Air Pollution

Causes, Effects and Control Measures

 Air Pollution
Air pollution is defined as the introduction of chemicals, particulate
matter, or microorganisms into the atmosphere at concentrations high
enough to harm plants, animals, and materials such as buildings, or to
alter ecosystems.
 Generally, the term air pollution refers to pollution in the
troposphere, the first 16 km of the atmosphere above the surface of
Earth. Tropospheric pollution is sometimes called ground-level
pollution.
 Types of Sources
There are generally two types of sources
i. Natural
Air pollution can occur naturally, from sources such as volcanoes and fires.

ii. Anthropogenic
Environmental pollution and pollutants originating by human activities are called
anthropogenic sources such as automobiles and factories
To understand the global air pollution system, we need to identify the major
pollutants and determine where they come from.
 Major Air Pollutants
U.S. Clean Air Act of 1970 identified pollutants that significantly threaten human well-
being, ecosystems, and/or structures:
 Sulfur dioxide
 Nitrogen oxides
 Carbon monoxide
 Particulate matter
 Tropospheric ozone
 Lead
 Volatile organic compounds
These were called criteria air pollutants because under the Clean Air Act, the EPA must
specify allowable concentrations of each pollutant.
The sources and effects of the major air pollutants are summarized in Table 1.
 Sulfur Dioxide

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a corrosive gas that comes primarily from combustion of fuels
such as coal and oil.
Effects: It is a respiratory irritant and can adversely affect plant tissue as well.
Because all plants and animals contain sulfur in varying amounts, the fossil fuels
derived from their remains contain sulfur.
Anthropogenic Sources: When these fuels are combusted, the sulfur combines with
oxygen to form sulfur dioxide.
Natural Sources: Sulfur dioxide is also released in large quantities during volcanic
eruptions and can be released, though in much smaller quantities, during forest fires.
 Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen oxides are generically designated NOX, with the X indicating that there may be either
one or two oxygen atoms per nitrogen: nitrogen oxide (NO), a colorless, odorless gas, and
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a pungent, reddish-brown gas, respectively.
✓ The atmosphere is 78 percent nitrogen gas (N2), and all combustion in the atmosphere
leads to the formation of some nitrogen oxides.
✓ Motor vehicles and stationary fossil fuel combustion are the primary anthropogenic
sources of nitrogen oxides.
✓ Natural sources include forest fires, lightning, and microbial action in soils.
✓ Effects: Atmospheric nitrogen oxides play a role in forming tropospheric ozone and other
components of photochemical smog.
 Carbon monoxide (CO)

✓ Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless gas that is formed during incomplete
combustion of most matter, and therefore is a common emission in vehicle exhaust and
most other combustion processes.
✓ Carbon monoxide can be a significant component of air pollution in urban areas.
✓ It also can be a dangerous indoor air pollutant when exhaust systems on natural gas heaters
malfunction and, primarily in developing countries, where there may be poor ventilation
when cooking with manure, charcoal, or kerosene.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
✓ Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a colorless, odorless gas that is formed during the complete
combustion of most matter, including fossil fuels and biomass.
✓ It is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis.
✓ It is also released during respiration.
✓ In general, the complete combustion of matter that produces carbon dioxide is more
desirable than the incomplete combustion that produces carbon monoxide and other
pollutants.
✓ However, burning fossil fuels has contributed additional carbon dioxide to the atmosphere
and led to its becoming a major pollutant.
 Particulate Matter

Particulate matter (PM), also called particulates or particles, is solid or liquid particles
suspended in air.
Anthropogenic sources:
Particulate matter comes from the combustion of wood, animal manure and other biofuels,
coal, oil, and gasoline. It is most commonly known as a class of pollutants released from the
combustion of fuels such as coal and oil.
Diesel-powered vehicles give off more particulate matter, in the form of black smoke, than do
gasoline-powered vehicles. Particulate matter can also come from road dust and rock-crushing
operations.
Natural Sources:
Volcanoes, forest fires, and dust storms are important natural sources of particulate matter.
Effects:
Particulate matter ranges in size from 0.01 micrometer (μm) to 100μm. Particulate
matter larger than 10μm is usually filtered out by the nose and throat and is not
regulated by the EPA.
Particles smaller than 10μm are called Particulate Matter-10, written as PM10, and are
of concern to air pollution scientists because they are not filtered out by the nose and
throat and can be deposited deep within the respiratory tract.
Particles of 2.5μm and smaller, called PM2.5, are an even greater health concern
because they deposit deeply within the respiratory tract and they tend to be composed
of more toxic substances than particles in larger size ranges.
Particulate matter also scatters and absorbs sunlight. If the atmospheric concentration
of particulate matter is high enough, as it would be immediately following a large
forest fire or a volcanic eruption, the reduction of incoming solar radiation in the
region will affect photosynthesis.
Reduced visibility, also known as haze, is caused primarily when particulate matter
from air pollution scatters light. Ozone and photochemical oxidants can also play an
important indirect role in the formation of haze.
 Photochemical Oxidants

