Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Review

Recent advances in electrochemical approaches for detection of nitrite in

food samples
Nora Ibrahim a , Mahmoud A. Hefnawy b, Sahar A. Fadlallah a,b, Shymaa S. Medany b,*
a
Biotechnology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
b
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nitrite is a common ingredient in the industry and agriculture; it is everywhere, like water, food, and sur­
Nitrite detection roundings. Recently, several approaches have been developed to measure the nitrite levels. So, this review was
Electrochemical sensors presented as a summary of many approaches utilized to detect the nitrite. Furthermore, the types of information
Carbon-based sensors
that may be acquired using these methodologies, including optic and electrical signals, were discussed. In
Transition metal-based sensors
electrical signal methods, electrochemical sensors are usually developed using different materials, including
carbon, polymers, oxides, and hydroxides. At the same time, optic signals receiving techniques involve utilizing
fluorescence chromatography, absorption, and spectrometry instruments.
Furthermore, these methodologies’ benefits, drawbacks, and restrictions are examined. Lastly, due to the ef­
ficiency and fast means of electrochemical detectors, it was suggested that they can be used for detecting nitrite
in food safety. Futuristic advancements in the techniques used for nitrite determination are subsequently
outlined.

1. Introduction required. There are numerous Conventional techniques of analysis for

detecting the presence of NO−2 , including chromatography such as (gas
Nitrite is widely present in the environment, human everyday life, chromatography, GC, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
and their requirements. Nitrite (NO−2 ) is frequently present in chemical (Antczak-Chrobot et al., 2018; Khan et al., 2016), fluorescent spectros­
fertilizers, preservatives, and food additives (Gassara et al., 2016). copy (Wu & Tong, 2020; Zhan et al., 2017), electrochemistry techniques
However, suppose a person’s body absorbs NO−2 high concentrations via (X. Li et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2022), even the colorimetric process
food, crops, or water. In that case, it poses a major risk (Chen et al., (Daniel et al., 2009; Zheng et al., 2022). Chromatography is a fast and
2020; Guo et al., 2013), so nitrite is considered the most common sufficiently sensitive method for determining NO−2 , but it is expensive,
pollutant in food and the environment. Its potential toxicity and misuse needs a laborious sample preparation procedure, and demands highly
pose a serious risk to human health. Excess NO2 will cause many prob­ skilled operators. In addition, although the colorimetric process is easy
lems, such as hemoglobin’s inability to carry oxygen, leading to to use, significant issues involving sensitivities and anti-interference
methemoglobinemia due to inadequate hemoglobin oxygen transport capacity remain. Also, among the methods mentioned earlier in the
(Avery, 1999). Furthermore, NO−2 may combine with amino acids in analysis, the fluorescence spectroscopy technique is more advanced due
addition to other chemicals within the human body, resulting in carci­ to its ease of use, extreme sensitivity, quick reaction, inexpensive costs,
nogenic nitrosamines, and this can lead to esophageal and stomach and noticeable accuracy (Zhan et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020). Unfor­
cancers (Cao et al., 2020; Fabregat et al., 2017). Therefore, food safety is tunately, the main drawback of this technique was the brief stimulation
now more essential than ever and is a major global problem. To guar­ of the wavelength which can lead to autofluorescence interference and
antee food safety, one essential technological avenue is food safety in­ cause a tiny ratio of signal to background. Thus, nitrite detection tech­
quiry and monitoring. As a result, investigating a straightforward niques need to be developed in a trustworthy, strong, and efficient way.
method for measuring and determining the amount of NO−2 in food is Traditional techniques cannot meet the need for efficient and

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M.A. Hefnawy), [email protected] (S.A. Fadlallah), [email protected], [email protected]
(S.S. Medany).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140962
Received 10 May 2024; Received in revised form 2 August 2024; Accepted 21 August 2024
Available online 22 August 2024
0308-8146/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

continuous surveillance of the whole food supply chain, including chromatographic methods (Gapper et al., 2004; Jobgen et al., 2007;Li
manufacturing, preparation, preservation, and distribution. Thus, there et al., 2000), spectrofluorimetric methods(Liu et al., 2013; Nakamura,
is an urgent need to advance food safety detecting technologies to ensure 1980), spectrophotometric techniques (Ensafi & Amini, 2010; Weselsky
food safety. This requires a rapid, specific, and precise identification & Benedikt, 1879) (such as the Griess response), chemiluminescent
method. Accordingly, smart detection technology is currently being methods (Cox & Frank, 1982; Lin et al., 2011), electrochemiluminescent
developed to identify contamination by bacteria or alterations in the techniques (Yao et al., 2013; Yin et al., 2013), capillary electrophoresis
quality of food throughout transport or storage (Azeredo & Correa, methods (Kikura-Hanajiri et al., 2002; Öztekin et al., 2002), as well as
2021). These innovations considerably raise safety from possible electrochemical methods (Magosso et al., 2010). Given that, every
external pollutants and aid in better handling, storing, transporting, and technique has benefits and downsides associated with it. In 2001, these
preserving food. They also stop food-related compounds from leaking methods of nitrite assessment were evaluated by Moorcroft et al.
into the environment. (Moorcroft et al., 2001). Therefore, this review will address the methods
Electrochemical detectors are very advantageous for applications of utilized for nitrite measuring and assess the benefits and drawbacks of
food quality analysis because of their many features, including excellent these techniques see (Fig. 1).
sensitiveness, strong selection, quick analysis speed, cheap equipment,
and the potential for monitoring within complicated systems (Al-Kadhi 2.1. Chromatography
et al., 2023; Ezzat et al., 2024; Hefnawy et al., 2022; Mei et al., 2022). As
a result, materials suitable for electrode modification with a high spe­ For a long time, nitrite has been measured using most chromato­
cific surface area, strong conductivity, and ease of functionalization graphic techniques. Most HPLC, GC, and IC methods(Gapper et al.,
should be chosen (Gamal et al., 2024; Ismail et al., 2024; Kumar et al., 2004; Jobgen et al., 2007; H. Li et al., 2000) may be used to assess direct
2022; Al-Kadhi et al., 2023; Medany et al., 2024). The two primary steps samples. Moreover, gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) is
of the sample evaluation process by an electrochemical sensor are extremely accurate and specific, particularly when used in a negative ion
signaling transformation and detection. Analysts are transformed into a electron capturing (NIEC) manner, so it has been widely used during the
quantifiable electrical signal through a process known as “signal con­ last fifteen years to determine the amount of nitrite present in biological
version”. The signal is then emitted via the apparatus and can serve as samples. It could be a highly appealing tool because high-performance
the foundation for quantitative evaluation. The recognition element, liquid chromatography is significantly faster, more sensitive, and more
typically identified using the electrode modifying material, was used to precise than electrochemistry or spectrophotometry techniques. So,
carry out the recognition. several scientific methods for nitrite determination and separation using
The altered electrode material had often been utilized to determine ion exchange and ion-pair reversed-phase high-performance liquid
the individual elements. The detection technique relies upon REDOX, an chromatography have been improved over the past few years. Fluores­
electrochemical reaction for identifying the analyzed compound. cence, chemiluminescence, electrochemistry, and UV and VIS absorp­
Depending upon the REDOX process, an electrochemical detector is an tion are the detection concepts employed in the HPLC analysis. Nitrite
electrical device that may detect the target quantitatively. The target may be easily detected by conductivity or ultraviolet (UV) absorption
molecule’s detecting component is the molecular detection substance. detection within 210–220 nm. However, most nitrite measurement
For a qualitative and quantitative verification of a certain item, the techniques call for a modification process, wherein nitrite transforms
system used for detection can detect the molecule of interest especially compounds that are either extremely fluorescent or absorb light at a
or effectively achieve that corresponds to chemical and physical re­ certain wavelength (Gapper et al., 2004; H. Li et al., 2000). Aside from
sponses over the outermost layer of the electrode and then convert these the disadvantages of chemical alteration for nitrite, the main extra
reactions into readily identifiable signals, such as electrical, light, or worries are that we face the high expense and intricacy of this process.
thermal (Shi et al., 2019). If the electrode being used is empty, with no Although many utilized modification chemicals are costly, these ex­
modifying materials, then its ability to sense and select is diminished. penses are rarely expensive. What is more important is that the reali­
So, a key factor in sensor performance is the presence of sensor modi­ zation of gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) full
fication materials, which typically have high electrical conductivity and potential requires trained personnel, and this factor’s significance
can speed up the sensor signal before amplifying the detection signal. cannot be ignored (Helmke & Duncan, 2007).
This is the required goal, which is extremely sensitive detection.(Ezzat
et al., 2023). 2.2. Spectrofluorimetric methods
Recently, Electrochemical sensing technology has advanced quickly,
along with the ongoing advancements in materials sciences, including Also, Spectrofluorimetry has become more commonly employed in
the materials used in modifying sensors utilized in food analysis. Elec­ nitrite measurement owing to great detecting limit, significant speci­
trochemical sensors based on various materials are applied in various ficity, and excellent sensitiveness, besides simple assay-type methods.
branches, such as detecting pesticides, food additives, veterinary Spectrofluorimetric techniques depend mainly upon the variations in
medication residues, heavy metal ions, and other target compounds of the amount of fluorescence that occur once nitrite reacts via a fluores­
various groups. Where quick and accurate findings are obtained. In this cent probe. Several fluorescence probes were created to measure nitrite
review, the primary focus is to summarize the use of electrochemical by taking advantage of this nitrite ion’s chemical selectivity, leading to
sensors in food analysis, which are based on different materials such as nitrosation and diazotization.
(metal oxides, the metal-organic framework, conductive polymers,
carbon materials, and their composite materials). Moreover, it high­ 2.3. Spectrophotometry technique
lights the advancements made in sensors over the previous few decades
for the electrochemical measurement of nitrite. While the low cost and ease of use make spectrophotometric methods
one of the most widely used methods for nitrite determination, these
2. Detection of nitrite by different methods methods typically include the interaction of nitrite with specific reagents
for detection (nitrosation or diazotization reaction, for example), where
Food safety has been greatly interested in higher levels of nitrite the amount of nitrite is directly proportional to the amount of reaction
within food. Thus, it is very important to have extremely accurate, product that is absorbed. Catalytic spectrophotometric techniques,
specific, fast, and precise techniques for nitrite identification. So, in nitrosation-based spectrophotometric techniques, and Griess Assay
recent years, a wide range of methods for identifying and quantifying procedures are the three types of spectrophotometric techniques used to
nitrite have been documented. These techniques include measure nitrite quantities (Tsikas, 2007).

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

Fig. 1. Shows the different techniques used for the detection of nitrite in food samples.

2.3.1. Catalytic-spectrophotometric techniques 2.3.2. Griess assay

Many catalytic-spectrophotometric methods for measuring nitrite Griess Assay is one of the more widely used spectrophotometric
have recently been publicized (Mubarak et al., 2007). In the presence of methods for detecting nitrite. Where is that its basic idea in an acidic
suitable oxidizing agents, the methods primarily rely on nitrite’s cata­ medium, its basic idea in an acidic medium, nitrite combines with sul­
lytic action to oxidize certain identifying chemicals or pigments derived fanilic acid to generate a diazonium cation, which then pared with (1-
from organic materials. Most of the time, the following classes of naphthylamine) which an aromatic amine is creating a reddish-violet
chemicals or dyes made of organic compounds were suggested: azo dyes color Because 1-naphthyl is a carcinogenic compound, Bratton and
(Tropaeolin 00 (Moldovan, 2010); Pyrogallol red (Kazemzadeh & Marshall (Bratton & Marshall, 1939) proposed in 1939 using N-(1-
Ensafi, 2001); Methyl red (Ghasemi et al., 2004); Sulfonazo III naphthyl) ethylenediamine (NEED). It demonstrated several benefits as
(Nouroozi & Mirshafian, 2009); chlorpromazine (Tomiyasu et al., a coupling component, including greater sensitiveness, faster interac­
2001); triaryl methane acidic dyes (pyrogallol sulfonephthalein (Ali tion, enhanced acid solubility for the azo dyes, and acidity-
Asghar Ensafi et al., 2004); quinone imine dyes (gallocyanine (Ali A independence of the color in a pH range of 1–2. For almost a century,
Ensafi & Kazemzadeh, 1999); substituted phenothiazine derivatives the most widely used Griess test for determining nitrite in food, bio­
(perphenazine(Mubarak et al., 2007); brilliant cresyl blue (Ali A Ensafi logical samples, and the environment has utilized the altered Griess
& Amini, 2010). However, in catalytic spectrophotometric processes, process employing sulfanilamide with NED. It has already been
potassium bromate is a frequently employed oxidizing factor. In addi­ acknowledged that this approach has limited sensitivities and is
tion, the other oxidizing agents that are sometimes utilized in the same frequently interfered with by different ions, including copper, iron,
manner as potassium bromate include hydrogen peroxide, potassium sulfur, and Iodine (Rider & Mellon, 1946). Several attempts were made
chlorate, and potassium permanganate. Utilizing catalytic spectropho­ to enhance the Griess Assay and overcome these drawbacks (Gapper
tometric methods has long been the standard for measuring nitrite in et al., 2004; Tsikas, 2007). For example, the Griess reaction is connected
food. Although catalytic spectrophotometric methods have long been to a high-performance liquid or the FIA apparatus. This allows for
used to assess the quantity of nitrite, many of These procedures take a evaluating nitrite concentration in complicated mixtures, like food
long time. They are susceptible to interference from sulfite, bromine, samples and biological fluids.
iodine, ferrous, ferric, and silver ions (Moorcroft et al., 2001). Also, with
reagent dose, catalytic spectrophotometric techniques for determining 2.3.3. Spectrophotometric techniques based on – Nitrosation
nitrite need exact control over reaction parameters such as pH level and However, the nitrosation process is also utilized to determine nitrite.
temps. In this case, colorful compounds are produced when nitrite and other
indicating materials are combined. For instance, nitrite and barbituric
acid combine in acidic solutions to produce violuric acid, a nitroso

