FOUNDATION

DESIGN
BCT 415
CIVIL ENGINEERING DESIGN 1
ING. MICHAEL OKINE
INTRODUCTION
• A building is generally composed of a
superstructure above the ground and a substructure
which forms the foundations below ground. The
foundations transfer and spread the loads from a
structure's columns and walls into the ground.
• The safe bearing capacity of the soil must not be
exceeded otherwise excessive settlement may
occur, resulting in damage to the building and its
service facilities, such as the water or gas mains.
Foundation failure can also affect the overall stability
of a structure so that it is liable to slide, to lift
vertically or even overturn.
• The earth under the foundations is the most
variable of all the materials that are considered in
the design and construction of an engineering
structure. Under one small building the soil may vary
from a soft clay to a dense rock.
2

INTRODUCTION
• Also the nature and properties of the soil will
change with the seasons and the weather. For
example Keuper Marl, a relatively common soil, is
hard like a rock when dry but when wet it can
change into an almost liquid state. It is important to
have an engineering survey made of the soil under a
proposed structure so that variations in the strata
and the soil properties can be determined.
• Drill holes or trial pits should be sunk, in situ tests
such as the penetration test performed and samples
of the soil taken to be tested in the laboratory. From
the information gained it is possible to recommend
safe earth bearing pressures and, if necessary,
calculate possible settlements of the structure.
Representatives values of the safe bearing
pressures for typical soils are listed in table 1.
3

INTRODUCTION
• In the design of foundations, the areas of the
bases in contact with the ground should be such that
the bearing pressures will not be exceeded.
Settlement takes place during the working life of the
structure, therefore the design loading to be
considered when calculating the base areas should
be those that apply to the serviceability limit state,
and typical values that can be taken are:
• 1. Dead plus imposed load = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk
2. Dead plus wind load = 1.0Gk + 1.0Wk
3. Dead plus imposed plus wind load= 1.0Gk +
0.80Qk + 0.8Wk
• These partial factors of safety are suggested as it
is highly unlikely that the maximum imposed load
and the worst wind load will occur simultaneously.
4
INTRODUCTION
Table1 BearingCapacityValues
Rock or soil
Typical bearing value (kN/m2)
Massive igneous bedrock
10,000
Sandstone
2000 to 4000
Shales and mudstone
600 to 2000
Gravel, sand and gravel, compact
600
Medium dense sand
100 to 300
Loose fine sand
Less than 100
Hard clay
300 to 600
Medium clay
100 to 300
Soft clay
Less than 75
5

INTRODUCTION
• Where the foundations are subject to a
vertical and a horizontal load the following
rule can be applied:
• The allowable horizontal load would take
account of the passive resistance of the
ground in contact with the vertical face of the
foundation plus the friction and cohesion
along the base. The calculations to determine
the structural strength of the foundations,
that is the thickness of the bases and the
areas of reinforcement, should be based on
the loadings and the resultant ground
pressures corresponding to the ultimate limit
state.
• With some structures, such as the type
shown in figure 10.1, it may be necessary to
check the
possibility of uplift on the foundations and the
stability of the structure when it is subjected
to
lateral loads.
6
Figure 1 Uplift on footing

INTRODUCTION
• To ensure adequate safety, the stability
calculations should also be for the loading
arrangements associated with the ultimate
limit state.
• The critical loading arrangement is usually
the combination of maximum lateral load with
minimum dead load and no live load, that is
1.4Wk + 1.0Gk. Minimum dead load can
sometimes occur during erection when many
of the interior finishes and fixtures may not
have been installed.
7

INTRODUCTION
• For most designs a linear distribution of soil
pressures across the base of the footing is
assumed as shown in figure 2a. This
assumption must be based on the soil acting
as an elastic material and the footing having
infinite rigidity. In fact, not only do most soils
exhibit some plastic behaviour and all
footings have a finite stiffness, but also the
distribution of soil pressure varies with time.
• The actual distribution of bearing pressure
at any moment may take the form shown in
figure 2b or 2c, depending on the type of soil
and the stiffness of the base and the
structure. But as the behaviour of foundations
involves many uncertainties regarding the
action of the ground and the loading, it is
usually unrealistic to consider an analysis
which is too sophisticated.
• Foundations should be constructed so that
the underside of the bases are below frost
level. As the concrete is subjected to more
severe exposure conditions a larger nominal
cover to the reinforcement is required.
8

