EASA PART 66

CAT B1

MODULE
4
ELECTRONIC
FUNDAMENTALS
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CONTENTS

1. SEMICONDUCTORS .................................................................... 1-1

1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL .................................................................. 1-2
1.1.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors ............................................................. 1-2
1.1.2 Extrinsic Semiconductors ............................................................ 1-3
1.1.3 Acceptors.................................................................................... 1-3
1.1.4 Majority and Minority Carriers ..................................................... 1-4
1.1.5 Conductivity ................................................................................ 1-4
1.2 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL APPLICATIONS ........................................... 1-5
1.2.1 Photodetector ............................................................................. 1-5
1.2.2 Hall Effect Sensor ....................................................................... 1-7
2. SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS ................................................ 2-1
2.1 DIFFUSION ............................................................................................ 2-1
2.2 DEPLETION LAYER ................................................................................ 2-1
2.3 SPACE CHARGE REGIONS ...................................................................... 2-2
2.4 EXTERNAL TERMINALS .......................................................................... 2-3
2.5 JUNCTION BIAS ..................................................................................... 2-3
2.5.1 Forward Bias .............................................................................. 2-3
2.5.2 Reverse Bias .............................................................................. 2-4
3. THE DIODE................................................................................... 3-1
3.1 CIRCUIT SYMBOL................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 OPERATING PARAMETERS ..................................................................... 3-2
3.3 SERIES AND PARALLEL DIODES ............................................................. 3-4
3.3.1 Series Connected ....................................................................... 3-4
3.3.2 Parallel Connected ..................................................................... 3-6
3.4 RECTIFIER DIODE .................................................................................. 3-7
3.5 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR) ................................................ 3-8
3.5.1 Construction ............................................................................... 3-8
3.5.2 Switching On .............................................................................. 3-8
3.5.3 SCR Applications ........................................................................ 3-9
3.6 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) ................................................................ 3-11
3.7 PHOTODIODE ........................................................................................ 3-12
3.8 VARISTOR ............................................................................................. 3-13
3.9 RECTIFIER CIRCUITS .............................................................................. 3-14
3.9.1 Half-Wave Rectifier ..................................................................... 3-14
3.9.2 Full-Wave Rectifier ..................................................................... 3-15
3.9.3 Rectifier Output Mean DC Level ................................................. 3-16
3.10 DIODE TESTING ..................................................................................... 3-17
4. THE TRANSISTOR ....................................................................... 4-1
4.1 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR ........................................................................... 4-1
4.1.1 Construction ............................................................................... 4-1
4.1.2 Operation .................................................................................... 4-2
5. THE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC) ................................................ 5-1
5.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ICS ........................................... 5-1
5.1.1 Advantages................................................................................. 5-1
5.1.2 Disadvantages ............................................................................ 5-1
5.2 SCALE OF INTEGRATION ........................................................................ 5-2

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5.2.1 IC Packaging .............................................................................. 5-3

5.3 TYPES OF IC ......................................................................................... 5-4
5.3.1 Digital IC ..................................................................................... 5-4
5.4 ANALOGUE IC ....................................................................................... 5-7
5.4.1 Operational Amplifier (Op Amp) .................................................. 5-7
5.4.2 Op Amp Applications .................................................................. 5-13
6. THE PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB) ...................................... 6-1
6.1 TYPES OF PCBS ................................................................................... 6-1
6.1.1 Types of PCB ............................................................................. 6-2
6.1.2 Component Mounting ................................................................. 6-3
6.1.3 Conformal Coating ...................................................................... 6-4
6.1.4 Handling ..................................................................................... 6-4
7. POSITION & ROTARY SPEED TRANSDUCERS ........................ 7-1
7.1 POSITION / DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS ............................................. 7-1
7.1.1 Potentiometer Transducers ......................................................... 7-1
7.1.2 Inductive Transducers................................................................. 7-4
7.2 PROXIMITY TRANSDUCER ....................................................................... 7-15
7.2.1 Hall Effect Proximity Transducer ................................................. 7-15
7.2.2 Induction Proximity Transducer ................................................... 7-15
7.3 ROTARY SPEED TRANSDUCER ............................................................... 7-16
7.3.1 Rotation Frequency Transducer .................................................. 7-16
7.3.2 Tachogenerator .......................................................................... 7-17
8. THE SERVOMECHANISM ........................................................... 8-1
8.1 TYPES OF SERVOMECHANISM................................................................. 8-1
8.1.1 Open Loop Servomechanism...................................................... 8-2
8.1.2 Closed Loop Servomechanism ................................................... 8-2
8.1.3 Velocity Feedback ...................................................................... 8-4
8.2 SERVOMECHANISM FUNCTION ................................................................ 8-5
8.2.1 RPC Servomechanism................................................................ 8-5
8.2.2 Velodyne Servomechanism ........................................................ 8-5
8.3 SERVOMECHANISM APPLICATIONS ......................................................... 8-6
8.3.1 DC Servomechanism .................................................................. 8-6
8.3.2 AC Servomechanism .................................................................. 8-7

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ABBREVIATIONS

The following abbreviations are used in these notes:

AC Alternating Current
ASIC Application-Specific Integrated Circuit
eV electron-Volts
DC Direct Current
DIL Double-In-Line
DMM Digital Multimeter
FBW Fly-by-Wire
IC Integrated Circuit
LC Inductive-Capacitive
LED Light Emitting Diode
LRU Line Replacement Unit
LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transducer
MOV Metal Oxide Varistor
PCB Printed Circuit Board
RC Resistive-Capacitive
RF Radio Frequency
RPC Remote Position Control
RPM Revolutions per Minute
RVDT Rotary Variable Differential Transducer
SCR Silicon Controlled Rectifier
SMT Surface Mounted Technology
THT Through the Hole Technology
VCO Voltage Controlled Oscillator
VDT Variable Differential Transducer
wrt with respect to

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1. SEMICONDUCTORS

The main electrical properties are conducting and insulating. The inherent
property of a material is determined at atomic/molecular level by how many
valence electrons there are and how closely bound to the nucleus they are. A
material will be a conductor if the electrons are easily removed (to an adjacent
atom) and an insulator if they are not easily removed. The majority of materials
are considered a conductor or an insulator and will retain that single property
across variations of temperature and electrical charge. Materials known as
semiconductors are neither conductor nor insulator because although they allow
current flow when voltage is placed across them, the flow will be so miniscule that
it cannot be classed as a conductor and conversely because there will always be
current flow (albeit at a miniscule level) it cannot be classed as an insulator.
Their ability to allow or prevent current flow (resistance) is changed when
subjected to different temperatures, electrical charge and light. It is this property
that makes them useful in certain applications.

Semiconductor research began in 1873 when it was discovered that the

resistance of the metal selenium decreased with temperature (resistance of
metals normally increases with temperature). Further, its resistance reduced
when exposed to light. Research later found similar semiconductor materials
although the change in resistance was too small for practical use at that time, but
by 1906 they were used as radio signal detectors. The introduction of the
thermionic valve, which uses thermionic emission to produce diode or transistor
function, saw the use of semiconductors decline as valves were more reliable and
also provided signal amplification whereas semiconductor detectors could only
detect a signal and further amplification was then needed.

During development of Radar in the Second World War it was found that valves
were unable to operate at the high frequencies required. Research turned to
semiconductors with silicon proving successful. After the War, the semiconductor
behaviour of germanium and silicon was investigated and a germanium diode
detector was developed and subsequently used widely in radio and television.
During their development, it was found that when two extremely close contacts
are made with a piece of germanium, the current flow through one of the contacts
affected the amount of current flow through the other. In 1948 Bell Telephone
used this phenomenon to manufacture the first solid-state amplifying device: the
transistor was born. Interest in semiconductors was renewed and development
found that ‘doping’ the semiconductor material with other elements produced
either an excess or a lack of electrons in the material which altered the
characteristics. This provided varying modes of operation and brought about the
huge variety of semiconductor devices that are now taken for granted. The term
‘semiconductor devices’ encompasses many devices and each has a different
mode of operation. Before discussing them, it is necessary to briefly describe
semiconductors themselves.

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1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

Semiconductor devices commonly use germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) crystals.
Each has 4 valance electrons and a lattice structure as shown in Figure 1.

Lattice Structure of Silicon

Figure 1

1.1.1 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

A crystal of pure semiconductor material with no other atoms, such as in Figure 1,

is termed an Intrinsic Semiconductor. In intrinsic semiconductors, conductivity is
heavily dependent on temperature, and electrons and holes are created in equal
numbers. These facts limit the usefulness of intrinsic semiconductor material.
Figure 2 shows current flow in an intrinsic semiconductor. The electrons
(negative charge) are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery, while the
holes (positive charge) are attracted to the negative terminal.

Intrinsic Semiconductor
Figure 2

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1.1.2 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

If a small amount of a pentavalent impurity element (one having five valence

electrons) such as arsenic (As), phosphorus (P), or antimony (Sb)) is added to a
crystal of intrinsic semiconductor material (germanium or silicon), the ‘impurity’
atoms will displace some of the original semiconductor atoms in the lattice.
Adding impurities is termed Doping. Four of the five valence electrons in the
impurity atom will take their places in the covalent bond structure of the crystal
and the fifth electron can be regarded as ‘free’ and available as a charge carrier.
The positive ion is fixed in the crystal lattice; it cannot move and therefore cannot
take part in the conduction process. As the number of ‘free’ electrons is equal to
the number of ‘fixed’ impurity ions the material as a whole is electrically neutral.
Impurities that behave in this way are called Donors as they ‘donate’ excess
electrons. When semiconductor material is doped, it is termed an Extrinsic
Semiconductor. Figure 3 shows a lattice structure of an n-type semiconductor.