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

product. Additionally, Burakham et al. created a unique spectrophoto­ applied, forming the appropriate response intermediate in the process.
metric process depending upon a nitrosation interaction involving ni­ These intermediates are stimulated by a second chemical process,
trite ions with a compound known as phloroglucinol (1,3,5- creating luminescence when returning to the normal state(Froehlich
trihydroxybenzene) for the measurement of the nitrite within water et al., 1983; Macdougall et al., 1975; Reddy et al., 1983; Santamaria,
specimens (Burakham et al., 2004). 2006). Because of its great sensitivity and ease of use, electro­
chemiluminescence (ECL) technology has been extensively utilized in
2.4. Chemiluminescence various disciplines since Bard’s initial discovery of the ECL phenomenon
in 2002 (Borchert et al., 2003). Liu et al. (2009) innovative technique in
Nitrite detection by chemiluminescence techniques has been utilized electrochemiluminescent (ECL) nitrite determination relies on the
within the past fifteen years. Chemiluminescence (CL) is a well-known quenching impact of nitrite on the anodic ECL releases of CdSe quantum
and potent tool for analysis with several benefits, including ease of dots (QDs). The analysis of ECL emissions was quenched via nitrite
use, a large linear scale, inexpensiveness, and safe and controlled revealed that at 0–10 μM, the nitrite content was 2.20 and 3.84 %, and
emission rates. These benefits have led to the widespread use of this was the first ECL technique for nitrite measuring, as described. Li
Chemiluminescence (CL) approaches for nitrite estimation within the et al. (Yao et al., 2013) presented a quick analytical technique for nitrite
last few years(Cox & Frank, 1982; Lin et al., 2011). Also, Nitrite amounts detection via electrochemiluminescence (ECL) using the quenching
may be measured using a variety of chemiluminescence methods like. impact on the CdSe QDs’ anodic ECL emission. The suggested technique
may determine nitrite content at 10 μM, which would be 1.72 %. Sub­
2.4.1. Luminol chemiluminescence sequently, Wang et al. (Yin et al., 2013) created a straightforward,
In addition to gas-phase chemiluminescence, there are several extremely accurate, and efficient technique for nitrite assessment ac­
different reagent-based CL techniques. However, the most often utilized cording to quenching the CdTe QDs ECL using dual stabilizer caps. A 1.4
technique is the direct CL reaction, characterized by the oxidation of nM (S/N = 3) detection limit was found to determine nitrite. In addition,
luminol into the alkaline solution to generate an excited 3-amino the QDs were used to measure the amount of nitrite within sausage
phthalate anion, leading to a maximal amount of intense CL radiation specimens, yielding positive outcomes.
(Townshend, 1990). Moreover, many oxidants are frequently employed
to determine nitrite, including hydrogen peroxide, hexacyanoferrate 2.6. Capillary electrophoresis
(III), and permanganate solution. Based on luminol CL detection,
Mohammad et al. (Yaqoob et al., 2012) described a straightforward and This flexible method of CE (capillary electrophoresis) allows for the
accurate flow-injection (FI) approach for determining nitrite in water. analysis of neutral, cationic, and anionic substances. When compared
Using a copperized cadmium (Cu–Cd) column, nitrates are reduced with different analytical procedures, it has several benefits, including
directly to nitrite, which is then combined via acidic hydrogen peroxide excellent separating performance, quick tests at certain times, tiny,
to generate peroxynitrous acids. When luminol becomes oxidized in a injected amounts (nL), small sample quantities, and simultaneous
base solution with the peroxynitrite anion present, chemiluminescence measurement of a large range of anions. Over the last fifteen years,
(CL) emission is seen. Due to its ability to minimize the noise in the electrophoresis of capillary zones (CZE) employing direct UV detection
background and enhance detection limits without a light source, (Gáspár et al., 2005) and capillary isotachophoresis (Ishio et al., 2002)
chemiluminescence (CL) is sometimes referred to as the darkness field have been used to determine the amount of nitrite in various materials.
method. Due to all these benefits, the approach has become widely Furthermore, because it just needs μL level specimen amounts and is
employed to determine organic and inorganic substances within food helpful for screening with high throughput, MCE (microchip CE) is
specimens (M. Liu et al., 2010; Navas & Jiménez, 1996). currently attracting much interest. A quartzite microchip and a UV de­
Nevertheless, external influences may readily alter the emitted tector are used in the microchip capillary electrophoresis process
amount of chemiluminescence (CL); therefore, CL’s accuracy and created by Miyado et al. (Miyado et al., 2004), providing rapid screening
repeatability could be improved. Furthermore, only a few chem­ on-site assessment. Using an electro-osmotic stream regulator in an
iluminescence (CL) reagents can be utilized in nitrite detection. Conse­ operating buffer, this high throughput method produced peak values for
quently, it would be ideal to investigate additional chemiluminescence nitrite within a synthetic serum specimen in less than 8 s. While UV and
(CL) reagents appropriate for nitrite evaluation. VIS absorbance are the most often utilized detection concepts in CE
analysis of nitrite, reports of fluorometric and electrochemical CE
2.4.2. Gas-phase chemiluminescence methods for nitrite measurement have also been made. Even though CE
In addition to Luminol chemiluminescence, and according to reports, immediately applies to many matrices, it still has certain drawbacks. The
nitrite may also be identified by first reducing to NO and then reacting capillary columns’ limited capacity is its primary drawback. The capil­
with ozone (Kricka & Thorpe, 1983). The nitrite level is determined lary’s shorter optic path with narrow diameter contributes to the weak
within a specific range through the CL intensity resulting from the ultraviolet (UV) detector sensitivities. Certain protein contaminants are
abovementioned process. Additional benefits of CL techniques include readily absorbed by capillary walls, which might harm the real equip­
low detection limits and good separation efficiency (Kanda & Taira, ment or interfere with the diagnostic response.
2003; Nagababu & Rifkind, 2007). However, a major disadvantage of
the gas-phase CL techniques is that excessive temperatures for com­ 2.7. Electrochemical detection
bustion (600 ◦ C) are needed. However, any oxygen traces will combine
via NO to generate NO2, lowering the chemiluminescence intensity. On Furthermore, some techniques exhibit numerous interesting possi­
the other hand, NO2 may be converted back to NO at temperatures as bilities made possible by the electroanalytical equipment’s mobility and
high as 600 ◦ C, offsetting the interferences brought on by oxygen. Thus, cheapness. Nitrite is often electrically active with GC, Cu, Pt, Au, dia­
this method needs inert gases to remove the nitric oxide compound from mond, and transitional element oxide sensors(Da Silva & Mazo, 1998;
the phase, a laborious process with limited sensitivities. Milhano & Pletcher, 2008). However, the sensitiveness and precision of
naked sensors are reduced due to the speed of the electrode surface
2.5. Electrochemiluminescent methods contamination by the other chemicals. By opposition, electrochemical
methods based on different modified electrodes are preferred because of
This method releases a particular type of light via electrochemical their great sensibility, specificity, and intrinsic flexibility, in addition to
stimuli. The adjacent luminophore to the surface of the electrode ex­ their higher performance in detecting a reduced nitrite level. The altered
periences a reaction of electrochemical oxidation when current is sensors with the right catalysts also increase the dynamical range of

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

analytical findings. Lately, a range of improved electrodes for nitrite measuring nitrite was created by Xue et al. (Xue et al., 2013) using a
measurement have been created. For instance, the sol-gel, CNTs (carbon glassy carbon electrode, also known as a GCE, that has been altered with
nanotubes), nanoclusters, chitosan (CS), nanoparticles made of metals graphene, chitosan, and nanoparticles of gold (AuNPs). Even though
and metal oxides, and both inorganic and organic electropolymerized altered electrodes are widely used for nitrite measurement, those ap­
films, and their alterations and mixtures. Due to their special qualities, proaches have certain drawbacks. Since most presented approaches are
which include great adsorption capacity, superior electric conduction, constantly vulnerable to interruption by complicated specimens, they
and excellent chemical steadiness, for example, CNTs (Iijima, 1991) are inappropriate for real sample evaluation.
have grown incredibly popular. The above features have led to research
using CNTs to create effective nitrite detectors. 3. Different materials for nitrite detectors
On the other hand, Because of the huge area of nanoparticles relative
to volume ratios, which include (Pt), (Au), (Cu), (Pd), (Ag), and (Ni) can Electrochemical sensors are used to identify dangerous materials in
offer better catalytic performance by the gram compared to 3D material. food, where the response resulting from alterations of these hazardous
Overall, the modifications made to electrodes using metallic nano­ molecules is recognized by modified sensors, which subsequently
particles show promising results, including improved mass transfer, transform the response into information that can be detected. As a result,
large active area of surface, excellent biocompatibility, and catalysts the altered electrode material must increase the recognition capabilities
(Welch & Compton, 2006). For example, CS is a popular biopolymer that for hazardous substances we want to identify within food. So, currently,
is recyclable and harmless. However, it has low conductance, So CS was carbon materials, conductive polymers, metal nanoparticles, and oxide
mixed with nanoparticles of metallic material like redox intermediaries hydroxide materials are utilized, and functional materials such as
or carbon nanotubes. As a result, composites made of nanoparticles of composite materials and metal-organic frameworks are constructed to
metallic material, carbon nanotubes, and CS may be used to sense enhance the detection abilities of electrochemical sensors. Thus, we will
electrochemical platforms. Also, an electrochemical detector for present some of these materials used in modified electrodes in this

Table 1
Represents the comparison between different surfaces for detection of nitrites in different real samples.
Materials of Sensors Sample Linear range Sensitivity LOD Ref.
Sensors (μM) (μM)

0.3048 μA μM− 1
(ERGO/AuNPs) on SPCE Salted fish dried shrimp sausages 1–6000 0.13 (Jian et al., 2018)
cm− 2
0.05 μA μmol L− 1
C60-HPC-Ag2SNP-Nafion/GCE Sausage, bacon, ham, and salami 4.0–148 0.09 (Wong et al., 2022)
cm− 2
Carbon-based
CN-B/K-CN-300/Na-CN-x/GCE Pickles, chips, water 10–2000 – 1.9 (Rajput, 2020)
materials
3.712 μA μM− 1 (Balasubramanian et al.,
CaFe2O4 clusters/ SPCE Meat, bottled water, tap water 0.016–1921 0.0066
cm− 2 2018)
930.4 μA mM− 1
OCFP Sausage, mineral water 0.1–3838.5 0.07 (W. Zhu et al., 2019)
cm− 2
GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM Milk, hawthorn juice. 0.4–1475 – 0.041 (Han et al., 2024)
rGO-PE/pNR Meat 0–14,000 0.01511 μA μM− 1 0.017 (X. Guo & Fan, 2023)
Water, cucumber, packaged 0.803 μA μM− 1
(Pani/AsM/rGO)-GCE 25–7500 10.71 (Suma et al., 2019)
drinks cm− 2
Polymer material
AuNP/PCG/FTO Grape, orange, apple juices 0–200 0.63 μA μM− 1 cm− 2
0.09 5 (Ansari et al., 2020)
Water and Chinese cabbage 1 2
Co/PPy/GCE 2 to 3318 2.60 μA μM− cm− 0.3 5 (Lü et al., 2022)
pickled
NaCS-PDMDAAC-GCE Ham sausage 0.04–150 – 0.043 (Ning et al., 2018)
Co3O4/Au/GCE Commercial bottled water, beef 4000 – 0.11 (Manikandan et al., 2021)
1704.1 μA mM − 1
MoO3-Co3O4-CC Sausages, water – 0.075 (Zhe et al., 2022)
cm − 2
AuNP/MnOx-VOx/ERGO Sausage 1–100 – 0.33 (Aslışen & Koçak, 2022)
GO/PEDOT:PSS-modified GCE River water samples 1–200 – 0.5 (Anindya et al., 2023)
Metal oxide
0.02 μA mM − 1 cm
material PdO-RGO/GE Orange juice, Pickle 10–1500 − 2 10.14 (Salagare et al., 2022)

