animals

We learnt in Grade 6 chapter ‘Living Creatures: Exploring their
Characteristics’, that all living beings respire. Is the process of
respiration the same in all animals? Let us first understand the
process of respiration in humans.

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 129
9.2.1 Respiration in humans
You know that we breathe in (inhale) and breathe out (exhale) air

Life Processes in Animals

continuously to obtain oxygen and release carbon dioxide. How
is this oxygen used in the body? Are breathing and respiration
different? Let us find out.
How do we breathe?
The process of inhaling and exhaling air is called breathing. It is
difficult to live without food for a week; without water for a day or
two, but without breathing, we usually cannot survive more than a
few minutes. Why is that? All of us are alive because we breathe. Not
just humans, plants and other animals also breathe. But how do we
breathe?
Just as food follows a specific pathway in the digestive system,
our body also has a specific system for breathing and respiration.
This system is called respiratory system. The respiratory
system consists of various parts as shown in Fig. 9.8. In this
system, the exchange of gases follows a specific pathway. The
pathway through which the air is inhaled and exhaled involves
various parts of the respiratory system assisting in the process of
breathing and respiration.
The respiratory system begins with a pair
of nasal openings called nostrils through
which we inhale and exhale air (Fig. 9.8). Nostrils
The inhaled air passes into a pair of small
passages called the nasal passages. Have Windpipe
you noticed tiny hair inside your nostrils? Alveoli
These hair, along with mucus, help trap Left lung
dust and dirt from the air we breathe in. Right lung
This is why we should breathe through the
nose and not through the mouth. From the Rib cage
nasal passages, the air reaches our lungs Diaphragm
through the windpipe. The windpipe forms
Fig. 9.8: Human respiratory system
two branches, which enter the two lungs.
In the lungs, these branches further divide into smaller and
finer branches that end in small balloon-like sacs called alveoli
(Fig. 9.8). Our lungs are protected by the rib cage.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

While a lot of the dust is filtered out from the inhaled air, often
small infectious particles can get through the lungs. For example,
during the COVID-19 pandemic, the SARS-CoV-2 virus affected
the respiratory system, leading to breathing difficulties and
often causing serious lung problems.

Chapter 9.indd 129 4/3/2025 4:55:14 PM

 Let us understand the mechanism of breathing by making a
simple model.

Activity 9.2: Let us make a model

 Take a wide transparent plastic

bottle with a lid. Remove its
bottom.
 Make a hole in the lid of the bottle.
 Take a Y-shaped hollow tube, as
shown in Fig. 9.9.
 Fix two deflated balloons to the
forked end of the tube. Secure
them with rubber bands to make
them airtight.
 Insert the straight end of the tube
tightly through the lid from the (a) Inhalation (b) Exhalation
open base of the bottle and seal Fig. 9.9: Model to show
the lid with clay to make it airtight. mechanisms of breathing

 To the open base of the bottle, attach a thin rubber sheet

tightly using a large rubber band.
Pull the rubber sheet from the centre of the base downwards
and watch the balloons (Fig. 9.9a). What do you observe? Now,
release the rubber sheet upwards and observe the balloons
(Fig. 9.9b). What changes do you see in the balloons? When you
pull the rubber sheet downwards, the balloons inflate. Conversely,
when you release the rubber sheet upwards, the balloons deflate.
When you breathe
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Air is drawn in Air is forced out

in (inhale), your chest
Ribs move expands as the ribs move
outwards Ribs move up and outwards. The
back
diaphragm (a dome-shaped
muscle below the lungs)
moves downwards during
inhalation (Fig. 9.10a). This
increases the space inside
the chest, and air enters the
lungs. When you breathe
Diaphragm moves downward Diaphragm moves upward out (exhale), the ribs move
(a) Inhalation (b) Exhalation down and inwards, and the
Fig. 9.10: Mechanism of breathing
diaphragm moves upwards
(Fig. 9.10b), reducing space
and pushing air out of
the lungs.
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 131
What do the balloons in the model mentioned in Fig. 9.9
represent? What does the rubber sheet represent? In this model,
the balloons represent the lungs, and the rubber sheet represents

Life Processes in Animals

the diaphragm.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Breathing Practices for a Healthy Life
Breathing exercises have been practised across different cultures
in India and worldwide for centuries. Pranayama is well known for
improving respiratory health, mind relaxation, and concentration.
In Ladakh, people practise Tummo breathing,
a technique that improves lung function and
helps keep the body warm even in cold weather.
Similarly, deep breathing techniques are used to
promote well-being. Some traditions combine deep
breathing with chanting, using rhythmic breath
control to enhance relaxation and mental clarity.

What do we breathe out?

Activity 9.3: Let us explore

To be demonstrated by the teacher

 Take an equal amount of freshly
prepared lime water in two Pichkari
test tubes, A and B, as given in
Fig. 9.11. Straw
Straw
 In test tube A, pass the air using
a syringe/pichkari (Fig. 9.11a).
Test tube A Test tube B
This is the same air that you containing containing
inhale. lime water lime water
 In test tube B, repeatedly blow
(a) (b)
air through your mouth into
the lime water using a straw Fig. 9.11: (a) Air is passed into lime water with a
(Fig. 9.11b). pichkari/syringe (b) Air is exhaled into lime water

 Do you observe any changes in the colour of the lime water?

The lime water in test tube B turns milky (or cloudy), but the lime
water in test tube A does not. What does this indicate? Lime water
turns milky when it reacts with carbon dioxide. Therefore, this
indicates that the exhaled air contains more carbon dioxide than
the air we inhale.

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 How does the exchange of gases
happen?
Alveoli Through the process of breathing,
fresh air from outside enters the
Carbon lungs and fills the alveoli. The alveoli
dioxide
have thin walls surrounded by fine
Oxygen tubes containing blood (Fig. 9.12).
Blood carries carbon dioxide from
the body to the alveoli, where it is
Blood vessel Alveolus released into the air. At the same
time, oxygen from the alveoli passes
Fig. 9.12: Gas exchange through alveoli into the blood and is transported to
all parts of the body.
Have you ever wondered how the food you eat gives you
energy? The key is not only the food but also the oxygen we
breathe! When we eat food, our body breaks it down into simple
substances like sugar (glucose). Oxygen helps break down glucose
to release energy. This process is called respiration. The word
equation of the process of respiration is as follows—
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
During breathing,
we inhale air from
Inhaled air Exhaled air
our surroundings and
Nearly 21% oxygen Nearly 16–17%
oxygen
exhale air having more
carbon dioxide than
the inhaled air. Note
that not all the oxygen
Nearly 0.04% Nearly 4–5% is used up (Fig. 9.13).
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

carbon dioxide carbon dioxide Some other animals

Lungs can use a larger
fraction of the oxygen
during respiration.
Fig. 9.13: The percentage of oxygen and carbon This exchange of gases
dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air
ensures that each
segment of our body gets oxygen to produce energy and remove
waste products. In simple words, breathing brings in oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide, while respiration uses oxygen to break
down food and release energy. This energy helps us walk, run,
play, and even think!
Breathing is a physical process, while respiration is a chemical
process that occurs inside the body. Both the processes are
essential for our survival!

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 133
Our body has a unique system for the transport of nutrients,
oxygen, and other substances. This system is called the circulatory
system. It includes the heart, blood, and blood vessels. The heart

Life Processes in Animals

pumps blood through blood vessels, ensuring the transport of
nutrients, oxygen, and other substances to all parts of the body,
while waste products are carried away.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Smoking is extremely harmful to health. It damages the lungs and
increases the risk of serious diseases, including lung cancer and
other respiratory illnesses. It leads to persistent coughing and
frequent infections.
In addition to harming the smoker, smoking releases toxic
chemicals into the air, putting others at risk. When non-smokers
inhale this polluted air, they experience passive smoking, which
can be especially dangerous for children, pregnant women, and
the elderly. Due to these risks, avoiding smoking helps protect both
personal health and the well-being of those around us.

9.2.2 Do other animals breathe the same way as

humans do?
You have learnt that different animals Gills
live in different habitats. You may have
observed birds flying and fish swimming.
How do they breathe? Animals, such
as birds, elephants, lions, cows, goats,
lizards, and snakes, breathe through
their lungs. Although all these animals
have lungs, the structure of their lungs
are quite different. Most aquatic animals
like fish, have specialised structures Fig. 9.14: Breathing body parts in a fish
known as gills (Fig. 9.14). These are
richly supplied with blood vessels. The exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the blood and the gases dissolved in
water takes place across the gills.
Amphibians, like frogs, live both on land and in water. They
use different body parts for breathing at various stages of their
life. For example, tadpoles breathe through gills, while adult frogs
use lungs for breathing on land and skin for gas exchange when
they stay in water. This adaptation helps them survive both in
water and on land, showing how animals have adapted over time
to different environments. Earthworms use their moist skin for
the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Chapter 9.indd 133 4/3/2025 4:55:17 PM

 Thus, different animals have different breathing mechanisms
to suit their unique habitats. Apart from the digestive system, the
respiratory system, and the circulatory system, there are other
systems which work in coordination with each other in the body
and perform different functions to sustain life. You will study
about them in higher grades.
In a Nutshell

 Life processes such as nutrition, circulation, respiration,

excretion, and reproduction are essential for the survival
of living beings. These processes are collectively called life
processes.
 The human digestive system consists of an alimentary canal
which includes the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and anus, and its associated parts,
the liver and the pancreas.
 The digested food is primarily absorbed through the walls of
the small intestine.
 The nutrients absorbed are distributed through the blood
to different parts of the body where they are used for
performing various functions.
 The large intestine absorbs most of the remaining water and
some salts from the undigested food.
 Grass-eating animals such as cows and goats are called
ruminants. They chew the food partially and swallow it.
Later, the partially digested food is returned to the mouth,
and the animal chews it thoroughly.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 Breathing involves the movement of air into the lungs

(inhalation) and out of the lungs (exhalation).
 The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs in the
alveoli of the lungs.
 Respiration uses oxygen from inhaled air to break down
glucose into carbon dioxide and water. The process by which
nutrients are converted into usable energy is called respiration.
 The circulatory system transports nutrients and oxygen to
all parts of the body. It includes the heart, which pumps
blood through blood vessels, delivering oxygen and nutrients
while also removing waste from the body.
 Breathing is a physical process and respiration is a chemical
process.
 Different animals have different breathing mechanisms
adapted to suit their habitats.
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 135

Let Us Enhance Our Learning

Life Processes in Animals

1. Complete the journey of food through the alimentary canal
by filling up the boxes with appropriate parts—
Food Mouth Stomach Anus
2. Sahil placed some pieces of chapati in test tube A. Neha placed
chewed chapati in test tube B, and Santushti took boiled and
mashed potato in test tube C. All of them added a few drops of
iodine solution to their test tubes—A, B, and C, respectively.
What would be their observations? Give reasons.
3. What is the role of the diaphragm in breathing?
(i) To filter the air
(ii) To produce sound
(iii) To help in inhalation and exhalation
(iv) To absorb oxygen
4. Match the following
Name of the part Functions
(i) Nostrils (a) fresh air from outside enters
ENQUIRY
(ii) Nasal passages (b) exchange of gases occurs
(iii) Windpipe (c) protects lungs
(iv) Alveoli (d) tiny hair and mucus help to
trap dust and dirt from the air

(v) Ribcage (e)

we breathe
air reaches our lungs through
?
this part
WHAT IF WHY

5. Anil claims to his friend Sanvi that respiration and breathing

W WHERE
are the same process. What question(s) can Sanvi ask him to H
E
make him understand that he is not correct? N
WHAT H
6. Which of the following statements is correct and why? COULD
O
W
Anu: We inhale air. CAN
L
Shanu: We inhale oxygen. IT ? W O
H N
Tanu: We inhale air rich in oxygen. I G
WHOSE C
7. We often sneeze when we inhale a lot of dust-laden air. What H
can be possible explanations for this? WE
WHAT WILL H L
8. Paridhi and Anusha of Grade 7 started running for their HAPPEN A S
T E
morning workout. After they completed their running, they
WHAT WHY
counted their breaths per minute. Anusha was breathing SHOULD NOT
faster than Paridhi. Provide at least two possible explanations
for why Anusha was breathing faster than Paridhi.