INTRODUCTION
a) Uniform distribution b) Cohesive soil c)
Sandy soil
Figure 2: Pressure distributions under footings
9

INTRODUCTION
• It is recommended that the minimum cover
should be not less than 75mm when the
concrete is cast against the ground, or less
than 50 mm when the concrete is cast against
a layer of blinding concrete. A concrete grade
of at least fcu = 35 N/mm2 is required to meet
the serviceability requirements of BS8110;
see table 6.1.
10

PAD FOOTING
(ISOLATED)
11
PAD FOOTING (ISOLATED)
• The footing for a single column may be
made square in plan, but where there is a
large moment acting about one axis it may be
more economical to have a rectangular base.
Assuming there is a linear distribution the
bearing pressures across the base will take
one of the three forms shown in figure 1.3,
according to the relative magnitudes of the
axial load N and the moment M acting on the
base.
• 1. In figure 10.3a there is no moment and the
pressure is uniform
• 2. With a moment M acting as shown, the
pressures are given by the equation for axial load
plus bending. This is provided there is positive
contact between the base and the ground along
the complete length D of the footing, as in figure
1.3b so that
12
PAD FOOTING
Figure 3
Pad footing - pressure distributions
13
PAD FOOTING
14
PAD FOOTING
• So that for P2 to always be positive, M/N -
or the effective eccentricity, e – must never
be greater than D/6. In these cases the
eccentricity of loading is said to lie within the
'middle third' of the base.
• 3. When the eccentricity, e, is greater than
D/6 there is no longer a positive pressure
along the length D and the pressure diagram
is triangular as shown in figure 3c. Balancing
the downward load and the upward pressures
15
PAD FOOTING
• where Y is the length of positive contact. The
centroid of the pressure diagram must coincide
with the eccentricity of loading in order for the
load and reaction to be equal
and opposite.
• A typical arrangement of the reinforcement in
a pad footing is shown in figure 4. With a
square base the reinforcement to resist bending
should be distributed uniformly across the full
width of the footing.
• For a rectangular base the reinforcement in
the short direction should be distributed with a
closer spacing in the region under and near the
column, to allow for the fact that the transverse
moments must be greater nearer the column.
16
PAD FOOTING
Figure 4
Pad footings – reinforcement details
17
PAD FOOTING
• If the footing should be subjected to a
large overturning moment so that there is
only partial bearing, or if there is a resultant
uplift force, then reinforcement may also be
required in the top face.
• Dowels or starter bars should extend
from the footing into the column in order to
provide continuity to the reinforcement.
These dowels should be embedded into the
footing and extend into the columns a full
lap length.
• Sometimes a 75mm length of the column
is constructed in the same concrete pour as
the footing so as to form a 'kicker’ or
support for the column shutters. In these
cases the dowel lap length should be
measured from the top of the
kicker. 18
PAD FOOTING
• The critical sections through the base for
checking shear, punching shear and
bending are shown in figure 5. The shearing
force and bending moments are caused by
the ultimate loads from the column and the
weight of the base should not be included in
these calculations.
• The thickness of the base is often
governed by the requirements for shear
resistance.
Figure 5
Critical sections for design
19
PAD FOOTING
The principal steps in the design
calculations are as follows.
• 1. Calculate the plan size of the footing
using the permissible bearing pressure and
the critical loading arrangement for the
serviceability limit state.
• 2. Calculate the bearing pressures
associated with the critical loading
arrangement at the ultimate limit state.