NCR/GCE Fresh beef, water 0.1–0.5 40.44 μA / dec 0.02 (Askari et al., 2022)
Chicken, meat salami, Sausage,.
ZrO2/MWCNTs/SPE 5.0–100 – 0.94 (Rajab et al., 2023)
And Burger
2475.5 μA mM- 1
AuNPs/Co(OH)2/CC Sausage samples 0.625–3387.5 0.1 (R. Li et al., 2021)
cm- 2.
Metal hydroxide 1020 μA mM− 1
hCoMo-LDH/CC Water samples 1–1500 0.01 (X. Chen et al., 2021)
material cm− 2
Ni(OH)2/sr-GO/GCE Mineral water 0.1–663.6 21.93 μA mM− 1 0.07 (Yong Wang et al., 2018)
MA-LDH/CP – 14.8–222 – 0.03 (Xiang et al., 2019)
Fc-ECG/SPE Pickle Juice 1.0–50 – 0.3 (Feng et al., 2019)
Au/FePc(tBu)4/GCE Smoked sausages, sausages 2–120 0.46 μAμM− 1 0.35 (Dorovskikh et al., 2022)
single-crystalline SnS2 nano-
Chicken, meat 2630 – 0.0136 (Velmurugan et al., 2020)
hexagons
Fe3O4@SiO2(acid treated)/
Commercial milk 10–1000 – 3.33 (M. Zhang et al., 2024)
MGCE
− 1
517.8 μA mM
Other materials AuNPs/CS/MXene Ham sausage, water samples (0.5–335.5) 0.069 (Wang, Xu, et al., 2022)
cm− 2.
Au/CaCO3-GCE Oolong tea, water samples 10–1000 – 0.01155 (Ding et al., 2021)
1 (Elfiky & Salahuddin,
1.0 % [MTZ2] GPS Molasses products 0.00004–0.01 0.78 μA.nM− 0.00012
2021)
50.7137 μA− 1
HS-β-CD@Mb/AuNPs/Au Meat, water samples 0.1–10 0.013 (L. Chen et al., 2024).
μMcm− 2
1
MXene/MWCNTs-VB12 – – 10.533 μA mM− 4.22 (Sun et al., 2023)

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

review. (Table 1). Represents the comparison between different surfaces homogeneous suspension with 1 mg/mL GO and 1 mM [AuCl4] − (GO–
for detection of nitrites in different real samples. [AuCl4]− ) (Fig. 2a). Every experiment started with new GO dispersion
and GO–[AuCl4]− suspension. (Fig. 2b) shows the schematic for one-pot
AuNPs composite and ERGO electrodeposition at the electrode surface.
3.1. Carbon material A CV then made the ERGO/AuNPs composite in situ. Finally, nitrite was
electrochemically measured in phosphate buffer (0.2 M, pH 4.0)
Carbon materials are the best-modified electrode materials because (Fig. 2c).
they often have excellent heat stability, strong conductivity, good Herein, to determine the nitrite level within food, Wong et al.
biocompatibility, and good results in electro-catalysis. Two-dimensional improved a voltammetric detector utilizing a glassy carbon electrode
graphene carbon compounds and one-dimensional carbon nanotubes containing silver sulfide nanoparticles (Ag2SNP), fullerene (C60), and
have both been found to be of widespread use in electrical analysis. For Nafion based on hierarchical porous carbon (HPC). Noticeably, the de­
example, Zhang et al. combined a graphene composite doped with vice’s particular surface area and electrochemical efficiency were
phosphorus. They used it to create a carbon composite that has been increased by the electrode’s creation using C60 and HPC. By using CV,
utilized in electrochemical sensors for a long time(X. Zhang et al., 2018). the electrochemical reaction for nitrite by the sensor has been assessed
Also, the researcher Jian et al. used a step electro-reduction method to at (0.4 to 1 V) as a voltage range. The best possible circumstances were
detect nitrite, where the gold nanoparticles with graphene oxide were used to yield a detection limit (0.09 μmol L− 1), a linear reaction was
reduced by electrochemical means to create (ERGO/AuNPs) onto SPCE, between 4.0–148 μmol L− 1, along with a sensitivity =0.0 5 μA μmol L− 1
or screen-printed carbon electrode. The crumpled and piled sheets of cm− 2. Findings illustrated that with strong steadiness and no interfer­
ERGO allow the AuNPs to be evenly distributed. A potential process for ence from various substances, the suggested approach would identify
forming the distinctive design of the hybrid composite has been put nitrite at high selectivity. The suggested electrode (C60-HPC-Ag2SNP-
forth. The electrochemical investigations demonstrated that AuNPs have Nafion/GCE) showed a decent level of performance and adequate
been effective catalysts for electricity in nitrite oxidation. On the other effectiveness when it worked well for determining nitrite in real samples
hand, wrinkled sheets of ERGO can facilitate fast heterogeneous electron (ex., sausage, bacon, ham, and salami) (Wong et al., 2022). This study
transport and offer a three-dimensional network structure for AuNPS evaluated several HPC-Ag2SNP concentrations and found that 1.5 mg
attachment and copious nitrite absorption(Jian et al., 2018). was optimal for electrochemical experiments. Immobilizer was 0.2 % v/
Additionally, the electrochemical reaction parameters were opti­ v nafion film. A 3.0 μL aliquot of fullerene solution in CH2Cl2 was put on
mized. This improved sensor demonstrated exceptional characteristics the electrode surface and dried for a few minutes (Fig. 3a).
for nitrite assessment, such as a minimal limit of detection at 0.13 μM (S/ The author Jigyasa et al., in this investigation, employed (g-C3N4)
N = 3), excellent sensitiveness (0.3048 μA μM− 1 cm− 2), broad range of graphitic carbon nitride, doped with alkali metal (Na/K) via a
linearity = 1–6000 μM, with outstanding selective. Furthermore, the straightforward one-pot process was employed, for producing the elec­
detection of nitrite within various genuine food specimens such as trode (CN-B/K-CN-300/Na-CN-x/GCE) which was utilized as an elec­
(salted fish, dried shrimp, and sausages) was accomplished with great trochemical detector for nitrite. The created three materials were
precision and recoveries using an electrochemical detector built on characterized using different methods. This bulk was [Na-doped g-C3N4
ERGO/AuNPs (Jian et al., 2018). (Na-CN-x), K-doped g-C3N4 (K-CN-300), and g-C3N4 (CN-B)]. The Na-
Ultrasonication in an ice bath for two hours exfoliated a particular CN-300 exhibited remarkable current responsiveness to the electro­
amount of GO powder into 0.067 Mphosphate buffer solution (PBS, pH chemical system in perfect circumstances. Also, the Na addition
9.18) to create a 2 mg/mL homogeneously exfoliated GO dispersion improved the electrochemical sensitivity of CN-B to nitrite identification
(Fig. 2a). The lemon yellow 2 mM [AuCl4] aqueous solution was made (Rajput, 2020).
using deionized water (Fig. 2a). Ultrasonically mixing GO dispersion Furthermore, the synthesized detector demonstrates higher
with [AuCl4]− solution at 1:1 vol ratio in N2 for 5 min yielded a

Fig. 2. Representation of (a) the preparation of GO–[AuCl4]− suspension, (b) the cyclic voltammetric electrodeposition of the ERGO/AuNPs composite at a SPCE
surface, and (c) the electrocatalytic oxidation of nitrite at the electrode surface. Reprinted with permission from (Jian et al., 2018).

6
N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

Fig. 3. (a) A schematic representation of the procedure involving the preparation of the Ag/C60 electrodes, (b) Electrochemical profile of the electrodes by cyclic
voltammetry. Analysis conditions: 0.04 mol L− 1 britton-robinson solution (pH 7.0); scan rate of 50 mV s− 1, (c) CV curve of Na-CN-300 modified electrode for selective
detection of nitrite over other interferences such as Cu2+, Fe2+, Mg2+, Zn2+, SO2− 2− 2−
3 , S , NO3 , Cl , SO4 , CH3COO ascorbic acid, fructose and sucrose in 0.1 M PBS
− − −

(pH 5). Reprinted with permission from (Wong et al., 2022) and (Rajput, 2020).

electrochemical capabilities and linear responses to the nitrite level The novel nitrite detector has levels of efficiency that are either similar
ranging from 10 μM to 2 mM with a 1.9 μM detection limit. Additionally, to or better than those made from transition or noble metals when
the detector has superior properties like repeatability, selection, and compared with them. Additionally, the nitrite detection capability
sensibility. In trying to construct a removable electrochemical sensor, provided by this sensor for examined food specimens such as (sausage
the electrode with screen printed was coated with Na-CN-300, and the extract and mineral water) was feasible, stable, and repeatable.
stability of the material was examined for a month. The suggested de­ Considering its accuracy and consistent recognition capability, an OCFP
tector was applied to measure nitrite in food items, such as pickles and also acts as a perfect catalyst-free from metal and homogeneous and
chips (Rajput, 2020). holds great promise for integration in future electrochemical sensor
However, (Fig. 3b) displays the voltammetric response at 50 mV s− 1 technologies (W. Zhu et al., 2019).
to 5.0 × 10π 4 mol L− 1 nitrite in 0.04 mol L− 1 britton-robinson (pH 8.0).
The C60-HPC-Ag2SNP-Nafion/GCE had a higher anodic peak current
(Ipa) for nitrite than the unmodified GCE by an average of 2.3. As shown 3.2. Polymer material
in (Fig. 3c), only nitrite, one of many metal ions or physiologically active
substances, had a significant current response. The as-fabricated Na-CN- Polymers are materials that have various applications in food in­
300 electrode has insignificant current responses to interferences and dustries, like food packaging and additives(Akelah & Akelah, 2013; El-
excellent selectivity for nitrite detection (0.2 M, pH 4.0). Taweel et al., 2024; El-Taweel & Al-Hamdi, 2024; Grudina et al., 2016).
Zhu et al. present here the most recent discovery, which suggests that However, conducting polymers have strong durability and great con­
carbon fiber paper (CFP) modified by (OCFP) via natural air annealed ductivity, they are frequently utilized while fabricating electrochemical
may find use for electrochemical NO− 2 detection of extraordinarily sensors(Al-Kadhi, Hefnawy, Alamro, et al., 2023). Polymers that
excellent efficiency. The primitive (CFP) gains extra functional groups conduct, such as polymerization (3, 4-Vinyl dioxthiophene) (PEDOT),
that contain oxygen, greater flawed edge-plane locations, increased polypyrrole (PPy), and polydopamine (PDDA) provide several benefits,
degree of roughness, and enhanced wetness due to the annealing process including excellent environmental stability, strong film-forming capa­
of air. The electrochemical results demonstrate this OCFP has great ni­ bilities, ease of manufacture, and high conductivity. Because of these
trite detecting efficiency, which includes a broad range of linear deter­ features, researchers are very interested in promoting its utilization in
mining = 0.1–3838.5 μM, an extremely lower limit of determination electrochemical sensors. For example, rod-like PPy-Ag nanocomposites
(0.1 μM), a limit of detection was 0.07 μM, with an impressive sensitivity were synthesized, as reported by Dipankar et al. First, researchers used
of 930.4 μA mM− 1 cm− 2 as well as a quick response to the current of 1 s. sodium cholate as a regulator to help create PPy. Subsequently, The PPy-
Ag nanocomposite, formed like a rod, showed exceptional sensitivity in