Lattice Structure of N-Type Semiconductor

Figure 3

1.1.3 ACCEPTORS

If a small amount of an impurity element having three valence electrons (trivalent

material such as gallium (Ga), indium (In), or boron (B)) is used to dope an
intrinsic semiconductor, only three of the four available covalent bonds can be
occupied by electrons. The vacancy that exists in the fourth bond can be thought
of as a ‘positive hole’ that can ‘accept’ an electron; hence the term ‘acceptor’.
The resulting semiconductor is known as a p-type extrinsic semiconductor and
the number of ‘free holes’ is approximately equal to the number of acceptor
atoms present. Figure 4 shows the lattice structure of a p-type semiconductor.

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Lattice of P Type Semiconductor

Figure 4

1.1.4 MAJORITY AND MINORITY CARRIERS

When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped, in n-type material the number of free

electrons increase and the number of holes decrease or in p-type material the
number of free electrons decrease and the number of holes increase. Hence, in
n-type material the predominant electrical charge carrier will be electrons and for
p-type material the predominant charge carrier will be holes. Consequently, in n-
type material, electrons are termed ‘majority carriers’ as are holes in p-type
material, and holes and electrons respectively are therefore ‘minority carriers’.

1.1.5 CONDUCTIVITY

The majority carrier concentration in an extrinsic semiconductor is approximately

equal to the density of impurity atoms. In practice, this means that conductivity of
the extrinsic material depends upon the amount of impurity present, i.e. upon the
extent of doping. Doping is controlled during manufacturing to suit the application
for which the device is intended. N-type material has fixed positive ions and free
electrons. The number of free electrons depends upon doping, heavily doped
materials being better conductors than lightly doped materials. P-type material
has fixed negative ions and free holes, the number of free holes is dependent
upon the level of doping. Figure 5 shows the effect of heavy and light doping of
semiconductors.

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Heavy and Light Doping of Semiconductors

Figure 5

1.2 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL APPLICATIONS

Semiconductor material has many uses and innovative uses are still being
developed. The most common applications use the properties of n-type and p-
type materials when in contact with each other (P-N junctions): they will be
discussed later. The reaction of semiconductor material when exposed to the
following mediums is also used in electronic circuits:

• Light, using a photodetector.

• Magnetism, using a Hall Effect sensor.

1.2.1 PHOTODETECTOR

Photodetectors use photoconductivity to create electricity. When certain

semiconductor materials are exposed to light, photons (particles of light) liberate
electrons from atoms and produce electron flow: electric current. A common
application of this process is the solar panel comprising many photodetectors and
used as a source of useable energy. Photodetectors are also used to control
circuits dependent upon the light level to which the device is exposed. The
following photodetector devices are discussed:

• Photoresistor.
• Photovoltaic Cell.

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[Link] PHOTORESISTOR

When exposed to light, photons liberate electrons from atoms in the

semiconductor material. The free electrons become available as a current carrier
and effectively reduce the resistance of the material. The energy required to free
an electron is termed the Energy Gap and is measured in electron-volts (eV):
effectively, an eV is the potential difference across an electron. The energy gap
varies dependent on the type of material. Table 1 details energy gaps for
different photoresistor materials.

Material Symbol Energy Gap (eV) at 300K (27°C)

Cadmium Sulphide CdS 2.4
Gallium Phosphide GaP 2.2
Cadmium Selenide CdSe 1.7
Silicon Si 1.1
Germanium Ge 0.7

Table 1
Photoresistor Material Energy Gaps

An important characteristic of a photoresistor is the ratio between its light and

dark resistance which is usually in the order of 1000:1. Figure 6A & 6B show a
typical photoresistor construction and circuit symbol.

CERAMIC
SUBSTRATE
WINDOW

PHOTORESISTIVE
MATERIAL
CASE

CONNECTING
PINS

PHOTORESISTIVE CELL
CIRCUIT SYMBOL

Photo Resistor Construction

Figure 6A

Photo Resistor Circuit Symbol

Figure 6B

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[Link] PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS

The voltage produced by a photovoltaic cell depends on the material used, the
intensity of the light and the amount of current drawn from the cell. A silicon cell
in sunlight will produce a no-load voltage of 0.45V, providing up to 35mA per cm 2.
Efficiency of photovoltaic cells is low with only about 10% of the light converted to
electrical energy. Figure 7 shows the circuit symbol for a photovoltaic cell.

Photovoltaic Cell Circuit Symbol

Figure 7

1.2.2 HALL EFFECT SENSOR

In 1879 E.M. Hall discovered that some charge carriers were deflected to one of
the faces of a piece of metal when a strong magnetic field was applied which
gave rise to an EMF (the Hall voltage) between opposite faces of the conductor.
The EMF produced in metal is in the order of µV; for semiconductors it is greater.
An experiment, making use of what is known as the Hall Effect, can be conducted
to demonstrate that the majority carriers in a bar of semiconductor material are
electrons in n-type and holes in p-type.

Figure 8 demonstrates the Hall Effect. Consider the arrangement in Figure 8a

showing a bar of semiconductor material with 20V DC applied. Conventional
current will flow as indicated by the arrow. A further two connections are taken
from opposite faces of the bar at the mid-point along the axis (points A and B in
the Figure 8c). Under static conditions the voltage at both A and B with respect
to the supply negative terminal will be +10V. There is no potential difference
between A and B.

If the bar is placed in a transverse magnetic field as in Figure 8b, the charge
carriers moving in the semiconductor are deflected by the magnetic field in the
direction given by Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule. Thus, whether the charge carriers
are holes or electrons, they are deflected upwards in Figure 8b, towards point A.
This will result in a redistribution of charge carriers between A and B, with the
concentration towards A. If the charge carriers are positive (holes), A is positive
with respect to B, as shown in Figure 8c. Conversely, if the charge carriers are
negative (electrons), A is negative with respect to B, as shown in Figure 8c. The
potential difference between A and B is called the Hall Voltage.

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The Hall Effect

Figure 8

The Hall Effect has many practical applications such as contactless switches
(proximity detectors). It can also be used in a DC starter/generator system as a
means of measuring generator output current which is input to the Generator
Control Unit to control generator field current for voltage regulation. Figure 9
shows Hall Effect Sensors in a DC starter/generator system.

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Hall Effect Sensors

Figure 9

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2. SEMICONDUCTOR JUNCTIONS

So far n-type and p-type materials have been considered separately. Most
semiconductor devices comprise both n-type and p-type materials and therefore
contain joints between the two types. These interfaces are called P-N junctions.
Electrical behaviour in and around P-N junctions is key to semiconductor devices.
Suppose the n-type and p-type materials shown at Figure 1 are brought together
to form a junction. Before contact both materials are electrically neutral:

• N-type has a large number of free electrons whose charge is balanced by

a large number of fixed positive donor ions (and a few free holes).
• P-type has a large number of free holes whose charge is balanced by a
large number of fixed negative acceptor ions (and a few free electrons).

N-Type and P-Type Materials Prior to Joining

Figure 1

2.1 DIFFUSION

Although each piece of material is electrically neutral, when contact is made

between the two materials as in Figure 2, free electrons in the n-type material
move across to the p-type material and free holes in the p-type material move
across to the n-type material. This is known as Diffusion, which equalises the
potential difference between the two materials, resulting in the whole block of
semiconductor material itself now being electrically neutral.

Joined N-Type and P-Type Materials

Figure 2

2.2 DEPLETION LAYER

Diffusion stops when there is no longer enough attraction to draw the free
electrons and holes to the other material. The area that has exchanged electrons

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and holes is termed the Depletion Layer and is shown at Figure 2. The depletion
layer is also known as the Dipole Layer.

P-N Junction Depletion Layer

Figure 2

2.3 SPACE CHARGE REGIONS

Within the depletion layer, due to diffusion that has formed it, the n-type material
is positively charged and the p-type material negatively charged. These are
termed Space Charge Regions and are shown in Figure 3, along with a
representation of the electrical charge throughout the joined semiconductor
materials (bottom of Figure 3). Each space charge region is equal and opposite
therefore leaving the whole ‘assembly’ neutral. As already stated, the depletion
layer is also known as the dipole layer: this is due to the two (hence dipole) space
charge regions. The depletion/dipole layer acts as an insulator, a Potential
Barrier, due to the absence of free electrons or holes that would have acted as
charge carriers to carry an electric current. Current is therefore prevented from
flowing across the depletion/dipole layer. Should a very small voltage (in the
order of mV) be applied across the joined materials, then the majority of that
voltage would be felt or dropped across the depletion/dipole layer. This is due to
the neutral areas either side of it presenting a much lower resistance than the
depletion/dipole layer itself.

Space Charge Regions within Depletion Layer / Dipole Layer

Figure 3

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2.4 EXTERNAL TERMINALS

For practical use, to operate the P-N junction in an electrical circuit it must have a
means of connecting it into the circuit. One method is to evaporate a thin metal
film onto the parts of the semiconductor to make a contact. It is called electrode
or Ohmic Contact and forms attachment points for wires that lead to the external
connection terminals. The terminal connected to the p-type material is the Anode
and the terminal connected to the n-type is the Cathode. The connection of
terminals to the semiconductor material is illustrated in Figure 4.

External Terminals
Figure 4

2.5 JUNCTION BIAS

2.5.1 FORWARD BIAS

If a DC voltage in the order of mV is applied across a P-N junction (positive to the

p-type and negative to the n-type) electrons in the n-type material will migrate
across the junction toward the p-type material which is connected to the positive
supply and will begin to reduce the depletion layer but it will continue to act as a
potential barrier (insulator). However, if the voltage is increased sufficiently, the
depletion layer will eventually become non-existent and current will flow across
the junction, completing the circuit. The device is now said to be Forward Biased.
The voltage at which the depletion layer ‘disappears’ is known as Forward
Voltage and is dependent on the semiconductor material. Figure 5 shows the
effect of small and large voltage applied in Forward Bias across a P-N junction.