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 9. Yadu conducted an experiment
to test his idea. He took two test
tubes, A and B, and added a pinch Iodine
of rice flour to the test tubes, half- solution
INNOVATION filled with water and stirred them
properly. To test tube B, he added
DISCOVERY a few drops of saliva. He left the
two test tubes for 35–45 min. After (A) (B)
ENQUIRY
that, he added iodine solution into
both the test tubes. Experimental Fig. 9.15: Experimental results
results are as shown in Fig. 9.15.
EXPLORATION
What do you think he wants to
test?
CURIOSITY
10. Rakshita designed an experiment
taking two clean test tubes, A
and B and filled them with lime
water as shown in the figure. In
test tube A, the surrounding air
that we inhale was passed on by
(A) (B)
sucking air from the pipe, and in
test tube B, the exhaled air was Fig. 9.16: Experimental set-up
blown through the pipe (Fig. 9.16). What do you think she is
trying to investigate? How can she confirm her findings?

Exploratory Projects

 What are the good practices for maintaining oral hygiene? Try
to gather information on the same from books/newspapers/
Disciplinary

conversation with elders. Prepare a report.

Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

 Find out different ways to maintain a healthy digestive system.

Suggest some food items that help to maintain good digestive
health. Make a report and present it in class.
 Using coloured clay, prepare a 3-D model of the digestive system and
History Art label all parts of the digestive system using black paper strips.
 What is air quality and AQI? Find out the effect of air quality on
the respiratory systems of people working in various fields —
farmers, factory workers, or street vendors.
Geography Society
 Try to read about the box-breathing
technique (Fig. 9.17). What are its
benefits?
Technology Economy  Both birds and mammals have
lungs for breathing, but birds can
fly at high altitudes where oxygen
Inter

levels are low. How might their

respiratory system be adapted to Fig. 9.17: Box-breathing
help them survive in such conditions?

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 Life Processes
10 in Plants
In Grade 6, we learnt that all living beings grow and need food
for their growth. Also, in the previous chapter, we discussed the
process through which animals obtain nutrition.
We know that animals eat food to grow, but what about
plants? Have you ever seen plants eating food like animals do?
As animals grow, their size and weight usually increase, and their
bodies undergo various changes. What changes do you notice in
plants when they grow?
We learnt that food provides nutrients like carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals, which, along with water,
are all essential for growth. Let us explore how plants obtain
nutrients for their growth.

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 10.1 How Do Plants Grow?
Look around your neighbourhood. Have you observed any
changes in a plant during its life span? As a plant grows, new
leaves and branches emerge, its height increases, and its stem
thickens. What do you think causes these changes? Discuss with
your friends and provide your explanation as well.

When we water plants

Maybe plants take
regularly, they grow better.
up food from the soil
So, I think water also
through their roots.
contributes to its growth.

I think sunlight plays I think, maybe, ________

some role in the growth plays some role!
of plants.

Let us perform an experiment to test some of these explanations.

Activity 10.1: Let us test some explanations

 Take three earthen pots (or used bottles/containers) of the

same size filled with garden soil. Plant saplings of similar sizes
of a fast-growing plant like chilli or
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

tomato in each pot (Fig. 10.1).

 Label the pots A, B, and C.
 Count the number of leaves on
each sapling and record your
observations.
A B C  Place pot A in direct sunlight. Keep
the soil in this pot slightly moist
by adding an adequate amount of
(a) Pot A kept in (b) Pot B kept in (c) Pot C kept in water every day (Fig. 10.1a).
direct sunlight, direct sunlight, the dark, with
with water without water water  Place pot B in direct sunlight,
Fig. 10.1: Experimental set-up to understand without adding water to the soil
the role of sunlight and water in plant growth (Fig. 10.1b).

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 139
 Place pot C in the dark. Keep the soil in this pot slightly moist
by adding an adequate amount of water every day (Fig. 10.1c).

Life Processes in Plants

 Observe the plants for two weeks1 and record changes in
their height, number of leaves, colour of leaves, and any
other changes that may appear.
 Record your observations in Table 10.1.

Table 10.1: Effect of sunlight and water on plant growth

Height of plant Colour of

Number of
Pots kept Availability of (cm) leaves
leaves
under (Green/Yellow)
different
conditions After 2 After 2
Sunlight Water Day 1 Day 1
weeks weeks

Pot A: In direct
sunlight, with
water

Pot B: In direct
sunlight,
without water

Pot C: In the
dark, with
water

 What differences did you observe between the plants in the

three pots?
 Which pot has the plant with the maximum growth?
 Which pot has the plant with the least growth?
Analyse the observations recorded in Table 10.1, and discuss
them with your teacher and friends.
You are likely to find that the plant in Pot A, kept in direct
sunlight with adequate water, grows better than the plant in Pot
C, which gets adequate water but no sunlight. The plant in Pot
B may have died as it did not get water even though it received
adequate sunlight.
What do you infer from the observations made in this activity?
The results indicate that plants require both sunlight and water
for their growth.
1 This experiment will need two weeks. Teachers can plan this activity
accordingly.

Chapter 10.indd 139 4/3/2025 4:55:47 PM

 FASCINATING FACTS
फलकुसमु सपं दुिचता रोपणतो भवित के वलान्न यत: ।
“Trees do not produce fruits and flowers merely because they are planted.”
This line is from an ancient Indian text named Vrikshayurveda.. It records
useful observations about plant growth, soil, and agricultural practices to
help improve crop health, growth and production. The knowledge in the
text seems to be based on practical experiences and patterns seen over
time. These ideas were then systematically documented to guide farming
practices. For instance, there are references to different methods of organic
manure preparation, such as mixing water, barley, and various seeds, like
green, black, and horse grams.

10.2 How Do Plants Get Food for their

Growth?
We know that animals get their food from plants, either directly by
eating plants or indirectly by eating animals that in turn eat plants
for their nutrition and growth. But how do plants obtain the food
they need to grow? Unlike animals, plants do not eat food.

10.2.1 Leaves: the ̒ food factories ̓ of plants

Plants store food in the form of starch, a type of carbohydrate.
This starch is produced in the leaves of a plant which, by design,
are generally broad and flat. These are mostly green because of
the presence of a green pigment called chlorophyll, that helps in
capturing sunlight efficiently.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Let us find out the role chlorophyll plays in the preparation of

food in the form of starch in plants.

Test Activity 10.2: Let us check (demonstration activity)

tube
Water The teacher may demonstrate this
Alcohol activity.
Leaf
 Keep a leaf in boiling water for
Wire five minutes to soften it.
gauze
Iodine
 Dip this leaf in a test tube
containing alcohol.
solution

Sprit lamp
 Place the test tube in a beaker
containing boiling water.
(a) Boiling set-up (b) Iodine test Wait until the leaf becomes
Fig. 10.2: Starch test in a leaf colourless (Fig. 10.2a).

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 141
 Take out the leaf and place it on a plate.
 Now, put a few drops of diluted iodine solution with the help
of a dropper on the decolourised leaf (Fig. 10.2b). Wait for a

Life Processes in Plants

few minutes and observe.
 If the colour of the leaf changes to blue-black, it indicates the
presence of starch.
Caution — Alcohol should never be placed near a heat source directly,
as it is highly flammable and can easily lead to fire and burns.

Did you wonder why we decolourise the leaf in the

beginning of this activity?
DIVE
EEPER

Decolourisation of a leaf enables us to easily observe

colour change and, thus, the presence of starch.

In Activity 10.1, we have learnt that water and sunlight are

essential for plant growth. In Activity 10.2, we have discovered
that green leaves store starch as food.
Bhaskar loves gardening during his free time. Being a curious
student, he often looks around his garden and wonders how
plants produce food. From his experiences, Bhaskar knows
that water and sunlight are essential for plant growth. But he
wonders if sunlight contributes to the production of food in the
form of starch in plants.

How does sunlight

contribute in the production
of starch in plants?

Activity 10.3: Let us check

Bhaskar took a leaf having both green and non-green patches

from each of two similar potted plants — one kept in sunlight and
the other kept in the dark for 36 hours. He wanted to compare
the leaves before and after the starch test.
He made a sketch of the leaves to record the location of the
green and the non-green patches on them with the help of a
tracing paper. After that, he performed an iodine test (as shown
in Activity 10.2) on the leaves. Bhaskar recorded his observations
in Table 10.2.

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 Table 10.2: Presence of starch in green and non-green parts of the
leaves of plants

S.No. Light conditions for Initial colours Final colours after

potted plant before iodine test iodine test

1. Plant kept in sunlight Green and Green

non-green patches of
patches on leaf turned
the leaf blue-black

2. Plant kept in the dark Green and No change in

non-green colour
patches on
the leaf

In Table 10.2, Bhaskar recorded a blue-black colour (indicating

the presence of starch) on the green patches of the leaf obtained
from the plant placed in sunlight. Bhaskar also recorded that the
leaf obtained from the plant kept in the dark does not show a
blue-black colour, even on the green patches, indicating that no
starch has been produced. Non-green patches of the leaf obtained
from the plant placed in sunlight do not turn blue-black. Does it
indicate that there is no chlorophyll present in those patches?
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

The non-green patches may not have sufficient chlorophyll to

prepare enough starch to be detected using the iodine test.

FASCINATING FACTS
Some plant leaves appear red, violet,
or brown because they contain more
of these coloured pigments than the
green-coloured chlorophyll. This hides
the green colour. Some of these pigments
also help in photosynthesis. You can use
an iodine test to check for the presence
of starch in these leaves, indicating that
photosynthesis has indeed taken place.

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 143
What do we infer from the observations listed in Table 10.2?
As we know, leaves are mostly green because of the presence
of chlorophyll. We have also seen that the starch is produced

Life Processes in Plants

where green patches of the leaf are present. We can infer that
chlorophyll helps in preparing starch in the presence of sunlight.
In fact, it is essential for the preparation of starch. Hence, the
leaves are also called ‘food factories’ of plants.
What else is essential for the preparation of food in plants?
Let us find out.

10.2.2 Role of air in the preparation of food

While reading contributions of

scien
scientists in plant nutrition, my sister
told me that air plays a role in the
process of food preparation in plants.

Which gas from the air is

essential in the process of
food preparation in plants?

Activity 10.4: Let us experiment

(demonstration activity)

The teacher may demonstrate this activity.