• 3. Assume a suitable value for the
thickness (h) and effective depth (d). Check
that the shear stress at the column face is
less than 5 N/mm^2 or 0.8 fcu , whichever
is the smaller.
• 4. Check the thickness for punching
shear, assuming a probable value for the
ultimate shear stress, Vc from table 5.1.
20
PAD FOOTING
• 4. Check the thickness for punching
shear, assuming a probable value for the
ultimate shear stress, Vc from table 3.8
(from the BS code).
• 5. Determine the reinforcement required
to resist bending.
• 6. Make a final check of the punching
shear, having established vc precisely.
• 7. Check the shear stress at the critical
sections.
• 8. Where applicable, foundations and
structure should be checked for overall
stability at the ultimate limit state.
• Reinforcement to resist bending in the
bottom of the base should extend at least a
full tension anchorage length beyond the
critical section for bending.
21
PAD FOOTING
22
PAD FOOTING EXAMPLE 1
DESIGN OF A PAD FOOTING
The footing (figure 6) is required to resist
characteristic axial loads of 1000 kN dead
and 350 kN imposed from a 400 mm
square column. The safe bearing pressure
on the soil is 200 kN/m^2 and the
characteristic material strengths are fcu =
35 N/mm^2 and fy = 460 N/mm^2.
Assume a footing weight of 150 kN so that
the total dead load is 1150 kN.
Figure 6
Pad footing example
23
PAD FOOTING EXAMPLE 1
24
PAD FOOTING EXAMPLE 1
From table 3.8 this ultimate shear
stress is not excessive, therefore h =
600mm will be suitable
25
PAD FOOTING Example 1
26
PAD FOOTING Example 1
27
 COMBINED FOOTING
28
COMBINED FOOTING
• Where two columns are close together it is
sometimes necessary or convenient to combine their
footings to form a continuous base. The dimensions
of the footing should be chosen so that the resultant
load passes through the centroid of the base area.
This may be assumed to give a uniform bearing
pressure under the footing and help to prevent
differential settlement.
• For most structures the ratios of dead and
imposed loads carried by each column are similar so
that if the resultant passes through the centroid for
the serviceability limit state then this will also be true
- or very nearly - at the ultimate limit state, and
hence in these cases a uniform pressure distribution
may be considered for both limit states.
• The shape of the footing may be rectangular or
trapezoidal as shown in figure 8. The trapezoidal
base has the disadvantage of detailing and cutting
varying lengths of reinforcing bars; it is used where
there is a large variation in the loads carried by the
two columns and there are limitations on the length
of the footing.
29
COMBINED FOOTING
• Sometimes in order to strengthen the base
and economise on concrete a beam is
incorporated between the two columns so that
the base is designed as an inverted T-section.
• The proportions of the footing depend on
many factors. If it is too long, there will be large
longitudinal moments on the lengths projecting
beyond the columns, whereas a short base will
have a larger span moment between the
columns and the greater width will cause large
transverse moments. The thickness of the
footing must be such that the shear stresses
are not excessive.
Figure 8
Centroid of combined bases
30
COMBINED FOOTING Example 2
• DESIGN OF A COMBINED FOOTING
The footing supports two columns 300 mm
square and 400 mm square with
characteristic dead and imposed loads as
shown in figure 9. The safe bearing
pressure is 300 kN/m^2 and the
characteristic material strengths are fcu =
35 N/mm^2 and fy = 460 N/mm^2.
Figure 9 Combined footing example
31
COMBINED FOOTING Example 2
32
COMBINED FOOTING Example 2
= 0.38 N/mm2 which from table 3.8 is
just satisfactory for grade 35 concrete.
33
COMBINED FOOTING Example 2
Figure 10 Shear-force and bending-moment
diagrams
34
COMBINED FOOTING Example 2
35