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P-N Junction Forward Bias

Figure 5

2.5.2 REVERSE BIAS

If a DC voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this time positive to n-type and
negative to p-type, the free electrons in the n-type migrate towards the DC supply
positive contact and the holes in the p-type move to the negative contact. This
increases the depletion/dipole layer and therefore increases resistance to current
flow: this is Reverse Bias. Figure 6 shows the effect of small and large voltage
applied in Reverse Bias across a P-N junction.

P-N Junction Reverse Bias

Figure 6

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3. THE DIODE

The P-N junction already discussed is the most basic semiconductor device: the
Junction Diode which is often shortened to just Diode. It is used to allow or block
current flow. This section will look at the types of diodes, how they are connected
into a circuit and their applications. The following are the main types of diodes
and/or applications:

• Rectifier diode.
• Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).
• Light Emitting Diode (LED).
• Photo diode.
• Varistor.

3.1 CIRCUIT SYMBOL

The circuit symbol for a diode is shown at Figure 1, as is how the device is placed
in a circuit to allow or block current flow. Note that conventional current can flow
only in the direction of the arrow in the symbol.

Diode Symbol
Figure 1

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3.2 OPERATING PARAMETERS

Most semiconductor diodes are made from either silicon or germanium; these two
materials have different characteristics, although the principle of operation and
circuit symbols are the same. The following sections discuss important
parameters of diodes and how silicon and germanium diodes differ.

[Link] FORWARD VOLTAGE

As discussed in Chapter 2, a P-N junction (a diode) is forward biased when a

voltage is applied across it such that current flows, i.e. the Forward Voltage is
reached or exceeded. This occurs in the diode when the voltage is more positive
at the anode with respect to the cathode and can be achieved as follows:

• Connect the anode to +3V and the cathode to 0V.

• Connect the anode to +1V and the cathode to −1V.
• Connect the anode to −52V and the cathode to −53V.

The forward voltage required to make the diode conduct depends on the material:

• Germanium diodes require 0.1V to 0.2V

• Silicon diodes require 0.6V to 0.7V

[Link] MAXIMUM REVERSE VOLTAGE

Excessive reverse bias voltage will damage a diode and cause a permanent open
or short circuit. Maximum reverse voltage may be just a few volts up to 100V for
germanium and 1kV for silicon diodes. Figures 2 and 3 show the voltage/current
characteristics for a silicon and a germanium diode respectively. It can be seen
at Figure 2 that the diode’s maximum reverse voltage is 150V and at Figure 3 it is
75V.

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Silicon Diode Voltage-Current Characteristics

Figure 2

Germanium Diode Voltage-Current Characteristics

Figure 3

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3.3 SERIES AND PARALLEL DIODES

Diodes are usually connected alone in a circuit. Their functions and outputs are
then processed by subsequent components. However, diodes may be connected
in series or parallel. The ‘single’ diode that results can then handle greater levels
of one or more of the operating parameters discussed at 3.2 than it could alone.

3.3.1 SERIES CONNECTED

In a high voltage circuit one diode may not be enough to block reverse voltages
that will be encountered and in such cases two or more diodes would be used.
‘Identical’ diodes, even ones from the same batch, will not necessary have
exactly the same electrical characteristics. When in forward bias the diodes carry
the same current and are likely to have near-identical voltage drops. However,
when reverse biased the subtle differences between ‘identical’ diodes are
accentuated and reverse voltage drops across each diode are likely to differ
dramatically. Figure 4 shows the reverse voltage across two diodes in series.

Figure 4a Figure 4b
Circuit. Voltage-Current Characteristics

Identical Diodes in Series Reverse Voltage

Figure 4

It can be seen that the reverse voltage drop across D1 is greater than that across
D2 before the breakdown occurs and maximum reverse current flows. If the
same reverse voltage drop is to be applied across each diode their electrical
differences will require compensation. A simple method would be to connect
resistors in parallel with each diode, the values of which would produce an equal
voltage drop across each diode-resistor pair. This solution would not be entirely
successful as under dynamic conditions (when current is flowing), the small
difference in value between each component will be accentuated (no two
resistors of the same value are exactly the same value due to manufacturing

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constraints). Due to the equal voltage sharing, the different characteristics of

both diodes cause a difference in the drift currents through each device. The
reverse bias current through each therefore varies. Figure 5 shows the
arrangement of two resistors connected in parallel with the two diodes.

Figure 5a Figure 5b
Circuit. Voltage-Current Characteristics
Parallel Identical Diode-Resistor Pairs
Figure 5

Each diode-resistor pair shares the reverse bias current, hence:

Reverse current −IS = −ID2 + −IR2 = −ID1 + −IR1

Also, the reverse bias voltage across D1 = reverse bias voltage D2, i.e.

−VD1 = −VD2

Also:
− VD 2 − VD1
−IR2 = R 2 and −IR1 = R1

The sum of the two reverse bias voltages must be equal to the total reverse
voltage. Once the value of one resistor has been decided, the value of the other
resistor for equal voltage sharing can be calculated if the electrical characteristics
of both the diodes are known.

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3.3.2 PARALLEL CONNECTED

Connecting diodes in parallel increases the current carrying capability in a circuit

as the current is divided in this configuration. Parallel-connected diodes are
commonly used in high power applications where a single diode cannot
accommodate the high current generated. To ensure equal current sharing is
achieved, resistors are connected in series with the diodes, as shown at Figure 6.

Diodes and Resistors in Parallel

Figure 6

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3.4 RECTIFIER DIODE

Rectifier diodes convert AC to DC, a process known as rectification. They have:

• Low resistance to current flow in forward bias.

• High resistance to current flow in reverse bias.
• A breakdown voltage of at least the AC peak voltage that is being rectified.

Figure 7 shows a simple rectifier circuit. As the diode conducts only at forward
bias, when AC is applied unidirectional pulses (DC) result across the output: this
is half-wave rectification. If required, the polarity of the pulses can be reversed by
reversing the diode connections.

Simple Rectifier Circuit

Figure 7

Rectifier diodes are usually constructed from silicon, which have a maximum
forward current of approximately 200mA to 2kA at 3kV to 4kV. They are small
and lightweight, impervious to shock and work at temperatures up to about
200°C. Examples of silicon rectifier diodes are shown at Figure 8.

Silicon Rectifier Diodes

Figure 8

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3.5 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR)

The SCR, or Thyristor as it is otherwise known, is a semiconductor device made

up of both n-type and p-type materials. It has two stable states, OFF or ON, and
is used as a switching device.

3.5.1 CONSTRUCTION

The SCR comprises four regions of semiconductor material, either PNPN or

NPNP. It has three connecting terminals: Anode, Cathode and Gate:

• Anode is the outer p-type region.

• Cathode is the outer n-type region.
• Gate is:
o PNPN device: the inner p-type region.
o NPNP device: the inner n-type region.

Figure 9 shows the construction of a PNPN SCR and circuit symbol for an SCR.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Figure 9

3.5.2 SWITCHING ON

In the off condition with the circuit connected to a supply, the junction between
the two bases are reverse biased while the junction between the base and the
anode and the base and the cathode are forward biased. For all practical
purposes current flow is blocked although a small leakage current will exist. The
SCR is switched on by increasing the supply voltage up to the breakover voltage
or by application of a current pulse to the gate. In this state both inner regions
are saturated with carriers, the junction between them is forward biased and there
is a very low potential difference across the SCR. Beyond the breakover point
the current increases rapidly, limited only by the resistance of the circuit.

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If the current falls below a value termed the Holding Current, the SCR reverts to
the OFF or forward blocking position. It should be noted that once the gate is
pulsed it no longer controls the current so that its supply can be removed without
affecting the operation of the SCR. Figure 10 shows a typical SCR voltage-
current curve with 10mA on the gate. When the anode voltage reaches the
breakover point, in this case 360V, the current through the device goes to a
maximum. If the gate current is increased, then the breakover point occurs at
lower anode voltages. The advantage of the SCR can be seen from the fact that
a large current can be switched with a very small controlling current.

Breakover Voltage
Figure 10

3.5.3 SCR APPLICATIONS

[Link] HIGH CURRENT SWITCHING

SCRs can be used to switch high current devices just as a relay would. Figure 11
shows an SCR controlling a lamp supply circuit. With S1 closed and S2 open the
lamp is off but when S2 is also closed, gate current flows and the SCR will switch
on, i.e. it ‘fires’. The anode current is then large enough to illuminate L1. Once
the SCR has switched on it no longer needs the gate voltage and if S2 is opened
(with S1 still closed), L1 will remain illuminated. The lamp will only extinguish if
S1 is opened. A SCR can switch currents up to 1kA.

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DC Lamp Circuit
Figure 11

[Link] CURRENT CONTROLLING DEVICE

SCRs can also be used to control current. They conduct only on positive half-
cycles of AC waveforms. By synchronizing gate firing with the start of the positive
half-cycle, current flows only for the whole of that half-cycle; this is shown in
Figure 12. However, by moving the gate firing along the waveform current flows
for only the remaining portion of the half-cycle. This is shown at Figure 13 which
has gate firing at the positive peak, 90° into the waveform. The variable resistor
and capacitor in Figure 12 serve to adjust the gate firing point: as R is decreased
the phase difference between the anode and gate increases, thus moving the
gate firing point. A light dimming circuit functions in this manner.

SCR on Alternating Current

Figure 12

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Variable Control of SCR Trigger

Figure 13

3.6 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

The Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a P-N junction using semiconductor material
that emits light when current flows, i.e. it is forward biased. The most common
colour manufactured is red but green and yellow are available, albeit at a lower
intensity. Figure 14 shows the circuit symbol for an LED and its operation. The
voltage drop across an LED is approximately 2V; above this the current passing
through it increases rapidly. For this reason, a series resistor is used to limit the
current to around 10mA to prevent burnout of the junction. LEDs are replacing
incandescent lamps on aircraft fault panels as they consume less power and are
more reliable as there is no filament to rupture.