 Take a potted green plant and keep it in the Destarched
plant
dark for two to three days to allow it to destarch
(i.e., lose any stored starch). Then, locate one
Sodium
leaf of this plant for this experiment. hydroxide
 Take a wide-mouthed bottle and pour some solution
caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) into it
(caustic soda absorbs carbon dioxide from
the air). (a) The set-up
Caution — Caustic soda is a strong chemical that can
cause skin burns; only teachers should handle it.
 Insert half of the destarched leaf into the
bottle through a split cork, leaving the other
half of the leaf outside, and place the bottle as (b) Iodine test on the leaf
shown in Fig. 10.3a.
Fig. 10.3: Testing the role of
chlorophyll and air

Chapter 10.indd 143 4/3/2025 4:55:51 PM

  Place the set-up in sunlight for a few hours.
 Observe and record the availability of water, sunlight,
chlorophyll, and carbon dioxide in Table 10.3.
 Remove the leaf and test it for starch using the iodine test, as
was done in Activity 10.2.
 Record your observations in Table 10.3.

Table 10.3: Role of air in the preparation of starch by plants

Availability of
Starch
Part of the present
leaf Carbon
Water Sunlight Chlorophyll (Yes/No)
dioxide

Part of the
leaf inside the
bottle

Part of the leaf

outside the
bottle

We notice that the part of the leaf that was outside the bottle
turns blue-black, indicating the presence of starch. However, the
part of the leaf inside the bottle does not turn blue-black in colour,
indicating that food is not made in that part of the leaf. This is
because the caustic soda solution inside the flask absorbs the
carbon dioxide present in the air. What does this experiment show?
This experiment shows that carbon dioxide present in the air
is essential for plants to prepare starch.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Based on Activities 10.3 and 10.4, what do you conclude?

Which part of the plant is involved in the synthesis of starch?
Based on our learnings so far, we have found that sunlight,
water, chlorophyll and carbon dioxide are essential for the
synthesis of food in plants. This process by which plants prepare
food in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll is called
photosynthesis. A leaf is the primary site for photosynthesis. Do
other green parts of the plant also perform photosynthesis? Yes,
other parts of the plants which have chlorophyll also perform
photosynthesis.
So far, we have learnt that plants take in carbon dioxide from
the air and water, and use sunlight to prepare their food by the
process of photosynthesis. But have you ever thought about what
more happens during this process? Do plants only take in

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 145
substances from their surroundings, or do they also release
something? Let us explore this through an experiment performed
by Barkha didi.

Life Processes in Plants

Activity 10.5: Let us explore

 Look at Fig. 10.4. Compare the

A B
two set-ups labelled as A and B,
and analyse.
 In Fig. 10.4, set-up A is placed in Air bubbles
sunlight, and set-up B is placed in Beaker
the dark. What difference do you Inverted
observe in the two set-ups? Do test tube
you observe air bubbles emerging Funnel
in the inverted test tube in set-up Water plant
A? The gas produced in this set-up
caused bubbles to emerge and get
Fig. 10.4: Activity showing the release
accumulated in the inverted test
of oxygen during photosynthesis
tube. Which gas is this?

Oh yes! I remember. In our science lab, I

have seen a similar set-up placed under
sunlight near a window.

When sufficient gas was accumulated in the

inverted test tube, Barkha didi placed her
thumb on the mouth of the test tube while
taking the test tube off the set-up. She then
quickly inserted a lit matchstick into the tube
and the matchstick produced an intense flame.

She inferred that the gas in the test tube is rich in

oxygen. It indicates that oxygen is released during
the process of photosynthesis. It also indicates that
photosynthesis occurs in the presence of sunlight.

Based on Barkha didi’s experiment, we can conclude that

oxygen is released during photosynthesis.

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 10.2.3 Photosynthesis: in a
nutshell
Carbohydrates
(Glucose) We know that water, sunlight, carbon
Light energy
dioxide from the air, and chlorophyll
Chlorophyll are necessary to carry out the process
pigment of photosynthesis that produces
Oxygen
carbohydrates (Fig. 10.5). During
Carbon
dioxide photosynthesis, food is actually
produced in the form of glucose, a
Water and simple carbohydrate. This glucose not
minerals only serves as an instant source of
energy but also later gets converted into
starch for storage. The word equation
Fig. 10.5: A diagram showing of photosynthesis is given below —
photosynthesis

Sunlight
Carbon dioxide + Water Glucose + Oxygen
Chlorophyll

KNOW A SCIENTIST
Many scientists across the world contributed to develop an
understanding of photosynthesis. In India, Rustom Hormusji Dastur
(1896–1961) studied the process of photosynthesis.
He was a plant scientist and served as the head of the
Botany Department at the Royal Institute of Science,
Bombay (now the Institute of Science, Mumbai), from
1921–1935. He studied effects of the amount of water
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

and temperature on photosynthesis. He examined the

importance of water, temperature, and the colour of
light in the process of photosynthesis.

10.2.4 How do leaves exchange gases during

photosynthesis?
We now know that photosynthesis requires carbon dioxide, and
oxygen is released in the process. Which part of the plant helps in
the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen? Let us conduct an
activity to understand where the exchange of gases takes place.

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 147

Activity 10.6: Let us examine

(demonstration activity)

Life Processes in Plants

The teacher may demonstrate this activity.
Stomata
 Collect a leaf from a plant such as rhoeo,
money plant, onion, hibiscus, coleus, or
any grass.
 Put it in a beaker filled with water.
 Carefully peel a thin layer from the lower
surface of the leaf.
 Place the peel in a watch glass with water.
 Now, take a microscope slide and
carefully put a drop of water on it.
 Using forceps, transfer the peel of the leaf
from the watch glass to the slide with the
help of forceps.
 Put a drop of ink on the leaf peel with the 0.1 mm

help of a dropper.
Fig. 10.6: Stomata on the lower
 Cover the peel with a coverslip and surface of a rhoeo leaf
observe it under a microscope.
What do you observe? Do you notice tiny
pores on the peel, as shown in Fig. 10.6?
These pores are called stomata. Stomata, present on the surface
of leaves, help in the exchange of gases.

10.3 Transport in Plants

10.3.1 Transport of water and minerals

All living beings need water to grow. Plants use water in the
process of photosynthesis. Water, along with minerals present in
the soil, is taken up by the roots of a plant. Minerals are important
nutrients for the growth of plants. How do water and minerals
taken up by the roots move to all parts of the plant?
We can study water transport in plants by carrying out an
activity. For this activity, we require two glass tumblers, some
water, red ink, and twigs of two similar tender plants, preferably
with white-coloured flowers (for example, white sadabahar,
balsam), as shown in Fig. 10.7.

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 Activity 10.7: Let us experiment

 Take two tumblers and label them A and B.

 Fill one-third of each tumbler with water.
 Add a few drops of red ink to tumbler B.
 Obliquely cut the stems of both plants at their
base while keeping them inside the water and
immediately place one plant in each tumbler,
as shown in Fig. 10.7a and Fig. 10.7b.
 Observe these plants the next day.
A B
What do you notice? Compare the plant
(a) With water (b) With coloured water
stems placed in the tumblers. Do you observe
plant twigs placed in water with different
treatments
red colour in the stem, leaves, and flowers of the
plant from Tumbler B? Fig. 10.7c and Fig. 10.7d
show the plants after one day. Compare the plant
in Fig. 10.7c with that in Fig. 10.7d. A red colour
is visible in the stem, leaves, and flowers of the
plant in Fig. 10.7d. How did different parts of the
plant acquire this red colour?
Cut the stem from the upper part of the plant
A B that is not immersed in the red-coloured water.
(c) With water (d) With coloured water
Observe the cut stem using a magnifying glass. Do
plant twigs after one day
you spot the red colour in the stem (Fig. 10.7e)?
How does the red colour ink move upwards? This
Phloem is due to the thin tube-like structure called the
Xylem xylem present in the stem, branches, and leaves
Cut of plants. Just like red ink, minerals dissolved in
water also move up the stem through the xylem.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Now, we know that water and minerals are

(e) Enlarged view of cut end of the twig
transported to the leaves and other parts of
Fig. 10.7: Experiment to check for plants through the xylem (Fig. 10.8). The water
water transportation in plants
transported through the xylem is used to perform
Food transport various functions. How does food get transported
through phloem to other parts of a plant?

10.3.2 Transport of food

Water transport
We know that leaves are the primary site for
through xylem photosynthesis. The food prepared by plants in the
leaves is transported to all parts of the plant. This
food is transported through another set of thin
tube-like structures called the phloem (Fig. 10.8).
The transported food may also be stored in some
Fig. 10.8: Transport of water
and minerals in a plant other parts of a plant, such as seeds and roots.

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 149

10.4 Do Plants Respire?

Life Processes in Plants

In the Grade 6 Science textbook Curiosity, chapter ‘Living
Creatures: Exploring their Characteristics’, you learnt that all
living beings respire. Do plants also respire like we do?

Activity 10.8: Let us find out

(demonstration activity)

 Soak some moong bean seeds in water overnight.

 Put a layer of cotton in a conical flask (Fig. 10.9) and moisten
the cotton with water to keep it wet.
 Place the soaked seeds over the wet cotton in the conical flask.
 Cover the mouth of the conical flask with
a cork having two holes.
Tube A Lime water
 Fit two tubes A and B through the two
holes on the cork, as shown in Fig. 10.9.
 Leave it undisturbed for 24 hours in
the dark. Tube B
 Take two test tubes and fill them with Germinating
lime water. seeds
 Cover the mouth of one test tube with a
cork having one hole in it.
 Dip one glass tube in the test tube Fig. 10.9: Set-up to test respiration in plants
through a hole in the cork.
 Connect the flask and test tube with a rubber pipe as shown
in Fig. 10.9.
Compare both the test tubes for any change in colour. Does
the lime water turn milky in both the test tubes? Why does the
lime water turn milky in the test tube connected to the flask?
Lime water turns milky due to the presence of more carbon
dioxide in the flask. But where does this carbon dioxide come
from? As we know, carbon dioxide is naturally present in very
small quantities in the air. In the flask, additional carbon dioxide
is produced by the seeds as they respire.
During respiration, glucose is broken down in the presence of
oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide, water, and energy. The word
equation for the proccess of respiration, is as follows —
Glucose + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
The energy produced during respiration is used by plants
for their growth and development. All parts of a plant, green or
non-green, carry out respiration.
Thus, plants have different mechanisms for synthesising,
transporting, and utilising food to get energy.

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 In a Nutshell

 All living organisms require food that provide energy for

their growth and development.
 Plants use carbon dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight and chlorophyll to produce glucose and oxygen.
This process of synthesis of food is known as photosynthesis.
 Leaves are the ̒ food factories ̓ of a plant.
 Tiny pores on the surface of leaves, called stomata, help
in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide during
photosynthesis and respiration.
 The xylem transports water and minerals from roots, while
the phloem carries food from leaves to all parts of the plants.
 Plants break down glucose and release energy by a process
called respiration. They use oxygen and release carbon
dioxide in this process.