STRIP FOOTING
36
STRIP FOOTING
• Strip footings are used under walls or under
a line of closely-spaced columns. Even were it
possible to have individual bases, it is often
simpler and more economic to excavate and
construct the formwork for a continuous base.
• On the sloping site the foundations should
be constructed on a horizontal bearing and
stepped where necessary. At the steps the
footings should be lapped as shown in figure
12.
• The footings are analyzed and designed as
an inverted continuous beam subjected to the
ground bearing pressures. With a thick rigid
footing and a firm soil, a linear distribution of
bearing pressure is considered. If the columns
are equally spaced and equally loaded the
pressure is uniformly distributed but if the
loading is not symmetrical then the base is
subjected to an eccentric load and the bearing
pressure varies as shown in figure 13.
37
STRIP FOOTING
Figure 12
Stepped footing on a slope
Figure 13
Linear and non-linear pressure distribution under a rigid
strip footing
38
STRIP FOOTING
• The bearing pressures will not be linear
when the footing is not very rigid and the soil
is soft and compressible. In these cases the
bending-moment diagram would be quite
unlike that for a continuous beam with firmly
held supports and the moments could be
quite large, particularly if the loading is
unsymmetrical.
• For a large foundation it may be necessary
to have a more detailed investigation of the
soil pressures under the base in order to
determine the bending moments and
shearing forces.
• Reinforcement is required in the bottom of
the base to resist the transverse bending
moments in addition to the reinforcement
required for the longitudinal bending. Footings
which support heavily loaded columns often
require stirrups and bent-up bars to resist the
shearing forces.
39
STRIP FOOTING Example 3
• DESIGN OF A STRIP FOOTING
Design a strip footing to carry 400 mm
square columns equally spaced at 3.5
m centres. On each column the
characteristic loads are 1000 kN dead
and 350 kN imposed. The safe bearing
pressure is 200 kN/m2 and the
characteristic material strengths are
fcu = 35 N/mm2 and fy = 460 N/mm2.
SOLUTION:
40
STRIP FOOTING Example 3
41
STRIP FOOTING Example 3
Figure 14
Strip footing with bending reinforcement
42
 STRIP FOOTING Example 3
43

Raft FOOTING
44
RAFT FOOTING
• A raft foundation transmits the loads to the
ground by means of a reinforced concrete
slab that is continuous over the base of the
structure. The raft is able to span over any
areas of weaker soil and it spreads the loads
over a wide area.
• Heavily loaded structures are often
provided with one continuous base in
preference to many closely spaced, separate
footings. Also where settlement is a problem,
because of mining subsidence, it is common
practice to use a raft foundation in
conjunction with a more flexible
superstructure.
• The simplest type of raft is a flat slab of
uniform thickness supporting the columns.
Where punching shears are large the
columns may be provided with a pedestal at
their base as shown in figure 15. The
pedestal serves a similar function to the drop
panel in a flat slab floor. Other, more heavily
loaded rafts require the foundation to be
strengthened by beams to form a ribbed
construction. The beams may be
downstanding, projecting below the slab or
they may be upstanding as shown in the
figure.
45
RAFT FOOTING
Figure 15 Raft foundations (with different positions of
punching curtailments)

• Downstanding beams have the

disadvantage of disturbing the ground
below the slab and the excavated trenches
are often a nuisance during construction,
while upstanding beams interrupt the clear
floor area above the slab. To overcome this
a second slab is sometimes cast on top of
the beams, so forming a cellular raft.
• Rafts having a uniform slab, and without
strengthening beams, are generally
analyzed and designed as an inverted flat
slab floor subjected to the earth bearing
pressures.
46
RAFT FOOTING
• With regular column spacing and equal
column loading, the coefficients table 3.12 of
the code for flat slab floors are used to
calculate the bending moments in the raft.
The slab must be checked for punching shear
around the columns and around pedestals, if
they are used. A raft with strengthening
beams is designed as an inverted beam and
slab floor.
• The slab is designed to span in two
directions where there are supporting beams
on all four sides. The beams are often
subjected to high shearing forces which need
to be resisted by a combination of stirrups
and bent-up bars.
47
RAFT FOOTING
• Raft foundations which are below the level
of the water table as in figure 16
should be checked to ensure that they are
able to resist the uplift forces due to the
hydrostatic pressure. This may be critical
during construction before the weight of the
superstructure is in place, and it may be
necessary to provide extra weight to the raft
and lower the water table by pumping. An
alternative method is to anchor the slab down
with short tension piles.
Figure 16 Raft foundation subject to uplift
48