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

detecting dopamine. Shao’s group also revealed a sensor device In contrast to (Fig. 4(b-c)), melamine polymerization left a thin layer
depending on the Au nanoparticles/Ti3C2Tx/PDDA composite. This on GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs (Fig. 4d). However, PM coatings did not
experiment used Ti3C2Tx-PDDA.was created via a straightforward sol­ entirely cover GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs. The film also makes MWCNTs/
vent reaction. Potentiostatic deposition was applied to the electrode AuNPs’ skeleton visible, preserving their electron transmission role.
surface to precipitate Au NPs after the Ti3C2Tx solution had been Nanocomposites’ elemental analysis is shown in (Fig. 4e). The
modified. Using the drop-coating procedure, the sensor showed evi­ MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM nanocomposite elemental spectra showed C, Au,
dence of catalytic oxidation of nitrite ions, thanks to the large surface, O, and N. The distribution of each element was also constant.
strong electric conductivity, and the catalytic nature of Au NPs Nitrite oxidation at different electrodes was studied using differential
(Adhikari et al., 2020; Yuhuan Wang et al., 2021). pulse voltammetry (DPV). (Fig. 4f) shows the DPV curves of modified
Furthermore, Han et al., in this research, built an electrochemical electrodes (Fig. 4f, curve(a)) GCE, (Fig. 4f, curve(b)) GCE/MWCNTs, (c)
detector to measure nitrite; a self-assembling layer-by-layer approach GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs, and (d) GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM in 0.1 M PBS
has been used to develop (MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM) a multiwalled carbon with 200 μ M nitrite. A modest oxidation peak at 0.73 V was produced by
nanotube nanocomposite, nanoparticles of gold, in addition, poly mel­ the bare electrode oxidizing nitrite quickly. The modification of
amine on (GCE) via electrochemical precipitating. GCE/MWCNTs/ MWCNTs onto the bare electrode decreased peak current, suggesting
AuNPs/PM were prepared by initially placing a film from MWCNTs over they had a larger surface-active area for nitrite oxidation. Curve (Fig. 4f,
a sensor then by applying the process of self-assembling, Melamine and curve(c))’s peak current was higher than curve (Fig. 4f, curve(b)) due to
gold nanoparticles underwent in situ polymerization on MWCNTs. As a gold nanoparticle doping’s increased surface active area and electron
result, a greater quantity of nanoparticles of gold was distributed over transfer rate. The MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM electrode (Fig. 4f, curve(d)) had
MWCNTs due to their huge particular surface area. Concurrently, the the highest peak current due to its large surface active area. The nano­
melamine polymerization process was enhanced by loading nano­ composite of MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM on electrode modified with layer-by-
particles of gold. Furthermore, the cooperative relationship between layer self-assembly method catalyzed nitrite synergistically. The peak
nanocomposites significantly enhanced the catalytic impact of nitrite. At potential of the GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM was 0.54 V, substantially
ideal circumstances, the obtained data illustrated that this electrode has lower than the bare electrode, indicating good nitrite catalysis.
a detecting range between 0.4 and 1475 μM, with a LOD of about 0.041 (Fig. 4g) shows the histogram of the DPV peak current of several
μM. The proposed electrode was applied in dietary specimens (ex., milk, electrodes as summarized by test results, which could indicate the
and hawthorn juice), which led to a recovery rate ranging (from 93.16 to modified electrodes’ catalytic effect on nitrite. EIS and CV were utilized
108.68 %). So, the technique may serve as a useful platform for food to study numerous modified electrodes’ electrochemical properties.
nitrite assessment(Han et al., 2024). (Fig. 4h) shows the reversible redox peak on the bare electrode
SEM was used to examine nanocomposites at various self-assembly (Fig. 4h, curve(a)) from [Fe (CN)6]3− /4-. After coating the bare electrode
stages. MWCNTs were put to the electrode without coating or sub­ with nanoparticles, the redox peak of curve (Fig. 4h, curve(b)) increased
stance in the initial step. MWCNTs interweave to form a compact due to MWCNTs’ large specific surface area and excellent conductivity.
network on the electrode, as shown in (Fig. 4a). This setup has a lot of Compared to curve (Fig. 4h, curve(b)), curve (Fig. 4h, curve(c)) had a
surface. Gold nanoparticles were placed on MWCNTs in the second step. smaller peak value shift. The peak current of curve (Fig. 4h, curve(d))
(Fig. 4(b-c)) shows that MWCNTs contained evenly distributed spherical reduces dramatically during PM polymerization due to its rich π elec­
gold nanoparticles. tronic structure. EIS was useful for confirming sensor setup.

Fig. 4. SEM images of (a) GCE/MWCNTs, (b), (C) GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs, (d) GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM. (e) SEM images of elemental mapping distribution GCE/
MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM for C, Au, O and N (f) DPV curves of (f (a)) GCE, (f (b)) GCE/MWCNTs, (f (c)) GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs, (f (d)) GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM in 0.1
M PBS (pH 4) containing 0.2 mM NO−2 . (g) Current responses of different electrodes in 0.1 M PBS (pH 4) with 0.2 mM NO−2 . (h) CV curves of (h (a)) GCE, (h (b)) GCE/
MWCNTs, (h (c)) GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs and (h (d)) GCE/ MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM in 0.10 M PBS (pH 4) containing 5 mM [Fe(CN)6]3− /4− and 0.10 M KCl at scan rate
100 mV s− 1. (i) Nyquist plots: (i (a)) GCE, (i (b)) GCE/MWCNTs, (i (c)) GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs and (i (d)) GCE/MWCNTs/AuNPs/PM. Respectively. Reprinted with
permission from (Han et al., 2024).

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

The impedance spectrum has two parts: the linear part for low fre­ oxide, polyaniline, and arsenomolybdate, has a sensitivity of 0.803 μA
quencies and the semicircle part for high frequencies. The impedance of μM− 1 cm− 2 and a limit of determination of 10.71 μM. The sensor also
numerous modified electrodes associated with semicircle widths at high demonstrated linearity in the concentration range at 2 5–7 500 μM. The
frequencies. (Fig. 4i) shows that the bare electrode had the highest sensor’s analytical usefulness was investigated when applied to real
impedance due to its largest semicircle diameter. The sequential self- samples like water samples, cucumber extract, and packaged drinks
assembly of MWCNTs, AuNPs, and PM on the bare electrode greatly (Suma et al., 2019).
reduced the semicircle’s diameter. The fast electron transport between This suggests that rGO nanosheets are ideal for ordering pNR mo­
[Fe(CN)6]3− /4- and the modified electrode caused this. Matching the CV lecular structures on their surfaces. AsM crystals were equally distrib­
curve in (Fig. 4h) showed sensor manufacturing success. uted throughout the rGO sheets in the composite rGO-Pani-AsM
Even more, this sensitive and efficient electrochemical electrode connected by polyaniline fibers (Fig. 5e).
(pNR/rGO-PE) which was created by the author Guo et al., paired both a This study defines how Ansari et al. employed a CV sweeping
reduced graphene oxide pastes electrode and a Nanocomposite of poly approach to drop PCG over clear FTO sensors. AuNPs were coated using
neutral red by electrical polymerizing method for utilizing it in assess­ the as-prepared PCG-FTO electrode by collecting ions of Au+3 and then
ment the nitrite within samples of food safety The effective electrical reducing them chemically, with PCG acting like a matrix for the coating.
polymerization of NR upon pNR/rGO-PE has been demonstrated by both The AuNP/PCG/FTO detector was utilized for measuring NO− 2, with
SEM as well XRD measurements. Electrochemical investigation applying PCG carrying the electron matrix while AuNPs acted as the primary
amperometry plus cyclic voltammetry showed that the integration of electrical catalyst. The AuNP/PCG/FTO detector demonstrated strong
rGO nanosheets with complementary properties to conducting NR catalytic capacity for NO− 2 oxidizing during electrochemical DPV tests,
polymer enhanced the altered sensor’s electrochemical reaction, covering a broad linear range (0–200 μM), with a low Limit of detecting
exhibiting a steady and wide linear range (0:14,000 μM), along with at 0.095 μM and an effective sensitivity of about 0.63 μA cm− 2 μM− 1.
excellent specificity and sensitiveness of 0.01 511 μA μM− 1. The nitrite The detector efficiently determined food specimens and good recoveries.
detector’s LOD was 17 nM. The precision and validity of the rGO-PE/ Other benefits include high electrochemical steadiness, durability,
pNR used as a nitrite detector have been examined with meat speci­ affordability, validity, and simple processing. This AuNP/PCG/FTO
mens. Throughout the amperometry examination, the obtained RSD sensor is expected to be an effective analytical tool in identifying envi­
percentages (3.56–4.78) and rates of recovery (90.00–96.66 %) were ronmental contaminants and compounds of biological significance. The
good, indicating the validity and applicability of the pNR/rGO-PE data real samples here were grape, orange, and apple juices(Ansari et al.,
for figuring out the nitrite content found in food specimens (X. Guo & 2020).
Fan, 2023). GO-PE and pNR/GO-PE SEM micrographs are shown in Researchers Lü et al., in this study, explained how Cobalt (Co-PPy)-
(Fig. 5). The SEM picture of GO-PE in (Fig. 5a) shows many corrugations wrapped polymers with conductive properties, the polypyrrole nano­
and wrinkled paper-like sheets of GO cover, indicating a highly porous cones represent an appropriate structure in nitrite detection that may be
and rough structure with a large effective surface area. The SEM image achieved within moderate circumstances via the precipitation electro­
of pNR/GO-PE shows a compact structure because the NR polymeric chemically method. The redox characteristics of cobalt metal were
layer intercalates onto the GO nanosheets (Fig. 5b). HR-TEM images of coupled with excellent electrical conduciveness and a wide surface area
rGO and pNR/GO are shown in (Fig. 5(c-d). The HR-TEM image of rGO for nanocones PPy to create a Co/PPy/GCE nanocone array. Addition­
displays a homogeneous sheet-like structure, while pNR/GO shows ally, the arrays’ three-dimensional construction may offer additional
nanoscale strips. sites of activity for nitrite detection. Building an advanced nitrite de­
Suma et al. developed an enhanced electrochemical electrode (rGO- tector using Nanocone arrays (Co/PPy/GCE) was easy due to the
Pani-AsM)-GCE, which provides a sensitive electrochemical surface for nanocomposite’s superior electrical features with its micro-
detecting nitrite. Where Square wave voltammetry (SWV) and cyclic construction. X-ray diffraction, the XPS technique, Fourier transform
voltammetry (CV) have been used to investigate the fabricated com­ infrared, and scanning electron microscope have been employed to
posite sensor,The composite sensor, fabricated using reduced graphene evaluate the electrochemical properties of nanocone arrays (Co/PPy/

Fig. 5. SEM micrographs of the (a) GO-PE and (b) pNR/GO-PE, HR-TEM images of (c) rGO and (d) pNR/GO. SEM images of e) rGO-Pani-AsM composite. Reprinted
with permission from (X. Guo & Fan, 2023) and (Suma et al., 2019).