Let Us Enhance Our Learning

1. Complete the following table

S.No. Feature Photosynthesis Respiration
ENQUIRY
1. Raw materials

2. Products

?
3. Word equation
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

4. Importance

WHY WHAT IF
2. Imagine a situation where all the organisms that carry out
photosynthesis on the earth have disappeared. What would
WHERE W be the impact of this on living organisms?
H
E 3. A potato slice shows the presence of starch with iodine
N solution. Where does the starch in potatoes come from?
H WHAT
O COULD
W Where is the food synthesised in the plant, and how does it
L
CAN reach the potato?
O ? IT
W 4. Does the broad and flat structure of leaves make plants more
N H
G I efficient for photosynthesis? Justify your answer.
C WHOSE
H
5. X is broken down using Y to release carbon dioxide, Z, and
WE
H L WHAT WILL energy.
A S HAPPEN
T E X+Y Carbon dioxide + Z + Energy
WHY WHAT
NOT SHOULD X, Y, and Z are three different components of the process.

150 What do X, Y, and Z stand for?

Chapter 10.indd 150 4/3/2025 4:55:56 PM

 151
6. Krishna set-up an experiment with two potted plants of same
size and placed one of them in sunlight and the other in a
dark room, as shown in Fig. 10.10.

Life Processes in Plants

Answer the following questions —
(i) What idea might she be testing INNOVATION
through this experiment?
(ii) What are the visible differences DISCOVERY
in plants in both the conditions?
(iii) According to you, leaves of which ENQUIRY
plants confirm the iodine test for (a) Sunlight (b) Complete dark
the presence of starch? Fig. 10.10: Experimental pots
EXPLORATION
7. Vani believes that ‘carbon dioxide is essential for
photosynthesis’. She puts an experimental set-up, as shown
in Fig. 10.11, to collect evidence to support or reject her idea. CURIOSITY

(a) Sunlight with (b) Sunlight (c) Dark with (d) Dark without
carbon dioxide without carbon carbon dioxide carbon dioxide
dioxide
Fig. 10.11: A potted plant with sufficient water is placed under the
prescribed conditions
Answer the following questions —
(i) In which plant(s) in the above set-up(s) will starch
be formed?
(ii) In which plant(s) in the above set-up(s) will starch
not be formed?
(iii) In which plant(s) in the above set-up(s) will oxygen
be generated? Water +
Water
(iv) In which plant(s) in the above set-up(s) will oxygen + Water
not be generated? Snail plant
8. Ananya took four test tubes and filled three-fourth of A B
each test tube with water. She labelled them A, B, C, and
D (Fig. 10.12). In test tube A, she kept a snail; in test tube B,
she kept a water plant; in test tube C, she kept both a snail
and a plant. In test tube D, she kept only water. Ananya
added a carbon dioxide indicator to all the test tubes. She
Water +
recorded the initial colour of water and observed if there Snail +
are any colour changes in the test tubes after 2–3 hours. Water Water
What do you think she wants to find out? How will she plant
know if she is correct? C D
Fig. 10.12: Experimental set-up

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 9. Design an experiment to observe if water transportation in
plants is quicker in warm or cold conditions.
10. Photosynthesis and respiration are essential to maintain
balance in nature. Discuss.

Exploratory Projects
Disciplinary

 Develop a bottle garden by

planting a growing plant like
spider plant or jade plant in
History Art a large transparent bottle
(Fig. 10.13). After growing the
plant properly for some time,
seal the mouth of the bottle.
Geography Society Observe the growth of the Fig. 10.13: Bottle garden
plant. If the plant is growing well that means the plant is
maintaining the exchange of gases, that is, carbon dioxide
produced in the process of respiration of the plant is utilised
Technology Economy for performing photosynthesis, and oxygen generated in
photosynthesis is utilised in respiration by the plant inside
the bottle.
Inter

 How are plant processes like photosynthesis, respiration, and

water and food transportation crucial for crop production?
 Visit a greenhouse, if there is one near your place. Observe
how people grow plants in a green house. Find out how they
regulate the amount of light, water, and carbon dioxide used
to grow plants.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

KNOW A SCIENTIST
Kamala Sohonie (1911–1998) was a woman scientist of India. She
received a Ph.D. degree for her remarkable contribution in the area of
respiration in plants from Cambridge University.
She returned to India and worked at the Lady
Hardinge Medical College in New Delhi, and later
at the Nutrition Research Laboratory, Coonoor.
Thereafter, she moved to the then Royal Institute
of Science, Bombay, where she was eventually
appointed as Director. Much of her work helped
improve the nutritive values of plant foods. She
also worked on the sap of the coconut palm as a
nutritive drink called Neera.

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 Light: Shadows and
11 Reflections
In the Western Ghat region of Maharashtra, Keshav spends
part of his summer vacation at his friend Jatin’s grandparents’
village. Having lived in a big city, he finds the forests, fresh
air, sounds of gushing streams, and chirping birds a novel
experience.
However, for Keshav, the most fascinating sight is the
dance of hundreds of fireflies at night, flashing their lights
in a wonderful performance. Jatin’s grandparents explain
that fireflies are seasonal insects and they use light to
communicate. Unfortunately, Keshav also learns the number
of fireflies is decreasing due to light pollution, reduced forest
cover, and excessive tourism.
At the end of their vacation, Keshav and Jatin board an
evening bus back to their city. As the bus winds through the
hilly roads, Keshav watches the moonlit landscape and the
beams from the headlights of passing vehicles flashing by. He
is reminded of the many poems and songs about moonlight,
and wonders — does the Moon actually produce its own
light? Did we not learn in the chapter ‘Beyond Earth’ in the
Grade 6 Science textbook Curiosity that all other objects in
our solar system shine only by reflecting the light of the
Sun? Is moonlight just reflected sunlight? Which objects give
off their own light? While thinking, he notices something
strange — light seems to move in a straight line!

Chapter 11.indd 153 4/3/2025 4:56:22 PM

 11.1 Sources of Light
The Sun gives out or emits its own light and is the main source
of natural light on the Earth. Stars, lightning, natural fire, and
certain animals also emit their own light (Fig. 11.1).
In ancient times, humans learnt to create
fire — the earliest form of artificial lighting. With
time, they learnt to create
fire using different fuels,
such as animal fat, oil,
wax, and gas (Fig. 11.2).
With the invention of
electricity and different
kinds of electric light
sources, most of the
lighting needs of humans
are now met by electric
Fig. 11.1: Some natural sources of light lighting (Fig. 11.3).
Objects that emit their own light are
called luminous objects. Objects that
do not emit their own light are called
non-luminous objects. The Moon is a
non-luminous object. It does not emit its
own light. It just reflects the light emitted
Fig. 11.2: Fire as a source
by the Sun that falls on it. of artificial light
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Fig. 11.3: Some sources of electric light

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Light Emitting Diode (LED) lamps are modern light
sources that consume much less power, are brighter
and last longer than traditional lamps. This not
only reduces electricity bills but is also better for
environment. Recognising their advantages, the
Indian government has made substantial efforts to
promote the use of LED lamps nationwide. At their
end of life, LED lamps must be appropriately disposed
or recycled, and not thrown in the garbage.

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 155

11.2 Does Light Travel in a Straight Line?

Let us do an activity to try to find out.

Light: Shadows and Reflections

Screen
Activity 11.1: Let us investigate Hole

 Take three matchboxes and make a hole in

the inner tray of each matchbox, exactly at the
same position.
 Arrange these three matchboxes in a straight
line. Make sure that all three holes are exactly
at the same height and are in a line as shown Fig. 11.4: Matchbox activity—
in Fig. 11.4. light through holes
 Place a torch light on one side of the matchboxes, ensuring
that its lamp is at the height of the holes.
 Place a cardboard (screen) on the other side of the matchboxes
and obtain a bright spot on it. (You may need to slightly adjust
the heights of boxes.)
 Move one of the matchboxes slightly to a side or up and down.
Are you able to obtain the light spot on the screen now?
When all the three holes are not in the same line, we could not
obtain the light spot on the screen. These observations suggest
that light travels in a straight line.

Can we somehow
check it in some I have an idea. Let us try
other way? to see the candle flame
through a bent pipe!

Should we also try out this idea?

Activity 11.2: Let us explore

Caution — Use a lighted candle under adult supervision

only.
 Take a long hollow pipe of some flexible (a)
material and align it so that you can see the
candle flame as shown in Fig. 11.5a.
 Now, bend the pipe and try to see the candle
flame again (Fig. 11.5b). Can you still see it?
You could see the candle flame through a straight
pipe but not through a bent pipe. This shows that
(b)
light travels in a straight line.
Fig. 11.5: Viewing candle flame through
(a) a straight pipe (b) a bent pipe

Chapter 11.indd 155 4/3/2025 4:56:28 PM

 Caution — Use a laser only under teachers’ supervision. Avoid
using high-power lasers for this activity; a low-power laser
pointer is sufficient. Never point the laser beam directly at DIVE
EEPER
anyone’s eyes, as it can cause serious eye damage.
Pass a laser beam
through a beaker filled with
water in which a drop of
milk is added to make the
laser beam easily visible.
What do you observe? Do you see that the
beam of laser light inside water follows a
straight path?
However, light can sometimes even bend
around corners! This is something you will
learn in the higher grades.

11.3 Light through Transparent,

Translucent, and Opaque Materials
Let us place objects made of
What happens when an object different materials in the path of
comes in the path of light?
light and find out.

Activity 11.3: Let us experiment

 Collect objects made of different materials. Also, you will

need a torch.
Table 11.1: Light through different materials
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Light will pass

Transparent/
fully/partially/not at all
Material Translucent/
Opaque
My prediction My observation

Cardboard
Paper

Glass

Tracing paper

Thick cloth

...

...

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 157
 List the materials of the objects in Table 11.1 and classify them
into transparent, translucent, and opaque (In the chapter
‘Materials Around Us’ in the Grade 6 Science textbook Curiosity

Light: Shadows and Reflections

you learnt to classify materials into transparent,
translucent, and opaque, depending on how
you could see through them).
 Go to a dark room, turn on the torch, and place
it at such a position that you get a spot of light
from the torch on a wall. Or you may place a
cardboard screen as shown in Fig. 11.6 and get
the spot of light on it.
Fig. 11.6: Passing light
 We will now conduct this activity in two through different materials
parts — prediction and observation.
 Predict what will happen if you hold an object in front of
the light coming out of the torch. Would you continue to
see the spot of light on the screen? Note your prediction
in Table 11.1.
 Now, actually place the object between the torch and
the screen. Does light pass through the object? Note your
observation in Table 11.1.
 Repeat this for all the objects.
Was your observation the same as your prediction? What
conclusions could you draw? Light passes almost completely
through transparent materials. Light passes partially through
translucent materials. Light does not pass through opaque
materials.

What happens when an

opaque object blocks
the path of light?

11.4 Shadow Formation

What did you see on the screen in Activity 11.3 when
an opaque object was placed in the path of light? Did
you see a dark patch on the wall? Why was this dark
patch formed?
We now know that light travels in a straight line.
So, when an opaque object is placed in its path, light is
blocked. The dark patch, where light does not reach,
is the shadow.
Fig. 11.7: Shadows around us

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 We have noticed shadows of ourselves and other objects
around us when we are in the Sun or under a light (Fig. 11.7).
Also, you might have had fun making different shapes with
shadows sometime.
Do translucent and transparent objects create shadows or not?
Did you notice that in Activity 11.3? Opaque objects form darker
shadows. Translucent objects make lighter shadows. Even some
transparent objects can create faint shadows!
Let us learn more about shadows.