PILE FOUNDATION
49
PILE FOUNDATION
• Piles are used where the soil conditions
are poor and it is uneconomical, or not
possible, to provide adequate spread
foundations. The piles must extend down to
firm soil so that the load is carried by either
(1) end bearing, (2) friction, or (3) a
combination of both end bearing and
friction. Concrete piles may be precast and
driven into the ground, or they may be the
cast in situ type which are bored or
excavated.
• A soils survey of a proposed site should
be carried out to determine the depth to firm
soil and the properties of the soil. This
information will provide a guide to the
lengths of pile required and the probable
safe load capacity of the piles. On a large
contract the safe loads are often
determined from full-scale load tests on
typical piles or groups of piles. With driven
piles the safe load can be calculated from
equations which relate the resistance of the
pile to the measured set per blow and the
driving force.
50
 PILE FOUNDATION
• The load-carrying capacity of a group of
piles is not necessarily a multiple of that for
a single pile - it is often considerably less.
For a large group of closely spaced friction
piles the reduction can be of the order of
one-third.
• In contrast, the load capacity of a group
of end bearing piles on a thick stratum of
rock or compact sand gravel is substantially
the sum total of the resistance of each
individual pile. Figure 17 shows the bulbs of
pressure under piles and illustrates why the
settlement of a group of piles is dependent
on the soil properties at a greater depth.
• The minimum spacing of piles, centre to
centre, should not be less than:
• (1) the pile perimeter - for friction piles,
or
• (2) twice the least width of the pile - for
end bearing piles. Bored piles are
sometimes enlarged at their base so that
they have a larger bearing area or a greater
resistance to uplift.
51
PILE FOUNDATION
Figure 17 Bulbs of pressure
52
PILE FOUNDATION
• A pile is designed as a short column
unless it is slender and the surrounding soil is
too weak to provide restraint.
• Precast piles must also be designed to
resist the bending moments caused by lifting
and stacking, and the head of the pile must
be reinforced to withstand the impact of the
driving hammer.
• It is very difficult if not impossible to
determine the true distribution of load of a pile
group, therefore, in general, it is more realistic
to use methods that are simple but logical.
• A vertical load on a group of vertical piles
with an axis of symmetry is
considered to be distributed according to the
following equation, which is similar in form to
that for an eccentric load on a pad
foundation:
53
PILE FOUNDATION
54
PILE FOUNDATION Example 4
• LOADS IN A PILE GROUP
Determine the distribution between
the individual piles of a 1000 kN
vertical load acting at position A of the
group of vertical piles shown in figure
18.
SOLUTION:
where n is the number of piles. Therefore the
eccentricities of the load about the XX and YY
centroidal axis are:
Figure 18 Pile loading example
55
PILE FOUNDATION Example 4
 56
Design of pile caps
• The pile cap must be rigid and capable of
transferring the column loads to the piles and
should have sufficient thickness for
anchorage of the column dowels and the pile
reinforcement.
• Two methods of design are common:
design using beam theory or design using a
truss analogy approach. In the former case
the pile cap is treated as an inverted beam
and is designed for the usual conditions of
bending and shear.
• The truss analogy method is used to
determine the reinforcement requirements
where the span to depth ratio is less than 2
such that beam theory is not appropriate.
57
Design of pile caps
Design of pile caps
• The pile cap must be rigid and capable of
transferring the column loads to the piles and
should have sufficient thickness for
anchorage of the column dowels and the pile
reinforcement.
• Two methods of design are common:
design using beam theory or design using a
truss analogy approach. In the former case
the pile cap is treated as an inverted beam
and is designed for the usual conditions of
bending and shear.
• The truss analogy method is used to
determine the reinforcement requirements
where the span to depth ratio is less than 2
such that beam theory is not appropriate.
58
Design of pile caps
The truss analogy method
• In the truss analogy the force from the
supported column is assumed to be
transmitted by a triangular truss action with
concrete providing the compressive members
of the truss and steel reinforcement providing
the tensile tie force as shown in the two pile
cap in figure 20a.
• The upper node of the truss is located at
the centre of the loaded area and the lower
nodes at the intersection of the tensile
reinforcement with the centre-lines of the
piles.
• Where the piles are spaced at a distance
greater than three times the pile diameter
only the reinforcement within a distance of
1.5 times the pile diameter from the centre of
the pile should be considered as effective in
providing the tensile resistance within the
truss.
59
Design of pile caps
The truss analogy method
• From the geometry of the force diagram
in figure 20b
Figure 20 Truss model for a two pile cap
60
Design of pile caps
The truss analogy method
• Where the pile cap is supported on a four-
pile group, as shown in figure 21, the load
can be considered to be transmitted equally
by parallel pairs of trusses, such as AB and
CD, then the equation can be modified to
give:
Required area 0f reinforcement in each truss
=
• This reinforcement should be provided in
both directions in the bottom face of the pile-
cap.
• The truss theory may be extended to give
the tensile force in pile caps with other
configurations of pile groups. Table 2 gives
the force for some common cases.
61
Figure 21 Four piles in a cap
The truss analogy method
Design of pile caps
Table 2 Tension forces in pile cap
62
 Design of pile caps
Design for shear
• The shear capacity of a pile cap should be
checked at the critical section taken to be
20% of the pile diameter inside the face of
the pile, as shown in figure 22. In determining
the shear resistance, shear enhancement
may be considered such that the shear
capacity of the concrete may be increased to
(2d av )c lie where av is the distance from
the face of the column to the critical section.
• Where the spacing of the piles is less than
or equal to three times the pile diameter, this
enhancement may be applied across the
whole of the critical section; otherwise it may
only be applied to strips of width of three
times the pile diameter located central to
each pile.
Figure 22 Critical sections for shear and punching
checks.
63
Design of pile caps
Design for punching shear
• Where the spacing of the piles exceeds
three times the pile diameter then the pile cap
should be checked for punching shear using
the method outlined in the code for slabs. The
critical perimeter for punching shear is as
shown in figure 22. The design shear stress
should be checked at the face of the column
to ensure that it does not exceed the lesserof
0.8 fcu, N mm or 5N mm .
2 2