LED Circuit Symbol and Operation

Figure 14

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3.7 PHOTODIODE

A photodiode uses photoconductivity which was already discussed at Chapter 2.

A P-N junction is exposed to the ambient light and current produced in the
direction of diode reverse bias. The photodiode can be used alone in a circuit to
produce an output dependent upon the light level, its output then being amplified
and acting on the circuit as necessary. Alternatively, a photodiode may be
connected across a supply but in reverse bias. With no light present, there will be
just a small leakage current; this is known as the ‘dark’ current. When light is
present and photoconductivity occurs, the photodiode will not only produce its
own current flow but current from the supply will also flow. This is particularly
useful if the photodiode is controlling another component that requires greater
current than the photodiode can itself supply.

The photodiode is similar to a standard diode but has mechanical differences to

expose the P-N junction to light. They are useful for measurement purposes as
the leakage current is directly proportional over a wide range of light levels.
Silicon is generally used for photodiodes so the peak response to light is in the
infra-red region. A typical photodiode would have a dark current of 1.5nA and an
output current in bright sunlight of 3.5µA. Figure 15 shows a typical photodiode,
the circuit symbol and current characteristics. Note that the arrows shown denote
light entering the device, unlike the arrows in the LED circuit symbol which show
light being emitted from the device.

Photodiode
Figure 15

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3.8 VARISTOR

The varistor is a VARiable resistor which is commonly manufactured from metal

oxide (zinc oxide) and called a Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV). One application it is
used for is removing noise spikes from AC voltages. Noise spikes have short
duration and large amplitude and may pass through a rectifier circuit and appear
on the DC output. Low pass filters are often ineffective against noise spikes so
the spikes are attenuated before rectifying AC. When the voltage across the
Varistor exceeds a certain level (in negative or positive direction) it conducts to
clip off the noise spikes. The varistor acts in a similar way to a Zener diode but is
much faster in operation. Figure 16 shows the voltage-current characteristic and
circuit symbols.

Varistor Voltage-Current Characteristic & Circuit Symbols

Figure 16

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3.9 RECTIFIER CIRCUITS

Rectifier circuits convert AC to DC. Once the AC voltage has been rectified,
whether half-wave (where only the positive or negative half-cycles are used but
not both) or full-wave (where both half-cycles are used), the resultant DC voltage
may then be smoothed. This will provide as near a constant DC level as possible
(reducing the ‘up-down’ ripple of the rectified AC voltage). The smoothed DC
voltage may then be stabilised to ensure that throughout the working voltage or
current levels of the circuit, the output voltage remains within a tolerable level of
the pre-stabilised level otherwise a very large draw of current may reduce the
voltage level to an intolerably low level.

3.9.1 HALF-W AVE RECTIFIER

The half-wave rectifier has already been discussed at Section 3.4 and shown at
Figure 7 (reproduced at Figure 17 below). At its most basic it comprises a single
diode connected in between an AC supply and a load. The diode will conduct on
only one half-cycle of the AC waveform, during the other half-cycle the diode will
be reverse biased. This results in DC ‘pulses’ separated by 0V (zero volts) for
the duration of a half-cycle. Figure 7 is reproduced at Figure 17 and the resultant
output pulses can be seen, which have only half the energy/power that the full AC
input waveform contained.

Simple Half-Wave Rectifier Circuit

Figure 17

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3.9.2 FULL-W AVE RECTIFIER

Half-wave rectification is inefficient because only 50% of the available power is

produced at the output, excluding circuit losses. To use all the available power,
Full-Wave Rectification is required as both halves of every cycle of input voltage
produce current pulses at the output. This requires at least two diodes. There
are two types of full-wave rectifier:

• Full-wave centre-tap rectifier, using two diodes.

• Full-wave bridge rectifier, using four diodes.

[Link] FULL-W AVE CENTRE-TAP RECTIFIER

In the full-wave rectifier circuit shown at Figure 18, diodes D1 and D2 rectify the
AC and the centre-tapped transformer secondary winding provides the DC
negative path. During the positive half-cycle of the AC input, D1 conducts and D2
is reversed biased and does not conduct. During the negative half-cycle, D2
conducts and D1 is reversed biased and does not conduct. This produces
constant positive pulses at the output. The circuit effectively consists of two half-
wave rectifiers working into the same load on alternate half-cycles of the input.
The averaged value of the DC pulses is 64% of their peak value and the output
frequency is double the input frequency. Whilst this circuit produces full-wave
rectification, because it uses a centre-tap secondary winding it can only rectify
50% of that produced at the secondary winding. The other 50% is reverse-
biasing the other diode and the circuit is therefore not using all the available input
power.

Centre-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure 18

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[Link] FULL-W AVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A simple full-wave Bridge Rectifier is shown in Figure 19, which uses 4 diodes
across the full secondary winding of the transformer. During the positive half-
cycle of the AC input, diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and conduct and D1
and D3 are reversed biased and do not conduct. During the negative half-cycle,
diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and conduct and D2 and D4 are reversed
biased and do not conduct. This produces constant positive pulses at the output.
The averaged value of the DC pulses is 64% of their peak value and the output
frequency is double the input frequency. However, in this case the whole of the
secondary is rectified and therefore 100% of available power is produced at the
output, excluding circuit losses.

Full-Wave Bridge Rectifier

Figure 19

3.9.3 RECTIFIER OUTPUT MEAN DC LEVEL

Consider the DC pulses from the outputs of both half-wave or full-wave rectifiers
being ‘squashed down’ until the gaps between each pulse are filled in and an
even straight line results: this would be the mean DC level. The mean DC level
of a half-wave rectifier outputs is 32% of the peak AC voltage and, because both
half-cycles are used, the mean DC level of a full-wave rectifier is 64%. Figures
20 and 21 show the mean DC level of half-wave and full-wave rectifier outputs
respectively. The mean DC level at this stage is only the product of a calculation.
The true outputs are still pulses from 0V to much more than the mean DC level
and they cannot be used as power supplies without the outputs being smoothed.

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Mean DC Level Output of Simple Half-Wave Rectifier

Figure 20

Mean DC Level Output of Simple Full-Wave Rectifier

Figure 21

3.10 DIODE TESTING

Before testing a diode, the cathode must be identified and then an ohmmeter (or
Digital Multimeter) set to resistance is applied as in Figure 22. In one direction
the ohmmeter reading should be low but a very high resistance should be
detected in the other direction. Many Digital Multimeters also have a Diode Test
Mode that can be used.

Testing Diodes
Figure 22

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PAGE
INTENTIONALLY
BLANK

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4. THE TRANSISTOR

The transistor can be a high or low resistance device, hence the name which is
derived from TRANSfer resISTOR. It is used in many switching and amplifier
circuits where its resistive properties are controlled by small currents. This
section will look at the types of transistors, how they are connected into a circuit
(the configuration), and their applications.

4.1 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

The bipolar transistor is so-called as it relies on both (hence ‘bi’) electrons and
holes for its operation. It is the most common transistor and is often just referred
to as a transistor, as opposed to other types of transistors, such as the field effect
transistor which is usually referred to as a ‘FET’.

4.1.1 CONSTRUCTION

A bipolar transistor is made up of two P-N junctions in either of the configurations:

• NPN bipolar transistor, which consists of a thin region of p-type material,

sandwiched between two n-type regions.
• PNP bipolar transistor, which consists of a thin region of n-type material,
sandwiched between two p-type regions.

These are shown at Figure 1 along with the circuit symbol. For both NPN and
PNP, the centre region of the device is called the Base; one outer region is called
the Emitter and the other the Collector. Although the emitter and collector
regions are the same type of extrinsic semiconductor (n-type in NPN and p-type
in PNP), they are constructed and doped differently and are not interchangeable
on a practical device. It can be seen from Figure 1 that PNP and NPN bipolar
transistor circuit symbols have arrows at the emitter that point in the direction of
conventional current flow when forward biased. A method to remember the
direction of the arrow on the NPN transistor is to think of it as; ‘Not Pointing iN’.
Figure 2 shows a transistor package with the Tag indicating the Emitter.

NPN and PNP Bipolar Transistors

Figure 1

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Typical Bipolar Transistor Package

Figure 2

4.1.2 OPERATION

Figure 3 shows an NPN bipolar transistor and the equivalent diode circuit. It can
be seen from the diode circuit that the base-emitter is connected forward biased
whereas base-collector is reverse biased. Current flow is shown by dotted lines.

NPN Bipolar Transistor and Equivalent Diode Circuit

Figure 3

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5. THE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)

The Integrated Circuit (IC) has changed the entire electronics industry. Before
the IC all circuits comprised individual (discrete), components that were wired
together, often taking up a large amount of physical space. Printed Circuit Board
(PCB) technology made it possible to reduce the amount of space required: these
are discussed later in these notes. However, circuits can be complex and require
a large number of components and there is a limitation on the amount of size
reduction that can be achieved with a PCB. IC technology has made it possible
to fabricate large numbers of electronic components onto a single silicon chip. As
a result, the physical size of a circuit is significantly reduced, making it possible to
design circuits and devices that would otherwise be impractical. ICs are
complete circuits containing many transistors, diodes, resistors and capacitors.
They are encapsulated in packages often no larger than a single discrete
transistor. The technology and materials used to manufacture ICs are the same
as those used in the manufacture of transistors and other solid-state devices,
although resulting in a more miniaturised product.

5.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ICS

5.1.1 ADVANTAGES

The small size of the IC is its most apparent advantage. A typical IC can be
constructed on a piece of semiconductor material that is less than 4mm 2. Even
when the IC is suitably packaged, it still occupies only a small amount of space.
The small size of the IC also produces other benefits such as they consume less
power than the equivalent conventional circuit. They generate less heat and
therefore generally do not require elaborate cooling or ventilation systems.