Activity 11.4: Let us explore

 Collect some opaque objects of different shapes and sizes.

 Repeat Activity 11.3, but this time, carry out the actions
mentioned in the first column of Table 11.2.
 Observe the shape and size of the shadow on the screen for
each of the actions.
Did the shadow form in all cases? Was the shape and size of the
shadow the same as the object?
 Record your observations in the second column of Table 11.2.
Table 11.2: Observation of shadows

Observations regarding
Action
shadow
The screen is removed.
The object is removed.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

The torch is switched off.

The object is moved closer to the screen,

keeping the torch and the screen fixed.

The object is moved closer to the torch,

keeping the torch and the screen fixed.

The object is tilted, keeping the torch and

the screen fixed.

The colour of the object is changed.

What conclusions do you draw from this activity? What do

we need to observe a shadow? Does the colour of the shadow
change when the colour of the object is changed?
Shadows are formed when an object blocks light from falling on
a screen. We need a source of light, an opaque object, and a screen

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 159
to observe a shadow. The walls, floor, ground, or any other surface
acts as a screen for observing shadows in our daily life.
The shape, size, and sharpness of the shadow depend on the

Light: Shadows and Reflections

position of the object relative to the light source and the screen.
The shadows may give information about the object or we may
not be able to guess the object at all. Changing the colour of
opaque objects does not change the colour of the shadows.

FASCINATING FACTS
Shadow play, or shadow puppetry,
has been a part of our cultural
heritage for centuries. In this art
form, flat cut-out figures called
shadow puppets are placed between
a light source and a screen. By
moving the puppets and the light,
puppeteers can create life-like
movements, bringing the characters
to life. Different regions have their
own unique styles, like the Charma
Bahuli Natya in Maharashtra, Keelu
Bomme and Tholu Bommalata of Andhra Pradesh, Togalu Gombeyaata
in Karnataka, Ravana Chhaya in Odisha, Tholpavakoothu in Kerala, and
Bommalattam in Tamil Nadu. These are used not only for entertainment
but also communicate important messages to the community.

11.5 Reflection of Light

When the opaque object was a shiny object like a

polished steel plate, I got a shadow on the screen,
but I also saw that there was a bright spot of light
on the wall on the opposite side. Why was it so?

Activity 11.5: Let us investigate

 Find a shiny flat steel plate or a plane mirror, that is, a mirror
that is flat and not curved.
 Take it outside and let the sunlight fall on the shiny surface.
What can you do to redirect light on the wall on which the
sunlight is not falling directly?

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  Turn the shiny plate or mirror in
different directions to redirect the
light onto a wall or a nearby surface
(Fig. 11.8). Do you see a spot of light
on the wall? Does it mean that the
shiny plate or mirror has changed
the direction of light?
 Now, tilt the shiny plate or mirror
in different ways and observe
the light spot on the wall. Does it
change position? Notice how light
always travels in straight lines and
Fig. 11.8: Using mirror to redirect changes direction when it falls on
sunlight on a wall the shiny plate or mirror.
What conclusion do you draw from your observations? This
activity suggests that a shiny surface or a mirror changes the
direction of light that falls upon it. This change in direction of
light by a mirror is called the reflection of light. Let us try to
understand the reflection of light by a mirror.

Activity 11.6: Let us experiment

Thin slit  Take a plane mirror with stand, a torch, a comb,

a sheet of white paper, and a strip of black paper.
 Using the black paper, close all openings of the
comb, except for one to make a thin slit.
 Spread a white paper on a table, hold the comb
perpendicular to the sheet of paper and shine
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

the torch light on the slit. Adjust the comb and

torch slightly till you see a thin beam of light
along the paper which has passed through the
(a)
slit (Fig. 11.9a).
Plane mirror
 Now, place the mirror in the path of the light
beam while keeping the comb steady (Fig. 11.9b).
What do you observe?
The path of the light beam is changed after falling
on the mirror. The reflection of light occurs at the
mirror.

In a mirror, I can also see my

face. Is that also due to the
(b)
reflection of light?
Fig. 11.9: (a) A light beam (b) Reflection
of light in a plane mirror

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 161

11.6 Images Formed in a Plane Mirror

Look into the mirror. Do you see your face in it? What you see is

Light: Shadows and Reflections

a reflection of your face in the mirror. We also see reflections of
other objects that are in front of the mirror. Let us try to find out
more about this.
Activity 11.7: Let us experiment

 Take a plane mirror and a pen or some other object.

 Place the pen in front of the mirror as shown in
Fig. 11.10.
What do you see in the mirror? It appears as if a similar
pen is placed behind the mirror. The pen which appears
Fig. 11.10: Image of a pen
behind the mirror is the image of the pen formed by the in a plane mirror
mirror. The pen itself is the object.
 Now, move the pen to different positions in front of the
mirror and compare the sizes of the images of the pen at
each position.
Are the two sizes the same? The image formed by a plane
mirror is of the same size as the object.
 Again, move the pen to different positions in front of the
mirror and observe if the image is upright at each position.
Does the tip of the pen appear on top at each position? An
upright image is called erect. An image formed by a plane mirror
is erect.
 Now, place a screen vertically behind the mirror. Move it
around. Do you get the image on the screen? Repeat this by
placing the screen in front of the mirror.
The image formed by a plane mirror cannot be obtained on
a screen.
Activity 11.8: Let us experiment

 Stand in front of a plane mirror and look at your image

(Fig. 11.11). Notice how far it appears to be from the mirror.
 Now, stand close to the mirror. Is the image also closer to the
mirror?
 Stand at different distances from the mirror and notice how
far the image appears to be from the mirror in each case.
Do you find any relation between your distance from the Fig. 11.11: Observing one’s
mirror and the distance of your image from the mirror? own image in a mirror

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 You might have noticed that when you stand close to the
plane mirror, the image also appears to be close to the mirror.
The image appears to be far from the mirror when you stand far
from the plane mirror.
 Raise your left arm. Which arm does your image raise?
 Touch your right ear. Which ear does your image touch?
You find that your left appears right in your image and your
right appears left in your image. This type of perceived left-right
reversal is called lateral inversion. There is lateral inversion in
the images formed by a plane mirror.

Oh! Now I realise why ‘ ̓ is written

on an ambulance. It reads ‘AMBULANCE ̓ when
viewed from the rear-view mirrors of the
vehicle ahead of the ambulance.

FASCINATING FACTS
When mirrors were invented is not known. Earlier, mirrors
were made by polishing stone or metal. When glass mirrors
started being made, the art of making metal mirrors got lost
gradually. However, it still survives, for example, in Kerala,
where Aranmula Kannadi, a unique metal surface mirror has
been made for centuries.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

Can we see an image of an

object only in a mirror or are
there some other ways as well?

11.7 Pinhole Camera

A pinhole camera is a device in which the light rays from an
object pass through a tiny hole (a pinhole) and form an image on
a screen.

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 163

Activity 11.9: Let us explore Screen

Pinhole
Caution — Use a lighted candle under adult supervision

Light: Shadows and Reflections

only.
 Take a piece of cardboard and a candle. Make
a small hole in the cardboard. Image

 In a dimly lit room, position the cardboard at

a short distance from a screen. (a)
 Place a lighted candle in front of it as shown
in Fig. 11.12a.
What do you see on the screen? Light coming
from the flame passes through the hole on the
cardboard and forms an image of the candle flame
on the screen. Do you notice anything surprising?
The image of the candle flame is upside down, that
is, inverted. (b)
Let us now make a pinhole camera, which you can Fig. 11.12: (a) A simple
use outdoors. pinhole camera
(b) Image of a candle flame
Activity 11.10: Let us construct on screen

 Take two boxes of cardboard such that one can slide

into another with very little gap in between them. Pinhole
Cut open one side of each box.
 On the opposite face of the larger box, make a small
Open side
hole in the middle (Fig. 11.13a).
 On the opposite face of the smaller box, cut out a (a)
square from the middle with a side of about 5–6 cm.
Screen
Cover this opening with a thin translucent paper
(like a tracing paper) to form a screen (Fig. 11.13b).
Open side
 Slide the smaller box inside the larger one in such
a way that the side with the tracing paper is inside (b)
(Fig. 11.13c).
Hold the pinhole camera with the pinhole facing the
object and look through the open side of the smaller
box. Cover your head and the camera with a dark cloth.
Look at a distant object, like a tree or building, in bright Open side
sunlight and move the smaller box forward or backward
until an image appears on the tracing paper. (c)
Do the images seen in the camera show the colours Fig. 11.13: A sliding
of the objects on the other side? Are the images erect or pinhole camera
upside down?

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 DIVE
EEPER A pinhole camera gives an upside down image. On the other hand,
there is lateral inversion in the image formed by a mirror but it is
not upside down. We will learn more about this in higher grades.

11.8 Making Some Useful Items

After having learnt that light travels in a straight line and is
reflected by mirrors, it is time to create some useful items based
on this learning.

11.8.1 Periscope
Mirror 1
We can make a simple periscope by
placing two plane mirrors in a Z-shaped
box as shown in Fig. 11.14.
Reflection from two mirrors
enables us to see objects that are not
Mirror 2 visible directly. Periscopes are used in
submarines, tanks, or by soldiers to see
outside their bunkers. You may use it
to look ahead when standing behind
taller friends.

11.8.2 Kaleidoscope
Fig. 11.14: A periscope Get three rectangular plane mirror
strips of equal width and join them
together in a triangular manner as
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

shown in Fig. 11.15a. You may use three

strips of thick reflective paper instead
of mirrors. Fix these in a circular tube
of thick chart paper (Fig. 11.15b). On
one end of the tube, fix a transparent
(a) (b) plastic sheet using a rubber band or
an adhesive tape. Place several broken
pieces of coloured bangles or beads on
this (Fig. 11.15c), and cover it with a
tracing paper using a rubber band or
an adhesive tape.
When you peep through the open
side, you view a beautiful pattern
(c) (d)
(Fig. 11.15d). Even if you leave both
Fig. 11.15: A kaleidoscope
sides of the kaleidoscope open and

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 165
point it towards a tree or other objects, you see beautiful patterns.
An interesting feature of the kaleidoscope is that one always gets
to see a different pattern every time the kaleidoscope is turned

Light: Shadows and Reflections

about. Since there are 3 mirrors, and multiple images (due to
reflections of reflections), many interesting patterns are formed.
Designers and artists often use kaleidoscopes to get ideas for new
patterns.