Figure 22 Critical sections for shear and punching

checks.
64
Design of pile caps
Reinforcement detailing
• As for all members, normal detailing
requirements must be checked. These
include maximum and minimum steel areas,
bar spacings, cover to reinforcement and
anchorage lengths of the tension steel.
• The main tension reinforcement should
continue past each pile and should be bent
up vertically to provide a full anchorage length
beyond the centre-line of each pile. In
orthogonal directions in the top and bottom
faces of the pile cap a minimum steel area of
o.0013bh for grade 460 reinforcement or
0.0024bh for grade 250 reinforcement should
be provided. It is normal to provide fully
lapped horizontal links of size not less than
12 mm and at spacings of no greater than
250 mm, as shown in figure 23b in the next
example.
• The piles should be cut off so that they do
not extend into the pile cap beyond the
lower mat of reinforcing bars otherwise the
punching shear strength may be reduced. 65
Design of pile caps
Sizing of the pile cap
• In determining a suitable depth ofpile cap
table 3 may be used as a guide when there
are up to six piles in the pile group.
Table 3 Depth of pile cap
Pile size (mm)
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
750
Cap Depth (mm)
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1400
1800
66
PILE FOUNDATION Example 5
• DESIGN OF A PILE CAP
A group of four piles supports a 500
mm square column which transmits
an ultimate axial load of 5000 kN. The
piles are 450 mm diameter and are
spaced at 1350 mm centres as shown.
Design the pile cap for fcu = 30
N/mm^2 and fy = 460 N/mm^2.
Figure 23 Pile-cap design example
67
 PILE FOUNDATION Example 5
SOLUTION:
• (a) Dimensions of pile cap
Try an overall depth of 1000 mm and an
average effective depth of 875 mm. Allow the
pile to extend 375 mm either side to give a
2100 mm square cap.
• (b) Design of main tension reinforcement
From the previous equations, the required
area of reinforcement in each truss is
• The total area of reinforcement required in
each direction 2x As = 2 x 2207 = 4414
mm2. As the piles are spaced at three times
the pile diameter this reinforcement may be
distributed uniformly across the section.
Hence provide fifteen T20 bars, area = 4710
mm2, at 140 mm centres in both directions:
68
PILE FOUNDATION Example 5
• (c) Check for shear Percentage of steel
provided =
Thus from table 3.18 the allowable shear
stress, Vc = 0.43 N/mm2 Enhanced shear
stress =
Shear stress along critical section = • (d)
Check for punching shear
As the pile spacing is at three times the pile
diameter no punching shear check is
necessary. The shear at the column face is
given by
69
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
• Foundations need to be ideally
constructed on firm dry ground where
possible since it needs to set and then cured.
Water is disadvantageous to foundations in
most instances as water weakens
foundations when not adequately drained
from near it, especially when not designed to
be in water. Water therefore needs to be
taken from the site so the foundation can be
done.
• Coffer dams which are temporary are
constructed with purposes of draining the
water from inside the dam, embanking the
water to the outside of the dam to have solid
ground to construct the foundation within the
coffer dam so that when concrete is fully set
the water can be redirected into where the
foundation is situated. This is seen mostly in
bridge construction.
• EXCAVATION OF FOUNDATION IN
WATERLOGGED SITES
There are various methods of dealing with the
situation which depend upon the depth of
excavation, depth of water table and many
other factors. The following methods
are generally adopted while digging
foundation trenches in water-logged sites:
70
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(1) BY CONSTRUCTING DRAINS:
• This method is generally adopted in
shallow foundations in water-logged ground.