9
N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

GCE) and their microscopic form and structure. According to experiment high-performance electrochemical sensor for NO2 detection. Thus, while
findings, Nanocones (Co/PPy/GCE) performed exceptionally well in electro-oxidizing NO2 at a low start potential, the Au/Co3O4/GCE
nitrite measurement, which showed impressive efficiency for the novel (glassy carbon electrode) produced anodic peak current more than any
electrode (Co/PPy/GCE). For example, The sensor’s linear range (2 to of the other modified electrodes (Au/GCE, Co3O4/GCE, and bare GCE).
3318 μM) nitrite was analyzed, with a detection limit (0.35 μM) (S/N = The electrochemical sensor’s analytical potential was evaluated using
3) and excellent sensitivity (2.60 μA μM− 1 cm− 2). Nitrite levels in both square wave voltammetry. With a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.11 μM
water samples and Chinese cabbage pickled samples were measured and an R2 value of 0.999 in the specified concentration that ranged from
using detectors, and outcomes agreed to match spectrophotometric 1.0 to 4000.0 μM, the sensor revealed a high degree of linearity. Au/
measurements. As a result, several applications utilize created nanocone Co3O4/GCE showed excellent stability and great selectivity. Au/Co3O4/
arrays (Co/PPy/GCE), including commercial production, protecting the GCE also demonstrated a strong ability to counteract interference when
environment, and especially the safety of food (Lü et al., 2022). other possible co-existing ions were present. The created sensor’s per­
Furthermore, The researcher Ning et al., has developed a new elec­ formance was examined further using a commercial sample of meat and
trochemical detector that uses a hybrid sheet altered glassy carbon water in a bottle. This confirmed Potential applications of the sensor in
sensor (NaCS/PDMDAAC/GCE) that uses a solution of dimethyl daily quality assurance and beverages and food safety (Manikandan et al.,
ammonium chloride (NaCS/PDMDAAC) and sodium cellulose sulfate 2021).
(NaCS/PDMDAAC) to detect nitrite at sub-micromolar concentrations. This work describes that Zhe et al. employed a mixed electro­
The goal is to maximize the synergy enhancing impact with the intrinsic chemical depositing process (HED) to produce nanoflowers Co3O4
qualities of each individual component (biodegradable, inexpensive, combined with nanoscale nanoparticles of MoO3 (MoO3/Co3O4). and as
strong electric conductivity for PDMDAAC; harmless, plentiful in­ planned, are the beneficial interaction between MoO3 and Co3O4, which
gredients, and excellent layer form performance of NaCS). Where, a is induced via the heterostructure modification of MoO3/Co3O4, leading
simple drop-casting method has been used to generate the NaCS/ to that the MoO3/Co3O4/CC utilizing sensor thus constructed has
PDMDAAC/GCE. The electrochemical features of nitrite at NaCS/ exceptional electro catalytic capabilities for oxidation of nitrite, the. The
PDMDAAC/GCE have been examined using DPV (differential pulse sensor demonstrated an exceptional ability to detect 1704.1 μA mM − 1
voltammetry) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). In ideal circumstances, a cm − 2, with a minimal detection range of 0.075 μM (S/N = 3) and a
NaCS/PDMDAAC/GCE displayed a very low detectable limit of about quick response time of 2 s. Additionally, the sensor showed potential for
(43 nmol L-1), while a broad linear responsive area was from 4.0 × 10− 8 nitrite detection in food samples, like sausages and water. Finally, the
mol L− 1 to 1.5 × 10− 4 mol L− 1. Compared to earlier publications, the work offers a noteworthy method for investigating sensing interface
NaCS/PDMDAAC exhibits a beneficial improvement impact for nitrite- design using bimetallic heterostructure (Zhe et al., 2022).
oxidizing. In addition, the accuracy of sensing was significantly SEM images show the MoO3/Co3O4 nanohybrid, Co3O4, and MoO3
higher. Additionally, a NaCS/PDMDAAC has high repeatability and morphologies. As shown in (Fig. 6a), Co3O4 nanoarrays consist of mul­
stability. The nitrate content of commercially bottled water with beef tiple nanosheets equally coated and vertically preserved on carbon
was effectively determined using the NaCS/PDMDAAC/GCE method, fabric. MoO3 SEM shows a dense coating covering the carbon cloth’s
yielding excellent findings (Ning et al., 2018). entire surface. The low-magnification SEM image of MoO3 shows
numerous nanoparticles smaller than 100 nm dispersed across the sub­
3.3. Metal oxide &hydroxide material strate without agglomeration (Fig. 6b). Compared to Co3O4 nanoarrays
and MoO3 nanoparticles, the MoO3/Co3O4 nanohybrid has a hierarchi­
In recent years, superior catalysts, metal oxides, and hydroxides have cal heterogeneous structure on carbon fabric (Fig. 6c). The MoO3/Co3O4
found increased application whenever electrochemical sensors are being heterostructure shows nanoclusters are predominantly. The elemental
developed. As an illustration, the researchers Zhang et al. used a method mapping shows the heterostructures’ uniform Mo, O, and Co distribu­
known as hydrothermal to generate hollow carbon spheres. They illus­ tion (Fig. 6d).
trated the successful assembly of Co3O4 nanowires on the hollow carbon This sensor AuNP/MnOx-VOx/ERGO/GCE was a new platform that
sphere surface. The developed composite materials demonstrated integrates the three-component electrocatalytic activity of Au nano­
improved catalytic performance even at lower operating temperatures particle, reduced graphene oxide, and multi-valent metal oxide mixture,
when used to create a gas detector to detect acetone. The detector also is successfully fabricated by Aslıs¸en et al., as reported in this study. The
demonstrated outstanding selectivity, a greater response intensity, and nanoparticles of Au formed areas with nanopores in the nanoholes and
long-term stability. Then, Das et al., was developed Co3O4, with a 31.97 several electroactive sites onto the MnOx-VOx/ERGO interface. This
nm average diameter, was successfully, And utilized to create electro­ electrode is used in the very accurate, independent, simultaneous
chemical sensors that demonstrated great sensitivity and quick response detection of nitrite and hydrazine in BR buffer solution with pH 8. The
times for the electrochemical detection of H2O2(Das & Golder, 2017; C. sensor AuNP/MnOx-VOx/ERGO/GCE exhibited reliable outcomes, High
Zhang et al., 2019). To create 3D hierarchical porous Co3O4 materials, selectivity, and sensitivity. As a result, the technique has been effectively
Wu et al. produced spheres of polystyrene using polyreaction in an ox­ used on a variety of environmental samples as well as culinary items
ygen condition. The synthetic materials-based gas sensor displayed a (ex., sausage samples) (Aslışen & Koçak, 2022).
low detection limit of 0.5 mg/mL and strong NH3 gas detection perfor­ While, the researcher Anindya et al., produced a sensor with elec­
mance at ambient temperature. Strong catalytic activity, high electron trochemical activity detecting nitrite (NO− 2) where they modified the
transport kinetics, and good biocompatibility are common characteris­ outer layer of a glassy carbon electrode, also known as GCE, using poly
tics of metal nanoparticles and oxides. Many studies have discovered (styrene sulfonate), poly (3, 4 ethylene dioxythiophene) along with
metal nanoparticles and oxides as an excellent type of modified elec­ graphene oxide GO) PSS and PEDOT) hybrid(Anindya et al., 2023). By
trode material in sensor technology. Nanometal oxides have outstanding employing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, (SEM) scanning
catalytic performance because of their enormous surface area, diverse electron microscopy, Raman, and (IR) infrared spectroscopy, The GO/
valence states, and strong surface reactivity. Metal oxide nanoparticles PEDOT: PSS composite’s shape, construction, and transfer of electrons
are an inexpensive, low-toxic, and stable nanomaterial widely employed resistivity were described. According to the data, spanning an achiev­
in electrochemical sensors and exhibit great performance. able range from 0.4 to 1.1 V vs. Ag/AgCl, the (GO/PEDOT: PSS-modified
GCE) exhibits a greater degree of peak current in oxidizing NO− 2 (about
3.3.1. Metal oxide material eight times greater) compared to the naked GCE. Furthermore, our
The author here reports on the employment of cobalt oxide Nano­ suggested NO− 2 sensor that is being tested has a dynamic range that is
sheets with gold nanoparticles (Co3O4/Au) by Manikandan et al. in a linear with a coefficient of regression = 0.99 in the measured

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

Fig. 6. (a), (b) Low SEM images of Co3O4/CC, MoO3/CC. (c) Low SEM images of MoO3/Co3O4/CC (inset: High image of MoO3/Co3O4/CC). (d) EDS elemental
mapping of MoO3/Co3O4/CC. Reprinted with permission from (Zhe et al., 2022).

Fig. 7. SEM images and inset EDS spectra of (a) GO and (b) the GO/PEDOT:PSS composite. Elemental mapping images of C, O, and S in (c) GO and (d) the GO/
PEDOT:PSS composite. (e) Nyquist plot and the corresponding fitting for the (e (a)) bare GCE, (e (b)) the GOmodified GCE, and the (e (c)) GO/PEDOT:PSS-modified
GCE obtained using the EIS method in 1mMK3[Fe(CN)6] diluted in 0.1 M KCl. The inset shows the equivalent circuit model for the fitting of the EIS spectra of the
three different electrodes. The AC amplitude was set to 0.01 V over a frequency range from 1 × 106 Hz to 1 × 103 Hz measured at the open circuit potential (OCP).
Reprinted with permission from (Anindya et al., 2023).

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

concentration ranging from 1 to 200 μM, with LOD about 0.5 μM (0.345 lowered from 38 × 10− 9–20 × 10− 9 m, while the sensitiveness for nitrite
μg mL− 1) as well as 0.5 μM (0.0345 μg mL− 1) respectively, were found to monitoring rose via 34.52–40.44 μA / dec. Ultimately, the glassy carbon
be the limits of both the quantification and the detection for NO− 2 electrode modified with NiO-Co3O4-rGO demonstrated exceptional ef­
(evaluation). This GO/PEDOT: PSS-modified GCE exhibits a high degree ficacy as an electrochemical sensor when detecting nitrite in the real
of selectivity and an approximate average variation of less than 5 %, samples (fresh beef and water) at the permitted quantities (Askari et al.,
repeatability, and stability. When the suggested sensor’s performance 2022).
was contrasted with the conventional spectrophotometric method used The GCE/NC, GCE/bare GCE, and GCE/NCR provided Nyquist dia­
to determine NO− 2 in reality specimens, there was no discernible grams and CVs. (Fig. 8a) shows that NCR has a higher current density
disparity at a 95 % confidence range. Thus, it could be said that this than NC, with current densities of 39.5 μA for NC and 59 μA for NCR.
NO− 2 detector being developed, which is built upon an improved GO/ Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) evaluated NC and NCR
PEDOT: PSS-modified GCE, has great diagnostic efficiency. It represents charge transfer resistances (Rct). (Fig. 8b) shows that the nanocatalyst
a possible contender for actual use in ambient NO− 2 identification. The with rGO has higher conductivity, with Rct values of 706 and 470 Ω for
sample was river water samples (Anindya et al., 2023). NC and NCR, respectively. NCR is expected to be the best material for
Furthermore, (Fig. 7a) shows SEM images of GO flakes with a rough future trials due to its higher electrical conductivity and electrochemical
surface, possibly from graphene particles aggregating. GO is layered, surface area. Homemade electrodes were used to study nitrite oxidation.
with some layers folded to give a wrinkled, smooth surface. The inset The electrodes were examined using 50 mV s− 1 cyclic voltammetry.
figure in Fig. 7a shows that the synthesized GO has 68.5, 30.9, and 0.7 (Fig. 8c) shows how little bare GCE reacts to nitrite oxidation. NC had
wt% carbon, oxygen, and sulfur. Chemical mapping of GO shows that C strong electrocatalytic activity for nitrite oxidation but lower conduc­
and O are evenly dispersed on its surface (Fig. 7c). In (Fig. 7b), the GO/ tivity than NCR. NC manufacturing uses RGO nanosheets to increase
PEDOT:PSS composite has an uneven, folded, sheet-like surface.The conductivity.
inset of (Fig. 7b) shows that S distribution on the surface became more The authors Rajab et al. developed the electrochemical assessment
homogenous as sulfur content increased (from 0.7 to 2.2 wt%). This was utilizing disposable Screen-printed electrodes (SPE) using
caused by GO-PEDOT:PSS interaction (Fig. 7d). It is exciting to evaluate ZrO2@MWCNTs for nano-sensor chip (ZrO2@MWCNTs/SPE) for the
the electrochemical performance of this GO/PEDOT:PSS composite as a detection of nitrite in food samples. Nanomaterials, such as nanotubes
nitrite sensor for sensing applications. (Fig. 7e, curve (a)) shows that the made of carbon and oxide of metal nanostructures, demonstrated
bare GCE has the biggest semicircle width and an R2 value of 172 Ω. improved electrocatalytic efficiency with conductance when used as
When GO was coated onto the surface, the R2 value dropped to 123 Ω sensory platforms. (EIS) spectroscopy with impedance spectroscopy,
compared to the bare GCE (Fig. 7e graph(b)). This shows that GO’s (CV) cyclic voltammetry, electron microscopy, and transmission elec­
conductivity aided electron transport. GO/PEDOT: PSS composite tron microscopy, infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, (CA) chro­
alteration of the GCE surface led to faster [Fe(CN)6]3− /4− charge transfer noamperometry were utilized to undertake shape, electrochemical and
kinetics on the electrode surface. The GO/PEDOT:PSS composite, with structural studies. As a result, the chronoamperometric approach pro­
an R2 value of 109 Ω and the smallest electrode diameter, displays this duced a linear dynamic range (5.0 μM – 100 μM) and a detection limit
(Fig. 7e, curve (c)). equal to 0.94 μM. Furthermore, the selective ability of the detector was
In this research, developing an electrochemical nitrite detector with assessed by exposing the device to many non-target species; in contrast,
three inexpensive, easy, specific, and sensitive electrodes that function no discernible electrochemical indications occurred in the absence of
normally in ambient temperature is the main objective of this project. nitrite ions. The final results showed that a significant recovery was
Thus, the (PdO-RGO/GE) palladium oxide/reduced oxide of graphene achieved by analyzing actual food (i.e., chicken, meat salami, sausage,
Nanocomposites was prepared, and Salagare et al., used both of the burger) and water samples (Rajab et al., 2023).
modified Hummer’s method and the chemical solution technique. Also, The electrochemical (CV & EIS) characterization yielded well-
Particle size, bonding, the outside, patterning, and various other char­ defined, sharp, reversible redox peaks (Figs. 8d and e), demonstrating
acteristics are among the many that have been considered. A significant metal oxides’ role in improving voltammetric signals and lowering
area of surface to adsorption of nitrite has been achieved by effectively charge transfer and diffusion resistances. Reversible response of several
linking palladium oxide (PdO) nanoparticles to constitute a network of materials was tested. of 0.1 M KCl and 5 mM[Fe(CN)6]3− .Some metal
reducing graphene oxide (RGO) plates in a two-dimensional manner. oxides, such Sb2O3, performed worse than bare SPE, while others, like
Moreover, a scanning electron microscopy (SEM) technique was used to MWCNTs coupled with zirconium oxide, showed robust electrochemical
assess the morphology of the surface. The findings showed clusters for signals. The impedimetric and voltammetric patterns in Figs. 8d and e
nanoparticles of PdO and several asymmetrical RGO nanosheets that confirmed this. The sharp line between imaginary and real impedances
operate evenly distributed throughout the surface. Also, the amount of showed that Warburg impedance (W) was more common than charge
nitrite concentration was assessed in real samples (Orange juice samples transport resistances (Rct) in Nyquist plots (Fig. 8e).As shown in (Fig. 8
and Pickle samples) by using a PdO-RGO altered graphite sensor, which (f-g)), MWCNTs integrated with zirconium oxide gave the largest vol­
showed an approximate range of 10–1500 μM and an optimal limit of tammetric signal and the lowest impedimetric signal. The result of
detecting (3σ) of 10.14 μM. With an elevated level of reliability, the further EIS study was the nanoparticles’ behavior. A Nyquist plot
electrode’s sensitivity has been estimated in the range value of 0. 02 μA (Fig. 8e) of bare SPE, ZrO2, and ZrO2@MWCNTs in 5.0 mM FCN showed
μM− 1 cm− 2 (Salagare et al., 2022). that ZrO2 had weak conductivity but significant catalytic activity and a
However, this study demonstrates the straightforward hydrothermal 1500 Ohm resistance. The high charge transfer resistance is likely due to
process used by Askari et al. to create the oxides of metals constructed nanomaterial chaotic aggregation. The recommended detector’s con­
from nanocatalysts, NiO-Co3O4–rGO (NCR) and NiO–Co3O4 (NC). This ductivity rose when ZrO2@MWCNTs/SPE lowered its charge transfer
clarifies the two nanocatalysts’ capability for quantifying very traces of resistance to 280 Ohm, indicating a faster electron transfer rate. This is
nitrite levels within tap water plus beef specimens that have been because 25 MWCNTs have the lowest electron transfer resistance.
examined. Comparing and evaluating the actions of NiO–Co3O4–rGO (Figs. 8(h-i)) show that scan rates dynamically and linearly increase
and NiO–Co3O4 modified electrodes made of glassy carbon for the nitrite peak electrical current. The linear regression relationship between the
detection that the NiO–Co3O4–rGO known by (NCR/GCE) sensor current and the square root of the scan rate showed that the electrode’s
showed a comparatively greater accuracy, which can be explained due surface redox reaction was diffusion-controlled and regulated by the
to the large effective area of the surface of the reduced nanosheets of scan rate.
graphene and the presence of rGO, which has significant conductivity of
electricity properties. As a result, the permissible range for measurement