In a Nutshell

 Objects that emit their own light are called luminous objects.
 Light travels in a straight line.
 Light passes almost completely through transparent
materials. Light passes partially through translucent
materials. Light does not pass through opaque materials.
 A shadow is formed when light is blocked by an object.
Opaque objects form darker shadows. Translucent objects
make lighter shadows. Some transparent objects can create
faint shadows.
 The change in the direction of light by a mirror is called
reflection of light.
 The image formed by a plane mirror is of the same size as
the object, is erect, cannot be obtained on a screen, and is
laterally inverted.
 A pinhole camera creates an inverted image of an object on
a screen. ENQUIRY

Let Us Enhance Our Learning

1. Which of the following are luminous objects? ?

Mars, Moon, Pole Star, Sun, Venus, Mirror WHY
WHAT IF
2. Match the items in Column A with those in Column B.
W WHERE
H
Column A Column B E
N
WHAT H
O
Pinhole camera Blocks light completely COULD W
CAN
L
Opaque object The dark region formed behind the object IT ? W O
H N
I G
Transparent object Forms an inverted image WHOSE C
H
WE
Shadow Light passes almost completely through it WHAT WILL H L
HAPPEN A S
T E
WHAT WHY
SHOULD NOT

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 Sahil
3. Sahil, Rekha, Patrick, and Qasima
are trying to observe the candle
flame through the pipe as shown in
Rekha Fig. 11.16. Who can see the flame?
4. Look at the images shown in
Fig. 11.17 and select the correct
Patrick image showing the shadow
formation of the boy.
Qasima

Fig. 11.16

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 11.17

5. The shadow of a ball is formed on a

wall by placing the ball in front of
(i) (a) a fixed torch as shown in Fig. 11.18.
In scenario (i) the ball is closer to
the torch, while in scenario (ii) the
ball is closer to the wall. Choose the
most accurate representation of the
(ii) shadows formed in both scenarios
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

(b) from the options provided (a and b).

6. Based on Fig. 11.18, match the position
of the torch in Column A with the
Fig. 11.18 characteristics of the ball’s shadow in
Column B.

Column A Column B

If the torch is close to the ball The shadow would be smaller

If the torch is far away The shadow would be larger

If the ball is removed from the Two shadows would appear

set-up on the screen
If two torches are present in the A bright spot would appear
set-up on the left side of the ball on the screen

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 167
7. Suppose you view the tree shown in Fig. 11.19
through a pinhole camera. Sketch the outline of
the image of the tree formed in the pinhole camera.

Light: Shadows and Reflections

8. Write your name on a piece of paper and hold
it in front of a plane mirror such that the paper
is parallel to the mirror. Sketch the image. What
difference do you notice? Explain the reason for
the difference. Fig. 11.19
9. Measure the length of your shadow at 9 AM, 12 PM, and 4 PM
INNOVATION
with the help of your friend. Write down your observations:
(i) At which of the given times is your shadow the shortest?
DISCOVERY
(ii) Why do you think this happens?
10. On the basis of following statements, choose the correct
option. ENQUIRY

Statement A: Image formed by a plane mirror is laterally

inverted. EXPLORATION
Statement B: Images of alphabets T and O appear identical
to themselves in a plane mirror. CURIOSITY
(i) Both statements are true
(ii) Both statements are false
(iii) Statement A is true, but statement B is false
(iv) Statement A is false, but statement B is true
11. Suppose you are given a tube of the shape shown
in the Fig. 11.20 and two plane mirrors smaller
than the diameter of the tube. Can this tube be
used to make a periscope? If yes, mark where Fig. 11.20
you will fix the plane mirrors.
12. We do not see the shadow on the ground of a bird flying high
in the sky. However, the shadow is seen on the ground when
the bird swoops near the ground. Think and explain why it
is so.

Exploratory Projects

 Have you ever seen a firefly where you live? If no, ask your
elders if fireflies were seen earlier in your region. If yes, find
out the reasons for their not being seen anymore. Develop a
story about it.
 Repeat Activity 11.4, but this time cover the face of the torch
with a coloured transparent paper and observe the colour of

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 Disciplinary
the shadow. Repeat this using transparent paper of different
colours. Report your conclusions.
 A plane mirror forms only a single image of an object. But
what will happen if two or more mirrors are kept at an angle
with each other or parallel to each other? Find out by placing
History Art two mirrors as shown in Fig. 11.21.

Geography Society

Technology Economy
Inter

Fig. 11.21: Observing images in two mirrors

 You are given a small piece of a plane mirror. Can this piece
form an image of an object much larger than the mirror, like
a large tree? Think and predict. Then carry out the activity.

FASCINATING FACTS
Light emitted by the Sun takes about 8 minutes and 20 seconds to reach
the Earth. Hence, if the Sun were to suddenly stop emitting light, we
would not know that for another 8 minutes 20 seconds.
Curiosity | Textbook of Science | Grade 7

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 Earth, Moon, and
12 the Sun
One morning in Kanniyakumari, Tamil Nadu, 12-year-old
Rashmika was eagerly cycling to school. She was excited. That was
the day her science teacher had dedicated a class for students to
share and try to explain interesting observations.
Rashmika had been noticing that the coconut tree shadows
were long in the morning but shorter in the afternoon on her
way back. She thought about it and decided that the size of the
shadows changed because the Sun moved across the sky during
the day. But she also remembered learning that the Earth moved
around the Sun (in chapter ‘Beyond Earth’ in the Grade 6 Science
textbook Curiosity) so she was puzzled. She wondered — does the
Sun move in the sky? Or does the Earth move?

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 12.1 Rotation of the Earth
You might have also noticed that the Sun rises in the East and sets in
the West. Have you ever wondered why? Let us try to understand
why. Have you ever enjoyed riding a merry-go-round at a park or
at your school? Let us go back to riding a merry-go-round!

Activity 12.1: Let us explore

 Sit on a merry-go-round facing towards the outer side as

shown in Fig. 12.1.
 Ask someone to turn the merry-go-
round slowly in the anti-clockwise
direction as shown in Fig. 12.1. While
you are sitting on the moving merry-
go-round, look around you. Do the
objects around you appear to be
moving? In which direction do they
appear to be moving?
While you turn in the anti-clockwise
direction, the objects appear to turn
around you in the opposite direction, that
is, in the clockwise direction.
 Now fix your gaze at a particular tree
(or a building) ahead of you while
Fig. 12.1: A girl observing objects around sitting on the merry- go-round turning
her while riding a merry-go-round around in anti-clockwise direction.
In which direction do you find the tree turning around you? Is
Curiosity Textbook of Science Grade 7

it in your view all the time?

The tree appears to turn around you in the opposite direction,
that is, the clockwise direction. The tree appears in your view
from your left-hand side and then moves out of your view on the
right-hand side when you view it from a merry-go-round turning
around in anti-clockwise direction.
Using the observations made by us while riding a merry-go-
round, let us now think. When we view from the Earth, the Sun
appears in the East, moves across the sky from the East to the West
and disappears in the West. Does it indicate that the Sun is moving
in the sky? Or might it be that the Earth itself is turning around
and the Sun just appears to move?
The fact is that the Sun appears to be moving because we view
it from the Earth, which is turning around itself.

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 171
In which way is the Earth turning around itself? To visualise
this, let us recall some of the objects which turn around themselves.
Have you watched a top spinning around its spindle (Fig. 12.2a)?

Earth, Moon, and the Sun

Or a spinning fan (Fig. 12.2b)? Or tried spinning a ball (Fig. 12.2c)?

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 12.2: (a) A spinning top (b) A spinning fan (c) A spinning ball
Earth's axis of
In a similar manner, the Earth also spins (or rotation
rotates) on its own axis in space as shown in Fig. 12.3. North Pole
The Earth’s axis of rotation passes through its (NP)
geographic North Pole and the South Pole. The Earth
completes one rotation in about 24 hours. Northern
When viewed from the top of the North Pole West Hemisphere East
(Fig. 12.3), the Earth is rotating in the anti-clockwise Equator
direction, that is, from West to East.
Southern
Let us try to understand this with the help of a
Hemisphere
globe. You have used a globe in Grade 6 to represent
the Earth and identified North Pole, South Pole, and
Equator on it. You also learnt that its axis passed South Pole
(SP)
through its North and South poles (in the Grade 6 Social
Science textbook Exploring Society India and Beyond). Fig. 12.3: Rotation of the Earth

Activity 12.2: Let us explore

 Use a globe to represent the Earth and place a small

sticker to mark your location on it (Fig. 12.4a).
 While viewing from above the North Pole, slowly
rotate the globe on its axis in anti-clockwise Sticker
direction.
 Observe how your location turns around
and finally comes back to its original position
completing one rotation.

D
Rotation is the motion of an object
IVE in which all its parts move in circles
EEPER Fig. 12.4(a): Using a globe to
around an imaginary line that passes
understand rotation of the Earth
through it. This line is called the axis
of rotation.

Chapter 12.indd 171 4/3/2025 4:57:14 PM

  Use a torch to represent the Sun. Go
Let us now further explore
to understand how day and
to a relatively dark room to carry
night occur on the Earth due out the further steps of the activity.
to its rotation.  Now, shine light from the torch
placed at some distance, say
1.5 metres, on the globe as shown in
Fig. 12.4b. Do you notice how half
of the globe receives the light from
the torch, while the other half stays
dark?
It is day time in that half of the globe
which receives light, and night time in
the other half.
Fig. 12.4(b): Using a globe and a torchlight to  In India, sunrise first occurs in
understand day and night the eastern part and then in other
parts. While looking at the eastern part of India on the globe,
rotate the globe in one direction and then in the opposite
direction. What is the direction of rotation when light falls on
the eastern part of India first?
The light falls on the eastern part of India first when the globe
rotates from West to East with respect to the North-South axis of
the globe.
 Now while rotating the globe from West to East, observe your
location on the Earth. Does it go through a cycle of day and
night?
Sunrise occurs as your location moves into light and sunset
occurs as it moves into darkness.
The Earth’s rotation from West to East causes the day-night
Curiosity Textbook of Science Grade 7

cycle. As shown in Fig. 12.5, the side facing the Sun experiences
daytime, while the other side is dark and experiences night.
Earth's axis
of rotation

NP

Sunrays

Fig. 12.5: Sunlight falls on half of the Earth’s surface

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 173
Now imagine that you are standing on the Equator on the
Earth and watching the sky during one rotation of the Earth while
it rotates from West to East. What will you observe? Will your

Earth, Moon, and the Sun

observation be the same as that of the girl shown in Fig. 12.6?

2. Around noon, I have rotated to a new

position where the Sun is now over my head.

East West
West

East
3. By evening, I have
rotated further. The Sun 1. I am facing North
has started to disappear and my back is to the
from my view to the left South. The morning Sun
appears in my view to

West
from the West. The stars
East

will now become visible my right in the East.

in the night sky.

Fig. 12.6: A girl on the rotating Earth viewing the Sun from the Equator

Due to the rotation of the Earth, the Sun appears to rise in the
eastward direction, move across the sky from the East to the West
and set in the westward direction (Fig. 12.6). Then the night begins
and the stars become visible in the sky.

FASCINATING FACTS
In an earlier chapter ‘Measurement of Time and
Motion’, you learnt how the scientist Galileo
discovered an important property of a pendulum,
and in the seventeenth century, another scientist,
Huygens, used that property to make pendulum
clocks that measured time. In the middle of
nineteenth century, another scientist, Leon
Foucault, used a long pendulum to give the first
simple demonstration of the Earth’s rotation. The
pendulum, known as a Foucault pendulum in his
honour, consists of a long string with a heavy bob,
suspended from a high ceiling.
A Foucault pendulum with a length of 22 metres
has been hung from a skylight in the Constitution
Hall of the new Parliament building in New Delhi,
India. It symbolises the integration of the idea of
India with the vastness of the cosmos.

Chapter 12.indd 173 4/3/2025 4:57:16 PM

 Since the Earth is rotating, Yes, indeed! Let us look at the
shouldn’t the stars also stars in the night sky to see the
appear to move in the sky
effect of Earth’s rotation.
like the Sun?