ICs are more reliable than conventional circuits because every component within
the IC is a solid-state device and is permanently connected together with a thin
layer of metal, as would be on a PCB. They are not soldered together like the
components in a conventional circuit and a circuit failure due to faulty connections
is less likely to occur.

5.1.2 DISADVANTAGES

It might appear the IC has only advantages to offer and no real disadvantages.
Unfortunately this is not the case: ICs are extremely small devices and cannot
handle large currents or voltages. High currents generate heat within the device
and small components can be easily damaged if the heat becomes excessive.
High voltages can break down the insulation between the components in the IC
because the components are very close together. This can result in shorts
between the adjacent components, which would make the IC completely useless.
Therefore, most ICs are low power devices, having low operating current (mA)
and low voltages (5V – 20V). Most ICs have a power dissipation of less than 1W.

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Only four types of component are commonly constructed within an IC making for
a narrow selection of components to construct a circuit. The components are:

• Diode.
• Transistor.
• Resistor.
• Capacitor.
• Inductor, although these are not true inductors but are ‘modelled’.

Diodes and transistors are the easiest components to construct and are used
extensively to perform as many functions as possible within each IC. Resistors
and capacitors may also be formed, but it is much more difficult and expensive to
construct these components. The amount of space occupied by a resistor
increases with its value and in order to conserve space, it is necessary to use
resistors with values as low as possible. Capacitors occupy even more space
than resistors and the amount of space required increases with the value of the
capacitor.

ICs cannot be repaired because the individual components cannot be separated.

If an internal component becomes unserviceable, the whole IC is unserviceable
and must be replaced, even though some internal components remain
serviceable. A definite cost disadvantage but the task of fault finding is simplified
as it is only necessary to trace the problem to a specific circuit instead of an
individual component. This greatly simplifies the task of maintaining highly
complex systems and reduces the demands on maintenance personnel.

5.2 SCALE OF INTEGRATION

How many transistors are contained in an IC is termed the scale of integration

and they are detailed at Table 1.

Abbreviation Full Terminology Number of Transistors / Size

SSI Small Scale Integration 10s; early ICs
MSI Medium Scale Integration 100s; from late 1960s
LSI Large Scale Integration 10s-of-1000s; from mid-1970s
VLSI Very Large Scale Integration 100s-of-1000s; from 1980s
ULSI Ultra Large Scale Integration > 1,000,000
WSI Wafer Scale Integration Very large IC using an entire wafer
3D-IC Three Dimensional IC Uses multiple layers of substrate

Table 1
Scales of Integration

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5.2.1 IC PACKAGING

Like transistors and other solid state components, ICs are mounted in packages
that protect them from moisture, dust or other contamination. Many types of IC
package are available and each has advantages and disadvantages. Packages
are usually metal can or Dual In-Line (DIL) package and as well as providing
protection they provide an easy method to install the ICs on PCBs and in
equipment as each package contains leads which can be easily plugged into
matching sockets. DIL and metal can packages are shown at Figure 1.

DIL and Metal Can Packages

Figure 1

An IC containing monolithic ICs and interconnecting conductors is shown at

Figure 2. The connecting pins on the package are connected to the internal
conductors with fine gold wires. A lid or cover would be placed over the opening
in the package and bonded in place resulting in an airtight unit.

DIL Package
Figure 2

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5.3 TYPES OF IC

There are three types of IC:

• Digital • Analogue • Mixed signal

5.3.1 DIGITAL IC

Digital ICs use logic (0 or 1) to perform functions on one or more inputs. The
circuits are referred to as ‘Logic Circuits’ or ‘Logic Gates’: The functions are:

• AND • OR • NOT

More complex, decision-making functions are possible by producing arrays of

different logic gates, combining the functions, or using an array of one type of
‘gate’. For instance, with an IC containing only AND gates it is possible to
combine them to produce an overall OR gate. This then negates the requirement
to have an IC for each of the basic functions. A logic gate or array of logic gates
will produce either a 0 or 1 output depending upon its input or inputs which will
also be a 0 or 1. The input or inputs and subsequent output for each possible
state of each input (0 or 1) are detailed in a Truth Table for that gate or device.

[Link] AND GATE

Figure 3 shows the AND gate truth table and logic circuit and a switching circuit to
carry out this function. The AND gate has an output of 1 only when all of its
inputs are equal to 1. This is similar to a multiplier function since the only
possibilities in a digital circuit are 0 x 1 = 0 and 1 x 1 = 1. The circuit in Figure 3
shows two switches connected in series. Unless both switches are closed, there
is no current flow to the output. A.B is Boolean Logic which represents A and B.

AND Gate
Figure 3

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[Link] OR GATE

Figure 4 shows the OR gate truth table and logic circuit and a corresponding
circuit to carry out this function. From the circuit shown it can be seen that the
input switches are paralleled, meaning that the circuit will be made if either are
closed. A+B is Boolean Logic that represents A or B.

OR Gate
Figure 4

[Link] NOT GATE

The NOT gate provides an output that is always opposite to the input. This is
called inversion or 180 phase shift. Thus, the NOT gate is commonly referred to
as an inverter. The bipolar transistor common emitter amplifier configuration was
the only one capable of inverting the input so is used to perform the NOT
function. Figure 5 shows the NOT gate truth table and logic circuit and a
corresponding circuit to carry out this function.

NOT Gate
Figure 5

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[Link] COMBINATION LOGIC CIRCUITS

As already stated, the three basic logic gates/circuits can be combined into a
single decision making circuit with more than 1 distinct output. Consider the
circuit at Figure 6 that uses a combination of logic gates/circuits to compare two
inputs (A and B) to calculate three outputs (X1, X2 and X3).

Combination Logic Circuit

Figure 6

The truth table for the circuit is: Inputs Outputs

A B X1 X2 X3
0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 1

It can therefore be seen that: Output Inputs

X1 is only active when A<B
X2 is only active when A>B
X3 is only active when A=B

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5.4 ANALOGUE IC

A Linear IC processes analogue signals. An analogue signal is one that varies

between a lower and upper level. Depending upon the resolution applied to the
signal, there can be an infinite number of points (or voltage levels) between the
lower and upper level, as opposed to a digital signal which has only two levels
(states): 0 and 1. Figure 7 shows an example of an analogue signal.

Example Analogue Signal

Figure 7

5.4.1 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP AMP)

The operational amplifier (or ‘Op Amp’) is the most common analogue IC. The
name ‘operational amplifier’ refers to a type of amplifier originally used in
analogue computing to perform mathematical operations, i.e. multiplication or
division.

The Op Amp can be adapted (by feedback) to perform most general-purpose

amplifier duties, as well as its use in mathematical operations. It can comprise
many stages of amplification to ensure high gain, and will be arranged to have
two input terminals, two power supply terminals and an output terminal. It will
also normally have terminals for setting the output to zero when the input is zero.

The Op Amp consists of a transistor circuit of considerable complexity, which has

been found so useful that the whole circuit is manufactured on a single piece of
silicon, fitted with input and output leads, and covered in plastic.

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[Link] OPERATION

An Op Amp is effectively a “Differential” voltage amplifier, i.e. it amplifies the

difference between input voltages V1 and V2. Referring to Figure 8, three
situations are possible:

1. If V2 > V1 then VO is positive.

2. If V2 < V1 then VO is negative.

3. If V2 = V1 then VO is zero.

In general:
VO
VO = AO(V2 – V1) Or
Ao = V2 – V1
Where AO is the open-loop gain.

+VS

V1
VO
V2 -VS

1. IF V2 > V1 VO IS POSITIVE

2. IF V2 < V1 VO IS NEGATIVE

3. IF V2 = V1 VO IS ZERO

Op Amp Inputs and Output

Figure 8

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[Link] POWER SUPPLY

An Op Amp uses a dual balanced dc power supply  VS (i.e. +VS, 0V, -VS); the
centre point of the supply (0V) is common to the input and the output circuits and
is taken as their voltage reference level. The power supply connections are not
usually shown in a circuit diagram. Figure 9 shows the circuit layout for an
Operational amplifier.

POW ER
SU PPLY
(+)

IN V E R T IN G 7
2
IN P U T 8
VOLT AGE
6 O U T P UT
1
N O N -IN V E R T IN G
3 4
IN P U T
5
POW ER
SU PPLY
(–)

N O N -IN V E R T IN G IN V E R T IN G O F FS E T
V– IN P U T IN P U T N ULL

4 3 2 1

5 6 7 8
O F FS E T NOT
VOLT AGE V+ U SED
N ULL O U T P UT

The Offset Null Pins are used to ensure that for zero input, there is zero output

Op Amp
Figure 9

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[Link] NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Operational amplifiers nearly always use “Negative Feedback”, obtained by

feeding back some, or all, of the output to the inverting (-) input. The feedback
produces an output voltage that opposes the one from which it is taken. This
reduces the new output of the amplifier and the resulting closed-loop gain A.
However, as a result, a wider range of voltages can be applied to the input for
amplification. As long as AO is greater than A, the negative feedback gives:

1. A constant and predictable voltage gain A

2. Reduced distortion of the output

3. Better frequency response

The advantages of using negative feedback outweigh the accompanying loss of

gain, which is easily increased by using two or more Op amp stages.

NOTE: The following pages discuss eight different OP AMP configurations

using varies methods of applying Negative feedback.

An Ideal Op Amp with no Negative Feedback should have:

1. Infinite Gain
2. Infinite Input Impedance
3. Zero Output Impedance

Another key point to note is the existence of a Virtual Earth Point at the Inverting
Input of each OP AMP configuration. This will be discussed at length on the B2
Course.