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

Fig. 8. (a) Cyclic voltammograms, (b) EIS Nyquist diagrams (10 HZ–10 kHZ frequency), of GCE, GCE/NC, and GCE/NCR in 5 × 10− 3 m of K3Fe (CN)6 and (c) cyclic
voltammograms of GCE, GCE/NC and GCE/NCR in 1.0 × 10− 3 m of NaNO2 dissolved in PBS (0.1 m, pH = 6) (d) CVs of the voltammetric characterization for the
modified screen-printed electrodes with metal oxides (MnO2, CoO3, WO3, CeO3, Sb2O3, Al2O3 and ZrO2). (e) Impedimetric characterization (Nyquist plots) for the
modified screen-printed electrodes with metal oxides nanostructures. FCN (5.0 mM) was used as a standard redox probe for the voltammetric as well as the
impedimetric characterizations in 0.1 M KCl. (f) CVs of 5.0 mM FCN voltammetric signals of bare, ZrO2, MWCNTs and ZrO2@MWCNTs modified SPEs. (g) The
corresponding Nyquist plots of bare and the modified electrodes. (h) Effect of scan rate changes (from 10 to 100 mV s− 1) on the voltammetric signals, inset: the
equivalent circuit of ZrO2@MWCNTs (i) the corresponding calibration plot of peak current vs. the scan rate1/2. All electrochemical characterization experiments
(CV, and EIS) were conducted in the electrolyte solution containing 5.0 mM of [Fe(CN)6]3− in 0.1 M KCl with the scan rate of 50 mV s− 1. Reprinted with permission
from (Askari et al., 2022) and (Rajab et al., 2023).

3.3.2. Hydroxide metal material Here, in the Ni (OH)2/sr-GO/GCE, nanocomposite was first synthe­
In this case, the AuNPs/Co (OH) 2 nanocomposites having a distinct sized, where Wang et al. used a straightforward one-step solvothermal
structure of hierarchy within three dimensions are manufactured and technique. This sensor Ni (OH) 2 is utilized flexibly and can be easily
developed by Li et al. for nitrite detection. Through a hydrothermal assembled cheaply. The suggested sensor (Ni (OH)2/sr-GO/GCE) nano­
process, (Co (OH) 2 cobalt hydroxide can be generated over (CC) carbon composite exhibited excellent electrocatalytic activity and a quick re­
cloth, and then gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are electrodeposited on Co action to the electro-oxidation of nitrite. In addition, the nitrite sensor
(OH)2. By integrating the common benefits of Co(OH)2 and AuNPs, the also has superior selectivity, stability, repeatability, and a low limit of
suggested (AuNPs/Co(OH)2/CC) sensor demonstrates outstanding ni­ detection about 0.07 μM, its linear range was (0.1–663.6 μM) and the
trite ability to detect via an approximate range at 0.625–3387.5 μM, sensitivity of electrode = 21.93 μA mM− 1. Furthermore, nitrite in water
significant sensitiveness of 2475.5 μA mM− 1 cm− 2 and a limits of samples has been measured to evaluate the sensor’s practicability,
determination (LOD) = 0.1 μM. These benefits include a three- which demonstrated excellent recovery and a low relative standard
dimensional hierarchical structure, a greater area of a particular sur­ deviation, indicating that the sensor may be used in actual water sam­
face, good conductivity, and a considerable rise in activity sites. Addi­ ples(Yong Wang et al., 2018).
tionally, a sensor’s ability to assess the nitrite concentration in sausages Diagrammatic representation of the solvothermal production of Ni
with high recoveries suggests that it has potential for practical use. This
work serves as a guide for creating powerful detecting surfaces using 3D
hierarchy nanoparticles guided by this study(R. Li et al., 2021).
Double hydroxides layered (LDHs), a crucial component for an
electrochemical sensor, have attracted much attention Due to their
compositional tenability. Where a sacrificing-template technique has
been utilized by Chen et al. to produce hollowed CoMo-LDH (hCoMo-
LDH) nano polyhedra, which were employed for an independent elec­
trode in an electrochemical sense, ZIF-67, a co-based metal-organic
framework, served as the standard. With a large linearity ranging from 1
to 1500 μM, a 0.01 μM ultralow limit of detection, and a high degree of
sensitivity (1020 μA mM− 1 cm− 2), this sensor (hCoMo-LDH/CC) is quite
noteworthy. When used with nitrite as the target. Density functional
theory calculations were utilized to comprehend the incredible efficacy
of a nanopolyhedra hCoMo-LDH that comes via Mo loading on a mo­
lecular level. The electrode exhibits strong anti-interference properties,
Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of the solvothermal synthesis of Ni (OH) 2/sr-GO
outstanding applicability in actual water samples, and great stability. and construction of Ni (OH) 2/sr-GO modified electrode as well as electro­
This study makes more options for designing self-supporting electrodes chemical detection of nitrite. Reprinted with permission from (Yong Wang
for electrochemical sensing applications possible (X. Chen et al., 2021). et al., 2018).

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

(OH)2/sr-GO, the creation of a modified Ni(OH)2/sr-GO electrode, and 3.4. Other materials
the electrochemical measurement of nitrite see (Fig. 9).
Based on the topic, Xiang et al. used a straightforward hydrothermal Various categories of materials were also employed as electro­
approach to create an electrode of MgAl-LDH in-situ 3D flower devel­ catalysts for nitrite sensing in food samples. However, the construction
oped upon carbon-based paper (MA-LDH/CP). Then, XRD, SEM, XPS, of materials commonly depends on enhancing one of the catalysis pro­
and FT-IR have all been used to describe the construction and compo­ cesses like charge transfer, adsorption, and diffusion processes. In the
sition of the material comprehensively. Subsequently, the MA-LDH/CP following section, a representation of some materials is reported in the
was used as a free-standing electrode for electrochemical nitrite literature for the detection of nitrite in food samples.
assessment and demonstrated notable stability, selectivity, and sensi­ Feng et al. created the detector Fc-ECG/SPE to measure nitrite within
tivity. Also, the new electrode revealed a broad linear range of about food specimens. This detector has been created by simply coating the
14.8–222 μM, a low limit of detection at 0.03 μM, and strong anti- electrically active materials Fc-ECG upon SPEs using DPV, and due to the
interfere with other species. Thus, the 3D hierarchical design of MA- presence of ferrocenyl, electrochemical studies indicated how the Fc-
LDH nanolayers and an abundance of exposed surface locations, ECG/SPE detector, with its distinctive signal, increased the electro­
which promote the adsorption of nitrite and electron transport, are catalytic capacity for the nitrite-oxidizing by lowering the value of the
responsible for the better MA-LDH/CP’s nitrite detecting efficiency overpotential and raising the maximum current. The cysteine pairing
(Xiang et al., 2019). can facilitate charge transfer and function as a channel for electron
SEM images of MA-LDH/CP are shown in Fig. 10a–d. A thick coating transport. These outcomes show that the (Fc-ECG/SPE) detector is a
uniformly covered carbon fibers (Fig. 10a). The hierarchical flower-like potentially useful electrochemical detector for electrocatalytic uses for
spheres were generated by homogeneous assembly of several thin MA- nitrite-oxidizing within an amount of 1.0–50 μmol.L− 1, with a limit of
LDH nanosheet structures (Fig. 10(b–d)). A three-dimensional hierar­ 0.3 μmol.L− 1 Detecting in the juice of pickles with an average rate of
chical architecture of woven and punctured nanosheets allowed the recovery less than 101.5 % and an RSD less than 2.1 %, It shown high
electrolyte to reach every layer of the flower-like structure. Cyclic vol­ selectivity when employed in nitrite assessment in pickle juice (Feng
tammetry (CV) plots (Fig. 10e) show low peak current and reversible et al., 2019).
redox peaks at pure CP. After adding MA-LDH, composite electrode In this research, the deposition approach via gas-phase techniques
anodic and cathodic currents increased considerably. According to was utilized by Dorovskikh et al. to clarify the electrochemical perfor­
(Fig. 10f), MA-LDH’s EIS curve has a semicircular section in the high- mance of an electrode made of glass carbon improved by a Fe (II) layer of
frequency zone and a linear section in the low-frequency zone. Semi­ tetra-tert-butyl phthalocyanine (FePc(tBu)4/GCE) with nanoparticles of
circular diameter reflects electron transfer resistance. Semicircular gold (Au/FePc(tBu)4/GCE) applied. While electron microscopy (EM)
diameter reflects electron transfer resistance. The 3D nanosheet and spectral analysis were employed to analyze the structure as well as
configuration of MA-LDH increases electron transport and offers a larger the design of these sensors, cyclic voltage (CV) and (CA) techniques were
specific surface area, which explains why MA-LDH/CP has better elec­ also used to identify the primary electrochemical properties of the
trochemical properties than pure CP. To compare the electrochemical electrodes in the ranges of linear of CV 0.25–2.5 mM and CA 2–120 μM
active regions on MA-LDH/CP and clear CP, CV were measured at in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH = 6.8). This detector, Au/FePc(tBu)4/
50–100 mV s 1. As shown in (Fig. 10 g) (MA-LDH/CP), the square root of GCE, exhibited high reproducibility, steadiness, great sensitiveness at
scan rates increases the anode peak current (Ipa). The calibration curve 0.46 μAμM-1, and a minimal limit for nitrite of about 0.35 μM. Addi­
shows a good linear connection between current and square root of scan tionally, the suggested electrode (Au/FePc(tBu)4/GCE) displayed a
rates (Fig. 10 h) for MA-LDH/CP for pure CP, indicating diffusion- specific action in the appearance of interference ions, as evidenced
controlled electrode operations. through the interference investigation. In contrast, the analytical per­
formance of the detector was proven by identifying nitrite ions in
smoked sausages and sausage specimens (Dorovskikh et al., 2022).
The 2D nanostructures of Sn chalcogenides have drawn much

Fig. 10. (a–d) SEM images of MA-LDH/CP. (e) Cyclic voltammograms responses and (f) electrochemical impedance spectra of MA-LDH/CP in 1.0 mM potassium
hexacyanoferrate solution containing 0.5 M KCl. (g) CVs of MA- LDH/CP in the 1.0 mM potassium hexacyanoferrate solution containing 0.5 M KCl at different scan
rates; and (h) linear relationship between the anodic peak currents and the square root of the scan rate. Reprinted with permission from (Xiang et al., 2019).