Activity 12.3: Let us explore

 On an early evening between March and May, identify the

Big Dipper (Saptarishi), and the Pole Star (Dhruva Tara), if
visible, as you did in the chapter ‘Beyond Earth’ in the Grade 6
Science textbook Curiosity.
 Note down your location and date
1 AM
of your night sky observations.
11 PM The activity must be carried out
3 AM
on the same night.
9 PM
 Draw the orientation of the Big
5 AM Dipper in the sky with respect
7 PM to the Pole Star (or a fixed
tree/building on the ground
Northwest
North in a direction towards the Big
Northeast
Dipper if you cannot see the
Pole Star). Mark the time of your
Fig. 12.7: Illustrative sketch of Big Dipper (for activity 12.3)
by a student located in Pune on the night of 1–2 April
observation along with your
sketch as shown in Fig. 12.7.
 After two hours, observe the Big Dipper again. Has it moved?
Again, draw its orientation and note down the time.
 Repeat the above step after two hours. Do you observe that
the Big Dipper appears to move around the Pole Star (notice
just the movement even if you cannot see the Pole Star)?
The Earth’s axis of rotation points very close to the Pole Star in
Curiosity Textbook of Science Grade 7

the Northern Hemisphere. Therefore, the Pole Star appears nearly

stationary in the sky from the Earth. All the stars appear to move
around it. Just like the Sun, the Moon also appears to rise in the
eastward direction and set in the westward direction because the
Earth rotates from West to East.

FASCINATING FACTS
Astrophotographers take long exposure
photographs, keeping the camera’s
shutter open for a long time. In such
a photograph, the apparent motion of
the stars is recorded as arcs of a circle,
known as star trails.
(Picture taken from Mahuli, Maharashtra)

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 175

FASCINATING FACTS

Earth, Moon, and the Sun

Ancient Indian astronomers, including Aryabhata, had also
noticed the daily apparent motion of the celestial objects, such
as the Sun, Moon, planets and stars. Aryabhata was a famous
mathematician and astronomer of ancient India who wrote an
important treatise, Aryabhatiya, around the fifth century CE. The
apparent motion of the stars due to the rotation of the Earth is
explained in Verse 9, Golapada, Aryabhatiya.
¥ÙéÜæð×»çÌÙæñüSÍÑ Âà؈ؿܢ çßÜæð×»¢ ØmÌ÷ïÐ
¥¿ÜæçÙ ÖæçÙ ÌmÌ÷ï â×Âçp×»æçÙ ÜVæØæ×÷ïH
Just as a man in a boat moving forward sees stationary objects as
moving backwards, so also the stars that are stationary are seen
by people of Lanka as moving towards the west.
Aryabhata’s stated value for the time taken by the Earth to
complete one full rotation about its axis is around 23 hours 56
minutes 4.1 seconds (in modern units). This value is impressively
close to the currently accepted value.

I have seen that the stars and

constellations that appear in the
East at sunset change during
different months.

Yes. Maybe that is why we were told to

look for certain stars and constellations at
certain times of the year in Grade 6. But,
why do different stars appear in the night
sky over the course of a year?

12.2 Revolution of the Earth

While rotating on its own axis, the Earth also revolves around the Sun
as we learnt in Grade 6. This movement is different from rotation.
Revolution is the motion of an object around another object.

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 The path an object takes while revolving around another object
is called its orbit. If viewed from the top (Fig. 12.8), the orbit of the
Earth around the Sun is nearly circular. (In the figure of the Solar
System given in chapter ‘Beyond Earth’ in the Grade 6 Science
textbook Curiosity, the orbit appeared elongated because it was
a side view of the orbit). The Earth completes one revolution
around the Sun in about 365 days and 6 hours.

12.2.1 Changing view of night sky from the Earth

Every evening the Sun sets in the westward direction and the night
sky becomes visible. We know that this occurs due to the Earth’s
rotation. As the Earth also revolves around the Sun continuously,
the stars seen in the night sky after sunset gradually change over
a year as we look in different directions, as shown in Fig. 12.8.

March

Stars that
rise at
sunset

June December

Sun
Stars that
set at Different stars
sunrise rise at sunset in
different months

September
Curiosity Textbook of Science Grade 7

Fig. 12.8: Revolution of the Earth around the Sun leads to

changing view of the night sky throughout the year
(The sizes and distances are not to scale)

You can also notice this change by looking at the pattern of

stars (such as those that you learnt about in Grade 6), at a fixed
time of the night, on days separated by a month.

FASCINATING FACTS
The Bhil and Pawara are indigenous communities from the Tapi Valley
in western India, who used the appearance of certain patterns of stars
in the sky as markers for the arrival of monsoon rain.

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 177

12.2.2 Seasons on the Earth

Earth, Moon, and the Sun

I have noticed that we go
through a cycle of seasons
every year. Is it related to I have also noticed
the revolution of the Earth that days are longer
around the Sun in some in summer than in
way? winter.

The Earth’s axis of rotation is not upright with respect to the

orbit, but is tilted. The Earth maintains this tilt as it orbits around
the Sun (Fig. 12.9). The tilt of the Earth’s axis and the spherical
shape of the Earth gives rise to seasons. Let us find out, how.
North Pole

March
North Pole
North Pole
Summer in Winter in
Northern Northern
Hemisphere Hemisphere
June
December
North Pole

September
Fig. 12.9: Different positions of the Earth while revolving around the Sun
(The Earth’s orbit appears elongated because this is a side view and not the
top view. The sizes and distances are not to scale)

In June, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun while

the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun (Fig. 12.9).
As seen in Fig. 12.10a, a given amount of sunrays are spread in
a smaller area in the Northern Hemisphere as compared to the
Southern Hemisphere due to the spherical shape of the Earth’s
surface. So that area is heated more.
Further, the Northern Hemisphere receives sunlight for more
than 12 hours in June (Fig. 12.11a). So, the Northern Hemisphere
experiences more intense sunlight, which lasts for a longer time,
causing the summer season. In December, the situation is opposite
in the Northern Hemisphere and it experiences winter season
with sunlight for shorter time (Fig. 12.10b and Fig. 12.11b).

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 North Pole Sunrays
North Pole
Same amount of
sunrays are spread in
a smaller area in this
hemisphere, hence are
more intense.

Same amount of
sunrays are spread in
a larger area in this
hemisphere, hence
are less intense.
(a) June (b) December
Fig. 12.10: (a) More intense sunlight in the Northern Hemisphere and less intense sunlight
in the Southern Hemisphere in June (b) The opposite situation happens in December.

The North Pole receives sunlight for The North Pole is in darkness for
all 24 hours in June all 24 hours in December

Places in this hemisphere

receive sunlight for
more than 12 hours
during the 24 hour
rotation of the Earth.

Places in this hemisphere

are in darkness for
more than 12 hours
during the 24 hour
rotation of the Earth.

June Sunrays December

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.11: In the Northern Hemisphere (a) Longer daytime in June
(b) Shorter daytime in December
Curiosity Textbook of Science Grade 7

The seasons and length of daytime are reversed in the

Southern Hemisphere as compared to the Northern Hemisphere.
There, it is winter in June and summer in December (Fig. 12.10
and Fig. 12.11).
Two incorrect reasons often given to explain why seasons occur
D IVE
EEPER
on the Earth are:
 When the Northern Hemisphere tilts towards the Sun, it is
closer to the Sun.
 The orbit of the Earth is an oval with the Sun slightly displaced
from its centre so the Earth is at different distances from the
Sun over the year.
However, the difference in distances in either of these cases is
very small and these are not the reasons why seasons occur on
the Earth. In fact, the Earth is closest to the Sun in January.

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 179

In the Northern Hemisphere, the longest day occurs around

21 June—this is known as summer solstice. After the summer
DIVE

Earth, Moon, and the Sun

solstice, the duration of a day becomes shorter while that of a EEPER
night becomes longer. The shortest day and longest night in this
Hemisphere occur around 22 December known as the winter
solstice. Around 21 March and 23 September, the daytime lasts
for 12 hours. In the Northern Hemisphere, these days are called
the spring and the autumn equinox, respectively.

FASCINATING FACTS
At the North Pole, the Sun rises in the East direction on the equinox
day — 21 March, and remains continuously in the sky for six months.
The Sun sets on 22 September. The South Pole experiences the opposite
behaviour. The polar regions thus experience continuous sunshine for
six months followed by a six-month period of darkness.

On the equator, there is always 12 hours of sunlight and 12

hours of darkness. There is little difference in the intensity of the
sunrays falling on the equator in different months. Thus, for the
southern states of India that lie close to the equator, the effect
of seasons is not very prominent. Other effects, such as local
geographical features and proximity to oceans or seas, can also
influence these broader patterns seen in the two hemispheres, as
you have learnt in social science.

12.3 Eclipses

Day and night cycle, seasons, the life

on the Earth... so much is dependent
upon the Sun. Could the light from the
Sun get blocked by the two planets
which are revolving between the
Earth and the Sun?

The planets Mercury and Venus appear very small compared to

the Sun, and never block the entire light from the Sun reaching
us. However, you may be surprised to know that the Moon can
do that. Do you remember studying in Grade 6 that the Moon is a
natural satellite of the Earth and it revolves around the Earth as
the Earth revolves around the Sun?

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 12.3.1 Solar eclipse
At certain times, the Moon can come in between the Sun and the
Earth in a way that obstructs the light from the Sun from reaching
us. This is known as a solar eclipse. You may wonder how the
Moon, which is smaller than the Sun, blocks the light coming from
the Sun that we see in the sky.
Activity 12.4: Let us explore

 Ask your friend to stand in front of you at a distance of about

5 metres. Consider his head to be the Sun.
 Now close one eye and show a thumbs up with your
outstretched hand towards your friend as shown in Fig. 12.12.
Are you able to cover the entire head of your friend with your
thumb?
You can cover the entire head of your friend
with the help of your thumb, even though your
thumb is much smaller than the actual size of
your friend’s head. How could it be? The size of
any object as seen by your eye — also known as
apparent size — depends upon both its actual
physical size and its distance from you. The
thumb being much closer to you as compared to
your friend, the apparent sizes of your thumb and
Fig. 12.12: Trying to cover a your friend’s head as seen by you in Activity 12.4
friend’s head with the thumb are similar.
The apparent sizes of the Moon and the Sun in the sky are
similar when viewed from the Earth. This is so because though
the Moon is much smaller in physical size than the Sun, the Moon
Curiosity Textbook of Science Grade 7

is much closer to us compared to the Sun. Therefore, the Moon

can appear to cover the entire Sun as viewed from the Earth.

D
Though the planets Mercury and Venus are much larger than
IVE the Moon in size, they are also much farther from the Earth as
EEPER
compared to the Moon. Thus, their apparent sizes are very much
smaller than the Sun and they cannot block the Sun. For example,
when Venus passes between the Sun and the Earth, it appears as
a tiny black dot passing against the bright face of the Sun. This
event, known as a Transit of Venus, is a rare event.