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[Link] OP AMP INVERTING AMPLIFIER

The basic circuit for an inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 10, where the input
voltage Vi (ac or dc) to be amplified is applied via resistor Ri to the inverting (-)
terminal; the output voltage Vo is therefore in anti-phase with the input. The non-
inverting (+) terminal is held at 0V. The feedback resistor, Rf, feeding back a
certain fraction of the output voltage to the inverting terminal, provides negative
feedback. The Closed Loop Gain (A) of this configuration is simply Rf ÷ Ri

Rf
I2

Ri
I1

Vi
VA Vo
VB

0V

Op Amp - Inverting Amplifier

Figure 10

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[Link] NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

The basic circuit for a non-inverting amplifier is shown in Figure 11. Where the
input voltage Vi (ac or dc) is applied to the non-inverting (+) terminal of the Op
amp. This produces an output Vo that is in phase with the input. Negative
feedback is obtained by feeding back to the inverting (-) terminal, the fraction of
Vo developed across Ri in the voltage divider formed by Rf and Ri across Vo. The
Closed Loop Gain (A) of this configuration is simply 1 + Rf ÷ Ri

Rf

Vi Vo

Ri

0V

Op Amp – Non-Inverting Amplifier

Figure 11

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5.4.2 OP AMP APPLICATIONS

There are many uses of the Op Amp although only the following are discussed
later in this section:

• Unity Gain Follower (Voltage Follower)

• Summing Amplifier
• Difference Amplifier
• Integrator
• Differentiation
• Comparator

[Link] UNITY GAIN FOLLOWER

VOUT
VIN

Figure 12
Unity Gain Follower

The Unity Gain Follower (Voltage-Follower) is a special case of the non-inverting

amplifier in which 100% negative feedback is obtained by connecting the output
directly to the inverting (-) terminal as shown in Figure 12.

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[Link] SUMMING AMPLIFIER

Figure 13 shows an Op Amp Summing Amp. Due to the existence of a virtual

earth point at X, the Op amp can be used to add a number of voltages (dc and
ac) when connected as a multi-input inverting amplifier. This is a consequence of
the high value of the open-loop voltage gain Ao.

I Rf
R1

R2

X
R3
V1
V2
Vo
V3

0V

OP Amp – Summing Amplifier

Figure 13

If R1, R2, R3 and Rf are all the same value, this configuration operates as a simple
Summing Amp.

If Rf is Smaller or Larger than R1, R2 and R3, the Summing Amp can also be used
to Scale (decrease or increase) the Summed Value of the Input Voltages.

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[Link] DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER

Figure 14 shows the circuit for an Op amp “Difference” amplifier, where voltages
V1 and V2 are applied to its two input terminals and the difference between these
voltages is amplified.

Rf

R1
V1

R2
V2

VO
R3

Difference Amplifier
Figure 14

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[Link] INTEGRATOR

This circuit performs the calculus operation of integration. An operational

amplifier with negative feedback applied via a capacitor (instead of a resistor) will
perform the mathematical operation of integration. Such circuits are widely used
in analogue computing. For example, if the input voltage uses the analogue of
acceleration (m/s/s), the output voltage is the analogue of speed (m/s). Another
use of this type of circuit is to produce a triangular (or ramp) waveform from a
square wave (or step) input. This technique is used in digital voltmeters and some
forms of analogue/digital converters. Figure 15 shows an Integrator, with an
associated waveform diagram.

C1

R1

VIN
VOUT

Integrator
Figure 15

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[Link] DIFFERENTIATOR

With negative feedback applied through a resistor and the input signal through a
capacitor, the circuit will perform the mathematical operation of differentiation.
The output voltage then takes up a value proportional to the rate of change of the
input voltage. For example, if the input voltage is the analogue of distance
travelled (miles), the output is the analogue of average speed (miles per hour).
The circuit can also be used to produce ‘pips’ (e.g. calibration markers) when the
input signal is a square wave. To prevent high frequency instability, it is usual to
connect a small capacitor (10 F) across the feedback resistor to reduce gain at
frequencies above the required operating frequency. Figure 16 shows a
differentiating circuit , with an associated waveform diagram.

R1

C1

VIN

VOUT

Differentiating Circuit
Figure 16

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[Link] COMPARATOR

A comparator is a device which compares two input voltages and indicates at the
output which of the two is the larger. Basically, the circuits use a differential input
operational amplifier without feedback, so the output takes up either the positive
or negative supply level depending on which of the inputs is higher. This is
shown in Figure 17.

WHEN VIN < VREF THEN VOUT = -V MAX

WHEN VIN > VREF THEN VOUT = +V MAX

+VE

VREF

VOUT
VIN

The Comparator
Figure 17

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6. THE PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB)

Assembly of electrical circuits require the interconnection of many components by

means of electrical conductors. Additionally, the components must be supported
to allow cooling air to flow across them and to prevent short-circuiting from merely
bunching them together in a disorganised pile. Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) are
made from non-conducting material and provide not only physical support to the
components of an electrical circuit but also the means to interconnect them.
Typical PCBs are shown at Figure 1.

Typical PCBs
Figure 1

6.1 TYPES OF PCBS

There are three types of modern PCB utilising one or two types of component
mounting methods:

• Types of PCB:

o Single-sided
o Double-sided
o Multi-Layer

• Component mounting methods:

o Through the Hole Technique (THT)

o Surface Mounted Technology (SMT)

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6.1.1 TYPES OF PCB

[Link] SINGLE-SIDED PCB

The single-sided PCB has interconnecting tracks (usually copper) printed on one
side and holes are drilled for THT mounting where necessary. A cross-section is
shown at Figure 2.

Single-Sided PCB Cross-Section

Figure 2

[Link] DOUBLE-SIDED PCB

The double-sided PCB has interconnecting tracks (usually copper) printed on

both sides and holes are drilled for THT mounting where necessary. A cross-
section is at Figure 3.

Double-Sided PCB Cross-Section

Figure 3

[Link] MULTI-LAYER PCB

The multi-layer PCB has multiple layers of boards, each with interconnecting
tracks (usually copper). Once a layer of interconnecting track is printed, the next
layer of board is bonded onto it; another layer of tracks is then printed. Holes are
drilled for THT mounting where necessary. A cross-section is shown at Figure 4.

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Multi-Layer PCB Cross-Section

Figure 4

6.1.2 COMPONENT MOUNTING

The two types of component mounting methods are detailed below in greater
detail.

[Link] THROUGH THE HOLE MOUNTING (THT)

THT mounting is the traditional method of mounting components on PCB. The

wire legs of the components are passed through holes drilled in the PCB at the
necessary position and then soldered in place. Electrical contact is therefore
made with the interconnecting track and other components are connected to the
track. The method requires holes to be pre-drilled and the components inserted.
For mass-produced PCBs, component insertion is automated, performed by a
Pick-and-Place machine which is pre-loaded with components and quickly ‘picks’
them and ‘places’ them in the required location. Figure 5 shows THT mounting
and a traditional capacitor, showing the two legs.

THT Component Mounting and Traditional Capacitor

Figure 5

[Link] SURFACE MOUNTED TECHNOLOGY (SMT)

With SMT mounting, the components sit on the surface of the PCB, as can be
seen at Figure 6. This method negates the need to drill holes in the PCB (as with

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THT mounting), making for a stronger PCB. Components are generally smaller
than THT components and this, along with the absence of drilled holes, means
components are placed closer together. The increased density of smaller
components makes for smaller PCBs, reducing cost and weight. Circuit losses
are also reduced as interconnecting tracks are shorter. SMT capacitors are
shown at Figure 6.

SMT Component Mounting and SMT Capacitors

Figure 6
6.1.3 CONFORMAL COATING

PCBs used in the aviation industry will normally have a conformal coating of a
resin-type substance to provide environmental protection. It is ‘conformal’ as the
coating is applied in liquid form and ‘conforms’ to all of the contours on the PCB
before it dries.

6.1.4 HANDLING

PCBs are more prone to physical and electrostatic damage than a Line
Replacement Unit (LRU) would be. Physical damage can easily occur to the
exposed components and parts of the board itself, and electrostatic damage can
occur as many of the exposed terminals can easily ‘accept’ static electricity.
Careful handling of PCBs should therefore be practised to avoid damage.
Precautions to avoid damage from static electricity are discussed in Module 5.

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7. POSITION & ROTARY SPEED TRANSDUCERS

Many aircraft systems need to transmit and receive the position of equipment,
both linear (movement back and forth) and circular (rotation of a shaft), either with
respect to a reference or in comparison to another variable. Examples are the
extent of travel of a flap (linear) and the direction of the nose wheel (rotational)
and the receiving unit may be an indicator on the flight deck or another system
that requires the information, such as an Automatic Flight Control System. There
are three types of transducer:

• Position or displacement
• Proximity
• Rotary speed

The transducers use one or more of the following methods for detection:

• Potentiometer, using either of the following elements:

o Resistive (variable resistor)
o Capacitive (variable capacitor)
• Inductive, coils/windings using one of the following methods:
o Mutual inductance
o Induced EMF
o A magnetic field produced by the induced-emf current flow

7.1 POSITION / DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS

Position or displacement transducers detect the position of a component relative

to another. This could be the angular position (or displacement) of a shaft, for
example the position of an angle of attack probe, or how far a component has
travelled (or is displaced) along a linear path, for example the extent of travel of a
component along a pinion. Position/displacement transducers are often used to
provide ‘position feedback’ to servomechanisms that move components (such as
flying control surfaces) from flight crew or auto flight control systems.
Servomechanisms are discussed later.

7.1.1 POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

As already stated, potentiometer transducers use either of the following elements:

• Resistive
• Capacitive

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[Link] RESISTIVE-POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

The simplest form of transmitting position information is with a resistive

potentiometer (a variable resistor). These transducers usually operate with DC
supplies. There are two types:

• Linear
• Angular

[Link].1 LINEAR RESISTIVE-POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

A linear resistive potentiometer, shown at Figure 1, comprises a resistor across

which a voltage is applied, and a wiper attached to a moving rod which runs
along the resistor and from which the position signal is taken.