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

interest due to their unique electrical characteristics and shape with possibility of employing the Fe3O4@SiO2 (processed with acid), an
control production. However, more research is needed about using Sn altered glassy carbon electrode (MGCE), to identify nitrite. Moreover, by
chalcogenides directly during electro-analysis. So, considering the cyclic voltammetry (CV) and pulse voltammetry, the designed electro­
above, Velmurugan et al. have created pure nano-hexagons of single- chemical detector demonstrated superior analytical abilities in nitrite
crystalline SnS2 using a straightforward hydrothermal process. Also, measurement at optimal circumstances, exhibiting a limit of detection of
this electrode was verified to be SnS2 nano hexagons as synthesized are 3.33 μmol L− 1 and the linear range was 10 -1000 μM. Given an
single-crystallin, utilizing both SAED, HRTEM, and XRD. In addition, approximate standard deviation ranging from 0.23 to 4.80 %, the
and by using the enhanced electrode of SnS2 nano-hexagons as a new excellent recovery varied between 85.18 % to 111.02 %.
nitrite detector, when compared with unchanged Ag/AgCl, this Additionally, the (Fe3O4@SiO2 (acid-treated)/MGCE) showed
enhanced (single-crystalline SnS2 hexagons modified electrode exhibits improved selection. Consistency and repeatability when it comes to milk
a 0.15 V smaller oxidative potential and three times more catalytic ef­ sample nitrite detection. By this, the suggested electrochemical detector
ficiency when it oxidizes nitrite, due to its distinct physical and chemical offers a fresh approach to creating a nitrite monitoring detector for food
features of the produced SnS2 electrode. When applied to chicken and safety (M.Zhang et al., 2024).
meat samples, the improved electrode hexagons at the nanoscale could A new electrochemical detector depending upon an (AuNPs/CS/
identify nitrite effectively at a reaction ranging as much as 2.63 mM and MXene) of nanocomposite was reported by Wang et al. in this experi­
a LOD = 13.6 nM. Consequently, the as-fabricated nitrite sensor’s ment to evaluate nitrite. The AuNPs/CS/MXene of nanocomposite was
exceptional specificity and usefulness significantly illustrated its po­ created using a simple electro-precipitation method. The perfect electro-
tential for use in monitoring environmental activities (Velmurugan catalysis for nitrite measurement was observed with TEM, SEM, CV,
et al., 2020). (Fig. 11 (a-b)) show SnS2 nanohexagon FESEM and TEM XRD, EIS, and EDX. The nitrite sensor showed good performance in
images. Synthetic SnS2 is consistent and well-defined. TEM and FESEM sensing nitrite with the linear range of 0.5–335.5 μM, a detection limit of
images show a flat hexagonal sheet. The hexagonal sheets were 27 ± 3 69 nM, and a sensitivity of 517.8 μA mM− 1 cm− 2. Where, the experi­
in diameter and 23 ± 0.6 in thickness. Single-crystal layers on SnS2 were mental parameters throughout this work were controlled. Additionally,
confirmed by HRTEM images of nanohexagons (Fig. 11c). The projected the manufactured sensors exhibit strong precision, assurance, and
matched crystal lattice spacing of 0.215 nm implies that (001) domi­ interference protection capabilities. Therefore, this electrode was
nates the as-synthesized SnS2 crystal lattice. The SAED pattern in applied to real specimens like water and sausage samples and showed
(Fig. 11d) confirmed the single-crystal nature of the as-synthesized SnS2. good findings (Wang, Xu, et al., 2022).
The results confirmed that SnS2 single crystals were built using zone axes Eggshell’s special permeable hierarchical framework makes it a
by (100) plane. (Scheme e) illustrates how the SnS2 hexagons modified wealth of scientific studies. Eggshell trash is recyclable in various ap­
electrode oxidizes nitrite. plications by turning it into useful functional materials. Detect traces of
In this recent investigation, the perfectly synthesized Fe3O4@SiO2 nitrite in oolong tea; Ding et al. envision an inexpensive and ecologically
nanoparticles treated with acid were used as a basic electrochemical friendly conversion process for creating nanocomposites of Eggshell
detecting device by Zhang et al. for nitrite identification. Fe3O4@SiO2 coated with nanoparticles of gold, also known as Au/CaCO3 nano­
nanoparticles have been produced using both hydrothermal and sol-gel composites. The produced electrode based on nanocomposite (Au/
techniques. Fe3O4@SiO2 had a positive charge following acid treatment, CaCO3-GCE) has exhibited clear electrochemical enhancing perfor­
which may have increased the electrostatic interaction among mance in contrast to naked sensors. This work has yielded a compara­
Fe3O4@SiO2 with nitrite. Differentiated scanning revealed the tively small detection limit of 11.55 nM and a broad linear reaction

Fig. 11. The FESEM (a), TEM (b), and HRTEM (c) images of as-synthesized single-crystalline SnS2 nano-hexagons. The corresponding SAED pattern of single-
crystalline SnS2 nano-hexagons (d) Scheme of the mechanism for electro-oxidation of nitrite on SnS2 nano-hexagons modified electrode (e). Reprinted with
permission from (Velmurugan et al., 2020).

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

Fig. 12. (a) CV curves of bare GCE (red), Au/CaCO3-GCE in 100 mMNO−2 (black) under phosphate buffer (pH ¼ 7.5) and Au/CaCO3-GCE in pure buffer (blue)
recorded at a scan rate of 50 mV s− 1; (b) CV responses of Au/CaCO3 -GCE in 100 mMNO−2 at 50 mV s− 1 under phosphate buffer at varied pH from 6.0 to 8.5; (c) CV
curves of Au/CaCO3-GCE in PBS (pH ¼ 7.5) including 100 mMNO−2 at varied scan rate from 10 to 100 mV s− 1; (d) a liner correlation between the peak current and
square root of scan rate (e) CV response of the Au/CaCO3-GCE in pH ¼ 7.5 phosphate buffer at a scan rate of 50 mV s− 1 under consecutive addition of NO−2
(concentrations within 1–300 mM), (f) the liner correlations plot of response current versus NO−2 concentrations. Reprinted with permission from (Ding et al., 2021).
(For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

ranging from 0.01 to 1.00 mM. This electrode detected nitrite within created utilizing a Sol-Gel technique and different MMT [MTZ1–4] MNR
samples (ex., Oolong tea and water samples) and demonstrated excep­ concentrations. Changing the proportion of the weight of MMT showed
tional results. So, it is possible to apply this novel sensor in practical notable consequences, such as modifications to the surface area and
applications (Ding et al., 2021). geometric shape, as well as the level of permeability. Additionally,
In (Fig. 12a), Au/CaCO3-GCE can clearly recognize peaks in phos­ [MTZ2] had an especially organized MNR shape with 1 % of MMT, the
phate buffer with nitrite ions, but the pure buffer barely captures any Greatest surface area having the least resistance at 77.6 m2/g. According
peak form. When identifying nitrite ions, Au/CaCO3-GCE has a much to CV, the advanced 1 % modified detector [MTZ2]. According to as­
higher peak intensity than the naked GCE electrode. This shows exactly sessments by MGPS, maintained an impressive electrical and catalytic
how the Au/CaCO3 nanocomposite material can improve the GCE efficiency. By The measurement of CV, the suggested detector having
electrode and catch the trace nitrite ion signal. To determine how pH sensitivities at 0.78 μA nM− 1 attained a linear range from 0.04 to 10 nM
affects Au/CaCO3-GCE’s electrochemical measuring performance, con­ along with a detection limit (0.12 nM) to nitrite within ideal working
trol studies with different pH levels are needed. During scanning, the circumstances. Additionally, this detector 1.0 % [MTZ2] GPS was able to
phosphate buffer pH was 50 mV s 1 from 6.0 to 8.5, and the contrast CV determine nitrite• within food additives, including (molasses products)
curve was taken in 100 mM nitrite ions. (Fig. 12b) shows that the cor­ with excellent performance, efficiency, and significant selection (Elfiky
responding oxidation peak current strength peaks at pH 7.5. The & Salahuddin, 2021). Groups of ZnO nanorods aggregate in the SEM
oxidation current peak strength decreased when the pH rose from 7.5 to micrograph of [ZnO] (Fig. 13b), while [TiO2] (Fig. 13a) forms rock holes
8.5. Example of Au/CaCO3-GCE CV curve in PBS (Fig. 12c). Nitrite ions with varied diagonal dimensions. The SEM image of [TZ] (Fig. 13c)
at 100 mM are added to the solution and the corresponding scan rate is shows a homogenous nanorod shape with an average diameter of 691.0
changed to 10–100 mV s− 1. The image intuitively shows that when the nm using ImageJ. SEM micrographs show [MTZ1, 2]’s two morphol­
scanning rate increases, the oxidation peak intensity increases and the ogies (Figs. 13(d-e)). Homogenous pin-like nanorods with sizes of 333.0
oxidative peak potential shifts. The square root of the scan rate and peak and 430.4 5 nm dominate. Unlike [MTZ1, 2], [MTZ3, 4] SEM micro­
oxidizing current intensity are linearly related (Fig. 12d). (Fig. 12e) graphs (Fig. 13(f-g)) show uneven morphology.
displays the CV curve of Au/ CaCO3-GCE (1–300 mM) in PBS, utilized to
detect nitrite ion gradients at 50 mV s− 1. The figure shows a positive
correlation between peak strength and nitrite concentration. The con­ 3.5. Enzymatic detection for nitrite by electrochemical sensors in food
centration increases nitrite ions per volume and promotes electro­
chemical reactivity on the Au/CaCO3-GCE surface. The CV curve rises as The electrochemical sensor is one of the leading techniques with high
potential rises. The linear relationship between reaction intensity and accuracy. Previously, we discussed the recent progress in the electro­
nitrite concentration can be described as a regression equation using chemical determination of nitrite via various materials, e.g., metal
quantitative analysis (Fig. 12f). composites, carbonaceous materials, ionic liquid crystals, and polymers.
Furthermore, Elfiky et al. manufactured (3D) peeling montmoril­ We explained electrochemical sensing techniques like amperometric,
lonite (MMT)/TiO2-ZnO hybrid mesoporous nanorods (MNRs) modified potentiometric, conductometric, and impedimetric methods(Hefnawy
detectors providing a highly reliable electrochemical detector for nitrite et al., 2023). But in this part, nitrite measuring was extensively studied
determination by Anodic-stripping voltammetry using square-wave via the use of electrochemical techniques utilizing protein molecules like
adsorptive. The Coupled TiO2-ZnO composite [TZ] 3D nanorods of cytochrome c and enzymes like copper‑zinc superoxide dismutase and
mesoporous and various MMT/TiO2-ZnO combinations have been nitrite reductases (Balamurugan et al., 2018; Gahlaut, Hooda, Gothwal,
& Hooda, 2019; Paramasivam, Mariappan, Sethy, & Manickam, 2023).

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

Fig. 13. The SEM micrograph of (a) [TiO2], (b) [ZnO], (c) [TZ], (d) [MTZ1], (e) [MTZ2], (f) [MTZ3], and (g) [MTZ4]. Reprinted with permission from (Elfiky &
Salahuddin, 2021).