Figure 12.13 shows the arrangement of the Sun, the Moon, and
the Earth during a solar eclipse. The shadow of the Moon falls on
a small area on the surface of the Earth as seen in Fig. 12.13. This
area is in total darkness, and no part of the Sun can be seen from
there. The observers in this area witness a total solar eclipse
(Fig. 12.14a).
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 181

Earth’s orbit

Earth, Moon, and the Sun

Moon’s
Total solar orbit
eclipse

Moon
Partial
Sun
solar eclipse

Fig. 12.13: Geometry of solar eclipse

(The sizes and distances are not to scale)

In areas where the Moon partially blocks out only some

regions of the Sun, the observers see a partial solar eclipse
(Fig. 12.13 and Fig. 12.14b).
During a total solar eclipse, for a few minutes it turns dark
during the day as no sunlight reaches the Earth. Due to the
Earth’s rotation and the motion of the Moon in its orbit, the
Moon’s shadow moves across the surface of the Earth. Thus, the
total solar eclipse is visible only for a few minutes. As the Moon
(a) Total solar eclipse
begins to move away from the front of the Sun (Fig. 12.14c), we
see a partial solar eclipse and daylight begins to return.
Safe Viewing of a Solar Eclipse
Caution — During a solar eclipse, one might be tempted to look at the
Sun, thinking that it wouldn’t be strong enough to cause harm to our
eyes. However, even during the eclipse, the Sun is intense enough to
damage the eyes and cause blindness. Thus, directly viewing solar (b) Partial solar eclipse
eclipse must be strictly avoided. Also, do not view it through sunglasses,
binoculars, or telescopes.
Usually, astronomy
organisations, such as planetaria
and astronomy clubs hold eclipse
viewing events during a solar
eclipse (Fig. 12.15).
Screen with the
Participating in such events
Sun’s image
Ball with is the best way to observe a solar (c) A ‘diamond ring’ seen
mirror after a total solar eclipse,
eclipse since the organisers not just when the Moon starts
only provide specialised eye to move away
protection for solar viewing, but
also offer scientific explanations. Fig. 12.14: Solar eclipse
Fig. 12.15: A public solar eclipse
viewing organised in Ooty, Tamil Nadu

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 This activity, similar to Activity 11.5, is to be set up by your

DIVE
teacher. A mirror can be used to project an image of the
Sun onto a wall. However, holding it at the correct angle EEPER
throughout a solar eclipse can be difficult. To solve this, make
a movable stand for the mirror. Use a hollow ball with a small
hole, half-fill it with sand (to keep it stable), and attach a small
mirror (such as an embroidery mirror) to it. Place the ball on
a circular ring, like an adhesive tape ring, so it can be turned
around easily. Adjust it until the Sun’s image appears on a
wall or screen. Fig. 12.15 shows this set-up where the mirror
is fixed to a green ball.
Caution — This activity should be performed strictly under
supervision of a teacher. Take care not to direct the reflected
light beam in anyone’s eyes.

People have observed eclipses and maintained records since

ancient times. When the reasons for eclipses were not known, they
feared the occurrence of eclipses. As you can imagine, something
blocking the Sun, the main source of heat and light on the Earth,
even for a brief period of time, would have been extremely
concerning. Many superstitions were attached to solar eclipses in
various parts of the world related to the activities that could not
be carried out during eclipses—such as eating, cooking, or going
out of home. But now that we know the reason why a solar eclipse
occurs, we need not fear these events as long as we do not look at
the Sun directly. In fact, scientists go around the world to observe
the eclipses from wherever these are observable. The eclipses
provide them an opportunity to study phenomena that cannot be
observed otherwise.
Curiosity Textbook of Science Grade 7

FASCINATING FACTS
An eclipse is known as grahan in Sanskrit and in many Indian languages.
Many ancient Indian astronomical texts provide calculations to
predict eclipses. The best known and most referred text is the Surya
Siddhanta, which is written in the classical Sanskrit poetry tradition
in rhythmic shlokas.

12.3.2 Lunar eclipse

As the Moon revolves around the Earth, sometimes the Earth can
block the sunlight from reaching the Moon. This is known as a
lunar eclipse. On such days, we see the Earth’s shadow falling on
the full disc of the Moon. Fig. 12.16 shows the arrangement of the
Sun, the Earth, and the Moon during a lunar eclipse.

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 183
Earth’s orbit

Earth, Moon, and the Sun

Partial lunar
eclipse

Total
Earth lunar Moon
eclipse

Partial lunar
Sun eclipse
Moon’s orbit

Fig. 12.16: Geometry of lunar eclipse

(The sizes and distances are not to scale in the figure)

When the Moon is completely in the Earth’s shadow, it is

called a total lunar eclipse. The bright disc of the Moon starts
to appear dark red in colour and stays that way until the Moon
moves out of the shadow of the Earth. When part of the Moon
is in the Earth’s shadow and the rest of the Moon is visible, it
is called a partial lunar eclipse. Unlike the Sun, we can safely
watch the eclipsed full Moon with our naked eye.

SCIENCE AND SOCIETY

Using the computer version of Stellarium app, which is free, you may
get information about the upcoming solar and lunar eclipses (if any)
which may be visible from your location.

FASCINATING FACTS
The Kodaikanal Solar
Observatory is located in
the beautiful Palani range of
hills in southern India. It was
established in 1899 and has
provided data about the Sun for
over 100 years. It is operated
by the Indian Institute of
Astrophysics (IIA), Bengaluru.

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 KNOW A SCIENTIST
M.K. Vainu Bappu is known as the father of modern
Indian astronomy. He led efforts in setting up
many instruments and telescopes in India, such
as the telescopes at Manora Peak near Nainital
(Uttarakhand) and Kavalur (Tamil Nadu). The
observatory at Kavalur has been named after him.
He mainly studied stars and even discovered a
comet. He also travelled to different parts of the
world to study solar eclipses.

In a Nutshell

 The Earth rotates on its own axis in about 24 hours.

 The Earth’s rotation from West to East causes day and night
as well as the apparent motion of the Sun, the Moon, and
the stars.
 The Earth revolves around the Sun and takes nearly 1 year
to complete a revolution.
 The Earth’s axis of rotation is not upright with respect to the
orbit, but is tilted.
 Seasons occur because of the tilt of the Earth’s axis of rotation
and its spherical shape.
 A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon is in the path of the
Sun as seen from the Earth, and sunlight is blocked from
reaching the Earth.
Curiosity Textbook of Science Grade 7

 A lunar eclipse occurs when the Earth comes in between

the Sun and the Moon, blocking sunlight from reaching
the Moon.

Let Us Enhance Our Learning

NP
1. In Fig. 12.17, how many hours of sunlight do the North Pole
and the South Pole receive during one rotation of the Earth?
2. Fill in the blanks
(i) Stars rise in the _________ and set in the ___________.
(ii) Day and night are caused by the Earth’s __________________.
SP (iii) When the Moon fully covers the Sun from our view, it is
Fig. 12.17 called a _____________ solar eclipse.

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 185
3. State whether True or False
(i) Lunar eclipse occurs when the Sun comes between the

Earth, Moon, and the Sun

Earth and the Moon. ENQUIRY

(ii) Sunrise happens earlier in Gujarat than in Jharkhand.

(iii) In Chennai, the longest day occurs on the summer solstice.
(iv) We should watch the solar eclipse directly with our naked
eye. ?
(v) Seasons occur due to the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation
WHAT IF WHY
and its spherical shape.
(vi) The Earth’s revolution around the Sun causes day and W WHERE
H
night. E
N
4. Padmashree saw the Orion constellation nearly overhead at 8 WHAT H
O
COULD W
pm yesterday. When will she see Orion overhead today? CAN
L
IT
5. Nandhini saw a group of stars rising at midnight on 21 June. ? W
H
O
N
When will she see the same group of stars rising at midnight I
C
G
WHOSE
next year? H
WE
6. Abhay noticed that when it was daytime in India, his uncle WHAT WILL
HAPPEN
H L
A S
T E
who was in the USA was generally sleeping as it was night-time
WHAT WHY
there. What is the reason behind this difference? SHOULD NOT

7. Four friends used the following ways to see the solar eclipse.
Who among them was being careless?
(i) Ravikiran used a solar eclipse goggle.
(ii) Jyothi used a mirror to project the Sun’s image.
(iii) Adithya saw the Sun directly with his eyes. INNOVATION

(iv) Aruna attended a programme arranged by a planetarium.

8. Fill in the circles in Fig. 12.18 appropriately with one of the DISCOVERY

following: Sun, Moon, Earth.

Solar eclipse ENQUIRY

EXPLORATION
Sun
CURIOSITY

Lunar eclipse

Moon

Fig. 12.18

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 9. The Moon is much smaller than the Sun, yet it can block the
Sun completely from our view during a total solar eclipse.
Why is it possible?
10. The Indian cricket team matches in Australia are often held
in December. Should they pack winter or summer clothes for
their trip?
11. Why do you think lunar eclipses can be seen from a large
part of the Earth when they happen, but total solar eclipse
can be seen by only a small part of the Earth?
12. If the Earth’s axis were not tilted with respect to the axis of
revolution, explain what would be the effect on seasons?
Disciplinary

Exploratory Projects

 Repeat Activity 12.2 but replace the torch with an electric

lamp. Then place the globe at different positions on a circle
around the lamp while maintaining the tilt of the globe.
History Art
(i) Note down your observations regarding how much of
the Northern and Southern hemispheres of the globe are
illuminated at different positions.
Geography Society (ii) Rotate the globe and take a note of the length of the day
and night on different parts of the globe.
(iii) Repeat (ii) for different positions of globe on the circle.
 The Earth goes around the Sun in an oval-shaped path.
Technology Economy Draw two circles with the same centre, one with a radius of
14.7 cm, and another one with a radius of 15.2 cm. If 1 cm
corresponds to 10 million km, the two circles represent the
Inter

closest and farthest distances from the Sun. Note how small
Curiosity Textbook of Science Grade 7

is the difference between these two distances.

 Suppose the tilt of the Earth’s axis of rotation increases. Will
it cause more extreme seasons? Find out if the tilt of Uranus
is more than the Earth and about the seasons there. Write an
interesting article for a newspaper or your school magazine
about it.

D IVE In reality, the planets move around a special point in

EEPER the solar system, which is very close to the Sun but
not exactly at its centre! The Sun also moves around
the same point a little instead of staying perfectly still.
Scientists use such tiny wobbles in the movement of
other stars to discover exoplanets around them!

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 It's Still Not the End, My Friend!
And once again, we’ve reached the last page of this book, and as
we said earlier, it is certainly not the end of our curiosity — our
jigyasa. We hope you’ve enjoyed the activities and experiments as
you journeyed through the chapters. More importantly, we hope
you asked a lot of questions! Now it is our time to ask you one.
Have you looked closely at the front and back covers of
this science textbook? At first, they may just look like regular
scenes from a playground or a running track, but if you observe
carefully, you’ll find tiny hidden science clues connected to
different chapters in the book! Take a closer look — maybe you
will spot something related to what we discussed about motion
or light, or maybe even about plants and animals?
Challenge yourself to find as many science links with the
chapters as you can (we think there are more than 25!). And
who knows — you might find connections that the authors and
illustrators hadn’t even thought about! That is exactly how
discoveries in science were made — by someone just observing
something new, something unusual in the world around them.
This textbook is just a small guide, a map to find our way
around the different paths of science. Never stop asking questions,
and remember, your curiosity is the spark that lights the flame
of exploration that will take you to incredible heights. And we’ll
join you again, next year, for more adventures in science.

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 Notes

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