In this
method, drains of suitable sizes are
constructed by the sides of the foundation
trench. The drains collect sub-soil water from
the sides and the enclosed area and convey it
into a shallow pit or sump well. From the
sump, the water is continuously bailed or
pumped out. This is the cheapest method of
draining excavated area and can be easily
adopted by deploying unskilled labour and by
using simple equipment.
Figure 24 Dewatering of foundations by
constructing drains
71
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(2) BY CONSTRUCTING DEEP WELLS:
• In coarse soils, porous rock or in sites
where
large quantity of sub-soil water is required to
be drained out, 30 to 60 cm diameter wells
are sometimes constructed at 6 to 15 m
centres all round the site for temporary
drainage of the ground. The water collected in
the wells is pumped out continuously . This
method can be adopted for depths of
excavation up to 24 m.
(3) FREEZING PROCESS:
• This process is suitable for excavations in
water-logged soils like sand, gravel and silt.
It is advantageously used for deep excavation
such as foundation for bridges etc. specially
when excavation is to be made adjacent to an
existing structure or near some
waterways.
Figure 25 Deep well
72
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(3) FREEZING PROCESS:
• The process consists in forming a sort of
coffer darn by freezing the soil around the
area
to be excavated. Freezing pipes encasing
smaller diameter inner pipes are sunk about
one metre centre to centre along the
periphery of the area to be excavated. The
layout of the pipes should preferably be such
that the area enclosed is circular in plan.
• Freezing liquid is then supplied to the
freezing pipes by refrigeration plant. This
makes the ground around the pipes to freeze
and form a thick wall of frozen earth around
the area to be excavated. This process can
be used up to 30 m depth of excavation.
(4) BY CHEMICAL CONSOLIDATION
OF SOIL:
• In this method, the soft water-logged soil is
converted into a semi-solid mass by forcing
chemicals like silicates of soda and calcium
chloride into the soil. This method is used for
small works.
73
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(5) WELL POINT SYSTEM:
• This is a method of keeping an
excavated area dry by intercepting the
flow of ground water with pipe wells
driven deep into the ground.
• The main components of a well point
system are : (i) the well points, (ii) the
riser pipe, (iii) the header pipe and (iv)
the pumps.
• The well point consists of a
perforated pipe about 120 cm long and
4 cm in diameter. This pipe has a ball
valve to regulate the flow of water and
a screen to prevent the mud from
entering into the pipe. The well point
tube, is connected to 5 to 75 cm
diameter pipe known as riser pipe and
is sunk into the ground by jetting.
• In the process of jetting, water is
forced down through the well point at
the rate of 20 to 25 litres per second.
The water jet dislodges the surrounding
soil and enables the well point to be
sunk to the desired depth.
74
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(5) WELL POINT SYSTEM:
• After the well point has been sunk to
the required depth, the water jet is
allowed to run for some time (to ensure
washing all sand or silt ‘out of the hole)
till the return water from the hole is
quite clean. Thereafter the water jet is
closed and the annular space formed
around the well point (by jetting action
of water) is filled with coarse sand and
gravel to form a filter zone around the
well point.
• The filter zone prevents the entry of
fine particles of the surrounding soil into
the well point and avoids clogging of
well point screen. The filter sand around
the well point should be filled up to the
water table.
• The depth of the hole above the
water table is filled with tamped clay to
act as a clay seal to minimize air getting