Photochemical Oxidants including tropospheric ozone. Oxides are reactive compounds that
remove electrons from other substances.
Photochemical oxidants
They are a class of air pollutants formed as a result of sunlight acting on compounds such as
nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide.
Though there are many photochemical oxidants, and they are generally harmful to plant tissue,
human respiratory tissue and construction materials, attention is frequently focused on ozone
(O3 ).
Effects: Tropospheric ozone is harmful to both plants and animals and causes respiratory
inflammations such as asthma and emphysema (a lung condition that causes shortness of
breath).
 Smog
In the presence of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds, ozone reacts to form even
more harmful oxidants.
In the presence of sulfur and nitrogen oxides, ozone and other photochemical oxidants can also
enhance the formation of certain particulate matter, which contributes to scattering light.
The resulting mixture of oxidants and particulate matter is commonly referred to as smog, a
word derived by combining the words smoke and fog. Smog is partly responsible for the hazy
view and reduced sunlight observed in many cities.
Tropospheric ozone and photochemical smog formation. (a) In the absence of VOCs, ozone will form during the daylight hours and break down after
sunset.
(b) In the presence of VOCs, ozone will form during the daylight hours. The VOCs combine with nitrogen oxides to form photochemical oxidants,
which reduce the amount of ozone that will break down later and contribute to prolonged periods of photochemical smog.
 Factors influencing Smog formation

Smog is usually thought of as an urban problem, but it is not limited to urban areas.
Trees and shrubs in rural areas produce VOCs that can contribute to the formation of
photochemical smog, as do forest fires that begin naturally in rural areas.
Atmospheric temperature influences the formation of smog in several important ways.
Emissions of VOCs from vegetation such as trees, as well as from evaporation of volatile
liquids like gasoline, increase as the temperature increases.
NOx emissions from electric utilities also increase as air-conditioning demands for electricity
increase on the hottest days.
Many of the chemical reactions that form ozone and other photochemical oxidants also
proceed more rapidly at higher temperatures. These and other factors combine to lead to
greater smog concentrations at higher temperatures.
 Lead
Sources: Lead (Pb) is a trace metal that occurs naturally in rocks and soils.
Anthropogenic Sources:
Present in small concentrations in fuels including oil and coal, lead compounds were added
to gasoline for many years to improve vehicle performance. During that time, lead compounds
were released into the air, traveled with the prevailing winds, and were deposited on the
ground by rain or snow, including polar regions that are far from combustion sources.
Another persistent source of lead is lead based paint in older buildings; when the paint peels
off, the resulting dust or chips.
Effects: It can be toxic to the central nervous system and can affect learning and intelligence,
particularly for young children who may ingest the dust or chips, attracted by their sweet taste.
 Volatile Organic Compounds

Organic compounds that become vapors at typical atmospheric temperatures are called volatile
organic compounds (VOCs).
Many VOCs are hydrocarbons—compounds that contain carbon-hydrogen bonds, such as
✓ Gasoline
✓ Lighter fluid
✓ Dry-cleaning fluid
✓ Oil-based paints
✓ Perfumes
Compounds that give off a strong aroma are often VOCs since the chemicals are easily
released into the air.
VOCs play an important role in the formation of photochemical oxidants such as ozone.
VOCs are not necessarily hazardous; many, such as VOCs given off by conifer trees, cause no
direct harm.
VOCs are not currently considered a criteria air pollutant, but because they can lead to the
formation of photochemical oxidants, they have the potential to be harmful and are therefore of
concern to air pollution scientists.
 Types of pollutants

Atmospheric pollutants may be

1. Primary pollutants are polluting compounds that come directly out of the smokestack,
exhaust pipe, or natural emission source.
They include CO, CO2, SO2, NOX, and most suspended particulate matter.
Many VOCs are also primary pollutants.
For example, as gasoline is burned in a car, it volatilizes from a liquid to a vapor, some of
which is emitted from the exhaust pipe in an un-combusted form. The effect is more
pronounced if the car is not operating efficiently. The resulting VOC becomes a primary air
pollutant.
 Secondary Pollutants

Secondary pollutants are primary pollutants that have undergone transformation in the
presence of sunlight, water, oxygen, or other compounds.
Examples: Ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant. Ozone is not emitted from a
smokestack or automobile tailpipe but is formed in the atmosphere as a result of the emission
of the primary air pollutants NOx and VOCs in the presence of sunlight.
The main components of acid deposition—sulfate (SO42 – ) and nitrate (NO3– )—are also
secondary pollutants.
Because solar radiation provides energy for many of these transformations, and because water
is usually involved, the conversion to secondary pollutants does not occur as rapidly at night as
during the day or in dry environments as in wet environments.
Primary and secondary air pollutants. The transformation from
primary to secondary pollutant requires a number of factors
including sunlight, water (clouds), and the appropriate
temperature