Linear and Rotary Potentiometers

Figure 1

[Link].2 ANGULAR RESISTIVE-POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

There are two type of circular potentiometer:

• Rotary
• Helical

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[Link].2.1 ROTARY RESISTIVE-POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

Rotary resistive-potentiometer transducers comprise a resistor in a circular

housing and a wiper attached to a central shaft which runs along the resistor and
from which the position signal is taken, as can be seen at Figure 2. They have
end-stops at minimum and maximum resistance and therefore do not rotate freely
past 360°. Indeed, maximum freedom of movement is realistically 350° and can
be significantly less dependent upon design.

Rotary Potentiometer
Figure 2

[Link].3 HELICAL RESISTIVE-POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

Some applications require a shaft freedom of movement of greater than 360° with
corresponding increase/decrease in resistance throughout the full range of
movement. The Helical Potentiometer, otherwise known as a ‘multi-turn
potentiometer’, satisfies this requirement through gearing within the potentiometer
housing. There is still a finite range to the potentiometer, but the shaft will have
turned a number of times from a minimum to maximum resistance value. When
maximum resistance is reached, just like the rotary potentiometer, an end stop
may prevent further movement or the shaft may continue to rotate but the
resistance will immediately jump to the lowest value, increasing again with
continued rotation.

[Link] CAPACITIVE-POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

Capacitive position transducers (variable capacitors) operate in the same manner

to resistive potentiometer transducers. However, they operate on AC supplies
and instead of a wiper moved along a resistor track, the movement varies the
amount of dielectric between input and output plates, the output voltage therefore
being proportional to capacitance, which itself is proportional to position.

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[Link] LIMITATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER TRANSDUCERS

Potentiometer transducers have the following limitations:

• There is a finite potentiometer range (minimum value to maximum value)

• There is a finite freedom of movement of shaft in angular transducers
• The wiper is in permanent contact with potentiometer element causing
drag

7.1.2 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS

As already stated, inductive transducers use either mutual inductance, induced

EMF or a magnetic field create by the emf-induced current flowing through
windings. They are ‘brushless’ or ‘contactless’ and therefore present little or no
drag. The following systems are discussed:

• E&I Bar
• Variable Differential Transducer
• Synchro

[Link] E&I BAR TRANSDUCER

The E&I Bar transducer is so called due to the shape of its component parts: an
‘E’ shaped former and an ‘I’ bar. An excitation coil is wound around the central
leg of the ‘E’ and pick-off coils are wound around the outer legs. The pick-off
coils are wound such that they oppose each other. The ‘I’ bar is attached to and
moves with the component being monitored. Figure 3 shows the two ways in
which an E&I bar is used, which are:

• The ‘I’ bar pivots centrally which moves one end closer to one of the ‘E’
outer legs, the other end further away from the other leg, varying the
concentration of the magnetic flux and inducing current flow in the outer coils.

• The ‘I’ bar moves over the ‘E’ former, moving it away from one of the ‘E’
outer legs thus varying the reluctance and resultant induced current balance
between the outer coils.

E&I Bar
Figure 3

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[Link] VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (VDT)

The VDT uses an iron core to vary mutual inductance between excitation (supply)
and receiver coils, the iron core being moved either in a linear or circular motion
and the output being proportional to the position of travel. There are two types:

• Linear
• Angular (rotary)

[Link].1 LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (LVDT)

The LVDT comprises one excitation and two receiver coils wound around a
cylindrical former, inside which an iron core (rod) moves back and forth. This can
be seen at Figure 4. The purpose of the iron rod is to concentrate the magnetic
flux created by the excitation coil. The centre excitation coil is connected to an
AC supply voltage and the outer receiver coils, which are counter-wound, (wound
in opposite directions) are connected in series producing the output. The action
of the LVDT is as follows:

• When the rod is in the centre (null) position (Figure 4a), the current
induced into the receiver windings is equal and as they are counter-wound they
oppose each other resulting in zero output.

• When the rod is fully left (Figure 4b), the current induced into the left coil is
greater than that induced into the right coil. The resultant output is maximum ‘left’
output.

• When the rod is fully right (Figure 4c), the current induced into the right coil
is greater than that induced into the left coil. The resultant output is maximum
‘right’ output. Note that the right output is in anti-phase (180° different) to the left
output.

Other than a zero output, the left and right outputs will always be in anti-phase
(either 0° or 180°) dependent upon direction. Only the magnitude of the output
will vary as the rod is moved from null to maximum. The receiving system uses
the 0° or 180° phase to discriminate between left and right.

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LVDT
Figure 4

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[Link].2 ROTARY VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSDUCER (RVDT)

The RVDT operates on the same principle as the LVDT. The excitation and
receiver coils are housed in a cylinder, at 120° to each other, with the receiver
coils, like the LVDT, being counter-wound to each other. The iron core is
mounted on the rotating shaft. Null, 40° clockwise and 40° counter-clockwise
positions are shown at Figure 5. As with the LVDT, the receiver coils (L1& L2)
are in anti-phase and whichever coil is the maximum, that phase will be used by
the receiving system to determine the angular position of the shaft. The diagrams
at Figure 5 show an output (S) between receiver coils L1 and L2. This can be
used by a receiving system which will be connected to L1 and L2 separately
(using ‘S’) and it will carry out its own comparison of magnitude and phase. The
RVDT can freely rotate continuously but will only ever provide 0° to 360° position
information.

RVDT
Figure 5

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[Link] SYNCHRO TRANSDUCER

Synchro systems comprise transmitters and receivers. There are different types
but all operate on the same principle of induction. They were first used at the turn
of the 20th century on the Panama Canal to transmit the position of lock gates. A
Synchro is shown at Figure 6. Like the RVDT, synchro transducers are brushless
devices that can freely rotate but will only provide 0° to 360° information and
comprise a rotor having one, two or three coils and a stator having either two or
three coils. However, unlike the RVDT whose rotor is a piece of iron, the Synchro
rotor is a coil that carries either the supply or signal voltage: slip rings (as can be
seen at Figure 6) make the electrical connection onto/from the freely-rotating
rotor coil. The rotor of the transmitting Synchro is the excitation coil, being
connected to 26V AC (26V 400Hz is the standard synchro transducer supply).
This sets up a magnetic field and induces current in the stator coils, the pattern of
which corresponds to the angular position of its rotor shaft. The transmitter stator
coils are connected to the corresponding receiver Synchro stator coils and thus
reproduce the magnetic field, which is detected by the receiver rotor. This is then
output to the repeater system as an error signal which activates a motor to turn
the receiver rotor shaft until the error signal is zero: at this point the receiver
synchro matches the transmitter synchro position. The Synchro can freely rotate
continuously but will only ever provide 0° to 360° position information. The
following types of synchro system are discussed:

• Control
• Torque
• Resolver
• Differential

Typical Synchro
Figure 6

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[Link].1 CONTROL SYNCHRO SYSTEM

The Control Synchro system transmitter is known as the Control Transmitter (CX)
and the receiver is the Control Transformer (CT) and a simple circuit is shown at
Figure 7, with circuit symbols. They are used to control the angular position of a
component such as a control surface via an error signal. The Error Signal, via an
Op Amp can be used to drive any Heavy Load. Control Synchros have one rotor
coil and three stator coils; the stator coils having 120° spacing.

Control Synchro Circuit and Circuit Symbols

Figure 7

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[Link].2 TORQUE SYNCHRO SYSTEM

A Torque Synchro operates on the principle of a generator and a motor. Unlike

the Control Synchro, in a Torque Synchro system both transmitter and receiver
rotor coils are energised with 26V 400Hz. This effectively means that each rotor
is a magnet and where there is disparity between transmitter and receiver shafts,
the magnetic field set up by the receiver’s stator applies a torque (hence the
name) to the rotor and turns it to equilibrium. Torque synchro systems are
therefore used to transmit angular position without the use of a servomechanism,
such as instrument repeaters. The Torque synchro transmitter is known as the
Torque Transmitter (TX), the receiver is the Torque Transformer (TR) and a
simple circuit is shown at Figure 8, with circuit symbols. Torque Synchros have
one rotor coil and three stator coils; the stator coils having 120° spacing.

Torque Synchro Circuit and Circuit Symbols

Figure 8

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[Link].3 DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO

The Differential Synchro is used in Control or Torque synchro systems to

differentiate (hence the name) the angular position of two shafts, where an offset
is being measured and taken into account. Examples are a control surface and
its trim tab or establishing the bearing to a ‘target’ from the direction of a loop
antenna and the aircraft heading. Differential Synchros can add or subtract the
second angle (determined by the winding direction of the coils at manufacture)
and are placed between the transmitter (CX/TX) and receiver (CT/TR) as can be
seen at Figure 9, with circuit symbols. They are connected into the stator
transmission lines and both the rotor and stator each have three coils at 120°
spacing. Some systems do not use a Differential Synchro, instead they rotate the
CX/CT/TX/TR synchro body which has the same affect but requires additional
gearing and servomechanisms. Control and Torque system applications are
discussed in the following sections.

Differential Synchro
Figure 9

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[Link].3.1 CONTROL DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM

A Control Differential Synchro system is shown at Figure 10. Operation is

identical to the Control Synchro system described at section [Link].1 except that
the CX stator outputs are now connected to the Differential Synchro stator. The
Differential Synchro rotor is then connected to the stator of the CT. When in a
Control Synchro system, the Differential Synchro is termed ‘CDX’. The
error/output signal of the CT would be a servomechanism which would not only
drive the load to the desired direction but also rotate the CT shaft. This would
provide feedback and null the output when the correct position was established.