into the well point through the sand
filter. The well points are suitably
spaced (normal spacing being 100 cm
c/c) so as to enclose the whole area to
be excavated.
75
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(5) WELL POINT SYSTEM:
• The riser pipes at their upper ends
are connected to a header pipe which in
turn is connected to a high capacity
suction pump. After all the well points
are installed and connected, the suction
pump is put into operation.
• Due to suction, the ball valve in the
well point gets closed and the ground
water is drawn in through the well point
screen. The water from the well point is
sucked up through the riser pipes, flows
through the header pipe and is finally
discharged away from the site of the
work.
Figure 26 Single stage well point
76
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(5) WELL POINT SYSTEM:
• This method can be successfully
adopted for depth of excavation up to
18 m. Since the suction pump is
normally not used to lift water above 6
m depth, in’ deep excavations, where it
is necessary to lower water table to a
greater depth, multi- stage system of
well point is used.
Figure 27 Well point system
77
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(6) BY CONSTRUCTING SAND
DRAINS:
• Sand drains prove very effective in
marshy soils. Soil becomes marshy by
the process of deposition of thick layers
of clays and silts mixed with organic
matter by the passage of time. Marshy
soil is thus subjected to capillarity and
has a high pore water pressure.
• When this type of soil is subjected to
load, its wet soils contents are gradually
pushed out on either side and this
results in subsidence of the ground. To
avoid this, sand drains are made in the
ground. The diameter of the sand drains
normally varies between 300 mm to
450 mm and their centre to centre
spacing may vary from 3 to 6 metre.
• The hole for making the sand drain
can be made by driving steel pipe
casting into the ground. The drain holes
are driven deeper than the marshy
layer possibly up to an underlying rock
or firm base.
78
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(6) BY CONSTRUCTING SAND
DRAINS:
• The marsh in the pipes is removed by
means of jets. Selected type of sand is
then filled into the pipes and the pipes
are withdrawn leaving vertical sand
piles in the ground. A thick layer of sand
(sand blanket) is spread over the entire
area to be consolidated.
• When the sand layer is subjected to
load, the water from the muck of the
marshy soil gets squeezed into the
vertical sand drains. By capillary action,
the water from the sand drains rises up
and is fed into the sand blanket from
where, it can be drained out.
• The objective of consolidation of soil
by this method is to develop increased
soil resistance to superimposed loads
usually consisting of earth fills in
highway or airport construction.
79
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(6) BY CONSTRUCTING SAND
DRAINS:
Figure 28 Sand drain
Figure 29 Movement of water through sand drain
80
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(7) ELECTRO-OSMOSIS:
• Well point system is rendered
ineffective in very fine sands, silts or
clay, because such soils tend to hold
the water by capillary action and offer
great resistance to percolation. It has
been established that if a direct current
is passed through a soil of low
permeability, its rate of drainage is
greatly increased.
Figure 30 Electro-osmosis method
81
FOUNDATION in waterlogged areas
(7) ELECTRO-OSMOSIS:
• In the process of Electro-Osmosis,
steel rods forming the positive
electrodes are driven in to the soil
midway between the well-points, which
are made to act as negative electrodes.
When electric current is passed, the
ground water flows towards the
negative electrode (well-points) and is
pumped out. This requires very
expensive equipment and hence it is
rarely used.
Figure 31 Water flow in Electro-osmosis method
82
THE END