Where, the use of enzymes in nitrite concentration measurements offers adsorbed inside the matrix of chitosan. It also demonstrated great
multiple benefits, including high accuracy, quick reaction times, and sensitivity and specificity in nitrate detection. One noteworthy aspect of
precision. Nevertheless, they additionally possess some serious disad­ the biosensor was its extended lifespan, as it maintained more than 70 %
vantages, which involve temporary stability as well as restricted pH of its functionality for a duration of nearly 90 days. The levels of nitrite
levels, temperatures, and humidity ranges. These shortcomings may in water samples were measured using the biosensor, which is an
result in unspecific nitrite along with additional contaminant oxidation accessible method without the need for any prior treatment, and the
processes in actual specimens. So, in order to increase the assay’s findings were confirmed by a trustworthy spectroscopic assay
sensitiveness and efficiency, biosensor parts have been using newly (Kalimuthu et al., 2021). (Fig. 14a) shows a sigmoidal wave-shape in­
developed substances that replicate a catalytic process of enzymes or dicates a uniform catalytic action linked to heterogeneous electron
synthetic enzyme mimics. The photocatalytic and biocompatible quali­ transfer, in which nickel is reduced enzymatically to produce the en­
ties of chlorophylls are well-known. Due to chlorophylls being the zyme’s oxidized state (NR ox), which is then reduced again by electro-
photosynthesis process’ reaction centers, chlorophylls were studied for generated AQH 2. A distinct, symmetrical wave with a 37 mV peak-to-
use in stored electric energy systems with solar equipment. Metal peak separation is shown at − 230 mV vs NHE (Fig. 14b, curve (a)).
chlorophyllin processes are employed in photovoltaic and storage sys­ Because heterogeneous electron transmission is faster without NR on the
tems for energy. So, this review included insights into the enzymatic GC electrode, AQ’s CV response is more reversible. This contrasts with
techniques for electrochemical sensing. Where, various an NR/chitosan-film electrode (Fig. 14c, curve (a)). In the absence of
enzyme-immobilization approaches were reported, like surface binding NR, AQH 2 cannot decrease nitrate (Fig. 14b, curve (b)). However, the
and encapsulation.The synergistic effect between the electrode surface GC/NR-chitosan electrode produces an enhanced sinusoidal waveform
and enzymes was demonstrated to clarify the detection mechanism. The (Fig. 14c, curve (b)) with nitrate (615 μM).
review clarified the outcome detection limits and linear range of Moreover, in this case, a unique electrochemical biosensor for nitrite
detection for various surfaces for enzymatic electrochemical techniques assessment (CPO-ILEMB/Au@MoS2/GC) was created by Zhu et al. using
within the last twenty years. Also, there are two types of immobilization GCE called glassy carbon electrodes that plated with MoS2 nanoflowers
of enzymes on electrode surfaces: encapsulation and surface binding. with Au nanoparticles and chloroperoxidase (CPO) involved with the
The most basic kind of immobilization is non-covalent binding, which addition of an ionic liquid such as 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bro­
involves minimal interactions between the electrode and the enzyme. mide (EMB-IL). Where, Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose is used as a
Covalent binding provides exceptional resistance to harsh conditions, reducing and stabilizing factor to create the altered nanocomposites of
long-term stability, and excellent reusability. Enzyme encapsulation is Au-MoS2 nanoflowers. Basically, the EMB-IL may encourage direct
the process of encasing enzymes within a material so that the enzymes electron transmission among the electrode interface and CPO absent
stay inside the matrix and analytes and products can flow through. oxidative modulator. In the present findings, the constancy rate and the
Enzyme entrapment can be accomplished by membrane-based binding transfer of electrons coefficients of CPO at the surface of the electrode
by semi-permeable hollow fibers or microencapsulation, or by employ­ are 2.03 s− 1 and 0.87, respectively, and the total surface level of CPO is
ing polymers or hydrogels as a matrix. Benefits from enzyme entrapment 1.36 × 10− 10 mol cm− 2. The suggested electrochemical biosensor of
include high loading and stability without requiring chemical alteration. nitrite has excellent sensibility, small detecting limitations, and broad
Nevertheless, it experiences sluggish substrate diffusion as well as the linearity ranges. Using a biosensor, the nitrite amount in pickled cab­
buildup of contaminants and byproducts. Make sure to choose the bage was determined with great precision and recovery (X. Zhu et al.,
polymer wisely and adjust the pore and capsule diameters to prevent 2022). (Fig. 15a) shows MoS2 nanosheets self-assembling into nano­
drawbacks. Therefore, in this part, we will review some researchers who flowers. Au nanoparticles are equally distributed on MoS2 nanoflowers
studied the enzymatic detection of nitrite in food. (Figs. 15(b-c)). Au@MoS2 nanocomposites’ S, Mo, and Au element
Where this study reported that the scientists Kalimuthu et al. utilized mapping diagrams are presented in (Fig. 15d). EDX mapping also shows
a polymeric chitosan matrix-entrapped NR known as (nitrate re­ Au@MoS2 nanocomposites and that Au nanoparticles are evenly bound
educates) from a fungus called Neurospora crassa to construct a nitrite to MoS2 nanoflowers. (Fig. 15(e–j)) shows the electrochemical activity
electrochemical biosensor placed onto GCE. Sulfonate of anthraquinone of bare GC, CPO/GC, CPO-ILEMB/MoS2/GC, and CPO-ILEMB/
(AQ), a synthetic electron intermediary, serves as NR’s co-substrate or Au@MoS2/GC. The CPO/GC peak current is irregular and smallest
partner in electron transfer. By employing Amperometry with constant (Fig. 15e). The naked GC has the highest peak current because CPO
potential or revolving disc (CV), the enzyme of NR was efficiently impeded electron transport in CPO/GC, CPO-ILEMB/MoS2/GC, and GC

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N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

Fig. 14. Scheme (a) Cartoon illustration of the components of the electrochemical nitrate biosensor. Note that the chitosan polymer (represented by the light blue
box) is much larger than NR and effectively surrounds the enzyme. CVs obtained for 40 μM AQ in the (b curve(a)) absence and (b curve(b)) presence of 615 μM
nitrate at (b) a GC/chitosan electrode (no enzyme) and (c) a GC/chitosan-NR electrode, 100 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.2) at a sweep rate of 5 mV s − 1. Reprinted
with permission from (Kalimuthu et al., 2021). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)

Fig. 15. (a) The FESEM images of MoS2, (b) the FESEM images, (c) the TEM image and (d) EDX-mapping images of Au@MoS2 nanocomposites, (e) CV curves and (f)
EIS spectra (inset: equivalent circuit diagram) of bare GC, CPO/ GC, CPO-ILEMB/MoS2/GC and CPO ILEMB/Au@MoS2/ GC in 5 mM K3[Fe (CN)3− 6 /
4− ]
with 0.1 M
KCl, (g) CVs of CPO-ILEMB/Au@MoS2/GC at different scans, (h) the linear relationships of peak current (Ip) vs. scanning speed (ν) and (i) potential (Ep) vs. lgν, (j)
dependence of CVs of CPO-ILEMB/Au@ MoS2/GC modified electrode on pH value range of 2.5–8.0 at 100 mV s− 1. Reprinted with permission from (X. Zhu
et al., 2022).

CPO-ILEMB/Au@MoS2/GC modified electrodes. CPO-ILEMB/Au- Au@MoS2/GC at different scanning speeds are shown in (Fig. 15g).
@MoS2/GC had a higher peak current than CPO/GC and CPO-ILEMB/ Increasing v increases current reaction value. (Fig. 15 (h-i)) show a
MoS2/GC, showing that Au nanoparticles may help CPO electron significant linear relationship between Ip versus v and Ep and log v. The
transport on the electrode surface. An equivalent circuit can be simu­ CV reactions of CPO-ILEMB/Au@MoS2/GC (Fig. 15j) rise with pH and
lated using Randle and Eresheler’s theories (Fig. 15f) (inset). Calculate progress toward negative potential for the reduced peak and oxidation.
the impedances (EIS) of naked GC, CPO/GC, CPO-ILEMB/MoS2/GC, and In this study, Chen et al. employed methanobactin (Mb), a tiny
CPO-ILEMB/Au@MoS2/GC. The study found that CPOGC (2003 Ω) has bioactive peptide that was reduced in situ to create gold nanoparticles
the highest charge transfer resistance (Rct) and bare GC (198 Ω) has the (AuNPs). Where Au–S bonds were employed to link HS-β-cyclodextrin
lowest. CPOILEMB/MoS2/GC (1374 Ω) and CPO-ILEMB/Au@MoS2/GC (HS-β-CD), which has a supramolecular recognition function, with Mb/
(1020 Ω) have lower Rcts than CPO-GC, with the latter having the lowest AuNPs to create HS-β-CD@Mb/AuNPs, also, the biosensor (HS-
(Fig. 15f).The impedance results reveal that Au nanoparticles aid CPO β-CD@Mb/AuNPs/Au) was successfully prepared by electrodepositing
DET on the electrode’s outer layer. HS-β-CD@Mb/AuNPs upon the outer layer of the golden electrode. Also,
The CV curves of CPO-ILEMB/Aus@MoS2/GC show two symmetrical SEM, TEM, UV, FTIR, and CV, along with EIS, were used to examine the
redox peaks, but not CPO/Au@MoS2/GC. CV curves for CPO-ILEMB/ HS-β-CD@Mb/AuNPs/Au. The created biosensor was effectively used to

18
N. Ibrahim et al. Food Chemistry 462 (2025) 140962

examine the process of NO2− oxidation and detect nitrite within real consumed in food using electrochemical methods. Also, it focused on the
specimens, where the interference suppression experiment demonstrates necessity of advanced equipment for rapid detection of nitrite within
the specificity of the sensor, as well as the detecting limits of the food to serve the food safety and assurance fields. Also, this review
developed system of detection were as small as 0.013 μM in its linear clarified that conventional techniques and electrochemical sensor
range of 0.1–10,000 μM. The rates of recovery were 96.53–102.54 %. technologies can be applied in nitrite detection within food. We find
Additionally, recently developed electrochemical sensors exhibit greater from previous studies that greater sensitivities and decreased detection
selection and sensitivities (50.7137 μA μM− 1 cm− 2) if contrasted to the limits were characteristics of electrochemical sensor techniques because
earlier reported ones. These findings imply that the research offers a of the strong computing among sensors and analysts. Furthermore, the
fresh method for the precise monitoring of nitrite checking for food selectivity of electrochemical sensors for the measured substances was
quality and environmental protection (L. Chen et al., 2024). high performance.
However, in order to achieve quick on-site nitrite detection in food. A Conversely, conventional approaches are expensive and require
mobile incorporated electrochemical sensor system (IESS) by Sun et al. complex preparatory techniques. So, we always need more advanced
has been developed here; it consists of a reused smartphone-assisted devices with cheap components and more stable performance, with
digital device powered by self-designed circuit boards for signal anal­ simple preparation techniques provided for nitrite detection. Scientists
ysis and wireless transmission and a disposable, inexpensive micro­ have made several attempts to utilize carbon-based material, conducting
fluidic electrochemical fix for few-shot nitrite detection. The combined polymers, oxides of metals and hydroxides, and other promising mate­
MXene/MWCNTs conducting matrix’s strong transfer of electrons rials to remedy any defects and improve the devices used in nitrite
capability as well the VB12 bionic enzyme-based ion-selective layer’s detection in food safety. As a result, many trials have been undertaken to
high nitrite selectivity allows for the extreme sensitivity of 10.533 μA improve the detection limit, direct transfer of electrons, and selectivity.
mM− 1 and low nitrite detection limit of 4.22 μM achieved by the elec­ In the end, the nitrite detection stability may be improved by modifying
trochemical fix that utilizes the MXene/MWCNTs-VB12 (multiwalled materials, whereby the sensor platform’s selectivity and sensitivity are
carbon nanotubes/Ti3C2Tx/cyanocobalamin) improved functioning being enhanced more.
electrode. Furthermore, in order to perform an instantaneous nitrite
evaluation, the mobile IESS may quickly gather impending samples for CRediT authorship contribution statement
testing using a microfluidic electrochemical fix in less than 1.0 s. Results
are then wirelessly transmitted from the signal-processing device to a Nora Ibrahim: Writing – original draft, Visualization, Software,
smartphone via a Bluetooth module. As a result, our suggested portable Resources, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation,
IESS shows quick on-site nitrite measurement and wireless data transfer Conceptualization. Mahmoud A. Hefnawy: Writing – review & editing,
all in 1 palm-sized electronic gadget, opening up new possibilities for Visualization, Validation, Supervision, Software, Project administration,
customized personal treatment and food safety (Sun et al., 2023). Data curation, Conceptualization. Sahar A. Fadlallah: Writing – review
& editing, Supervision, Resources, Project administration, Funding
4. Challenges and future aspects acquisition, Conceptualization. Shymaa S. Medany: Writing – review &
editing, Visualization, Supervision, Software, Project administration,
Three main obstacles must be overcome to advance electrochemical Conceptualization.
nitrite detector technology: precision, durability, and enhanced resis­
tance to interference. For example, there is an issue with electro­
chemical evaluations for nitrite within complex mediums like milk, and Declaration of competing interest
the soil is electrode surface fouling. The fouling process may lead to
signal shift and coating of the sensor surface, diminishing the signal’s The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
sensitiveness, stabilization, and repeatability. As a result, electrodes interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
require frequent cleaning and calibration, which requires much effort the work reported in this paper.
and time. One of the future paths that will surely be taken to overcome
these issues is the creation of inexpensive, tiny, portable nitrite detectors Data availability
with excellent precision.
Furthermore, it is possible to improve the density of energy and The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are
electrical capacity of electrochemical electrodes by utilizing nano­ available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
structured matter forms like nanotubes, nanowires, or nanoparticles.
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