Control Differential Synchro

Figure 10

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[Link].3.2 TORQUE DIFFERENTIAL SYNCHRO SYSTEM

A Torque Differential Synchro system is shown at Figure 11. Operation is

identical to the Torque Synchro system described at section [Link].2 except that
the TX stator outputs are now connected to the Differential Synchro stator and
the Differential Synchro rotor is then connected to the stator of the TR. When in a
Torque Synchro system, the Differential Synchro is termed ‘TDX’. Only the TX
and TR rotors are energized with 26V 400Hz. The TDX stator creates a magnetic
field corresponding to that of the TX stator. However, as the TDX rotor is not
energised, it ‘obtains’ its magnetic field from the current induced onto the TR
stator by the TR rotor. The TDX rotor is then able to react to the torque being
applied to it from its stator, just like a motor. The TDX and TR rotors will then find
equilibrium which in Figure 9 results in the TDX angle being subtracted from the
TX angle (60° – 15° = 45°). As already stated, the system can be configured with
a differently-wound Differential Synchro to add the angles.

Torque Differential Synchro

Figure 11

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[Link].4 RESOLVER SYNCHRO

The Resolver Synchro resolves a shaft angle and voltage to its sine and cosine
components, or vice-versa. Referring to Figure 12, the input voltage is a Polar
value with magnitude (r) and angle (θ). The Resolver converts this to Cartesian
(sine and cosine) values. Outputs may be used by a navigation computer which
reads two separate voltages (sine and cosine) to ascertain the angle being
transmitted. For cartesian to polar a computer would output sine and cosine
values of aircraft heading to a compass instrument that also uses a Resolver
Synchro in reverse to drive the display accordingly.

Polar and Cartesian Co-ordinates

Figure 12

Resolver Synchro
Figure 13

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7.2 PROXIMITY TRANSDUCER

Proximity transducers are used to provide an output when two parts of the
transducer are close together. They can be used to indicate whether a door is
open or closed or to indicate whether or not the landing gear is up or down. They
can also be used on a rotating shaft to indicate when the shaft is at a specific
angle while it is rotating. There are two types of proximity transducer:

• Hall Effect
• Induction

7.2.1 HALL EFFECT PROXIMITY TRANSDUCER

The Hall Effect transducer uses a semiconductor property whereby when it is

placed in close proximity to a magnetised piece of metal, its conductivity
changes. The Hall Effect Transducer has been discussed at Chapter 1.

7.2.2 INDUCTION PROXIMITY TRANSDUCER

The Induction proximity transducer produces a pulse when the moving portion is
brought within or taken out of the design distance of the fixed sensor. The fixed
sensor comprises a permanent magnet adjacent to a coil, the moving portion
being made of ferrous metal. Referring to Figure 14, it operates as follows:

• Assuming the transducer is used to sense a door being closed, with the
door already open the coil in the sensor is surrounded by the magnet’s flux. As
the flux is not moving (cutting through the coil) there is no induced current.

• When the door is closed, upon the moving portion coming within the
design distance it will ‘attract’ the magnetic flux, causing it to ‘move’ and cut
through the coil. A pulse of current will be induced and sensed by the receiving
indicator or system as ‘door closed’.

• The current will cease when the moving portion becomes stationary.

• The opposite will happen when the door is opened: a pulse will be
generated as the magnetic flux is ‘drawn out’ from the magnet by the steel
moving portion but the pulse will be of opposite polarity to the door closing.

Induction Proximity Transducer

Figure 14

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7.3 ROTARY SPEED TRANSDUCER

Rotary speed transducers detect the speed of rotation of a shaft and provide an
output that is either:

• The frequency of rotation of a shaft which can be used to provide an

indication, such as Revolutions-Per-Minute (RPM) of an engine shaft. Such an
output would be a pulse for each rotation.

• A voltage proportional to the speed of rotation, i.e. low voltage at low

speeds and high voltage at high speed which can be used, for example, in a
servomechanism to provide feedback to limit the speed of the driving motor. This
is known as Velocity Feedback (and is discussed in a later section) and the
device is known as a Tachogenerator.

Rotary speed transducers are often used to provide ‘velocity feedback’ to

servomechanisms that move components (such as flying control surfaces) from
flight crew or auto flight control systems, or speed control systems.
Servomechanisms are discussed later.

7.3.1 ROTATION FREQUENCY TRANSDUCER

A rotation frequency transducer uses a proximity sensor (already discussed).

The passive part of the transducer is attached to the shaft and the sensor is
placed at a fixed location next to the shaft. Each rotation of the shaft will induce
an output from the sensor which will be transmitted to the receiving instrument or
system. Figure 15 shows an induction RPM transducer. As already discussed at
section 1.2.2, a Hall Effect Sensor can also be used. Dependent upon the design
of the system, more than one lobe can be fixed to the shaft.

RPM Transducer
Figure 15

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7.3.2 TACHOGENERATOR

A Tachogenerator produces a voltage proportional to the rotary speed of a shaft

to either indicate the RPM of the shaft or for servomechanism, Velocity Feedback
(discussed later). Tachogenerators are effectively AC or DC generators and
comprise a primary winding across which an AC supply is applied, a secondary
pick-off winding at 90° to the primary winding, and a non-ferrous (non-magnetic)
metallic Drag Cup, such as aluminium. Operation is as follows:

• Referring to Figure 16a (which shows the tachogenerator stationary) there

is no mutual coupling between the primary and secondary windings because they
are at 90° to each other. There is therefore no induced current in the secondary
winding. The direction of the magnetic flux created by the AC supply is shown. If
the drag cup was magnetic it would interfere with the magnetic flux and current
would be induced in the secondary winding when stationary.

• When the tachogenerator rotates it is the drag cup that rotates and is
shown at Figure 16b. The primary winding’s magnetic flux induces eddy currents
in the drag cup which has the effect of literally dragging the magnetic flux around
with it. As the magnetic flux is no longer at 90° to the secondary winding, there is
coupling with the primary winding and current will be induced into it. The level of
current is proportional to how far the flux moves from its stationary direction.
Output is therefore proportional to speed of rotation. At low speed the magnetic
flux will move around only a small amount and at high speed the magnetic flux
will be moved more. Figure 16b shows the drag cup rotating at maximum design
speed, moving the magnetic flux around by 90° and producing maximum output.

Figure 16a Figure 16b

Stationary Shaft Rotating Shaft (Maximum Speed)

Tachogenerator
Figure 16

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8. THE SERVOMECHANISM

Servomechanisms (sometimes referred to simply as ‘servos’) are a type of

automatic control system. That they slavishly follow the demands of the input
gives the system its name: ‘servus’ is Latin for slave. Pilots do not have the fast
reaction time and degree of precision necessary to operate modern aircraft and
servos provide this capability. Servomechanisms, which can control the position
or velocity of a component, have the following properties:

• They are activated by an error signal

• They amplify the input force/torque
• They contain moving parts
• They are automatic in operation

Throughout this section the servomechanism inputs are shown as rotating shafts,
for example from a control column. A transducer then converts the rotation into
an electrical signal which the servomechanism acts on. Fly-by-Wire (FBW)
systems may not utilise input shafts, for instance side-stick controls are purely
electrical. The servomechanism input of modern aircraft may therefore be an
electrical signal from another system which in the Figures used in this Section
would equate to the output from the Input Transducer. The following are the main
uses of servomechanisms, along with their technical name:

• Positioning of a component such as a flying control surface, known as a

Remote Position Control (RPC) servomechanism.
• Controlling the Velocity of a rotating shaft, known as a Velodyne.

8.1 TYPES OF SERVOMECHANISM

There are two types of servomechanism:

• Open loop
• Closed loop

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8.1.1 OPEN LOOP SERVOMECHANISM

In an Open Loop servo an input/demand is applied, and an output obtained.

Figure 1 shows an example; assume an aircraft rudder controlled by an open
loop system. The demand made by the pilot on the rudder bar is picked up by the
transducer which converts it to an electrical signal, the demand signal. This
signal is amplified and fed to the motor (referred to as the servomotor), which
responds by moving the load; i.e. the rudder. The only indication the pilot has
that the command has been carried out (termed feedback) is the yawing of the
aircraft. If the yaw is in the correct direction and at the correct rate, then the pilot
removes the command and continues flying until the next rudder movement is
required. The open loop system has no feedback and relies on the pilot’s senses
to provide all inputs.

Open Loop Servomechanism

Figure 1

8.1.2 CLOSED LOOP SERVOMECHANISM

In the closed loop system, the demand is made in the same way. However, the
system not only moves the flying control surface but it also moves a position
transducer (discussed at section 7.1) which produces Position Feedback that
‘backs off’ the input signal, as can be seen at Figure 2. Operation of the flying
control is now more positive. Compared to open loop, the closed loop servo has
a position transducer mounted either on the servomotor output shaft or directly
affixed to the flying control surface. Operation of the circuit is as follows:

• Referring to Figure 2, the shaft going into the Input Transducer is the pilot
demand (control column or rudder pedals) and the Load is a flying control
surface. Although a position control servo is described, it could be used to
control rotational velocity of the load and the principle of operation is the same.
Assume the servo is at equilibrium: the aircraft is flying straight and level and the
pilot has made no input/demand. There will be zero output voltage from both the
Input Transducer and the Position Transducer. There is therefore zero Error
Signal from the Error Detector and the servo will not move.

• If the pilot makes a rudder-left 5°demand, there will be a corresponding

voltage output from the Input Transducer. At that instant the rudder is still central.

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The Error Detector compares the Input and Position Transducers and as there is
a mismatch the pilot’s demand produces an Error Signal. The servo begins to
motor the rudder to 5° left.

• As the servo moves the rudder, the Position Transducer is also moved and
Position Feedback is seen by the Error Detector, in opposition to the demand
signal. The Error signal will therefore diminish until when the rudder is at 5° left it
is equal (but opposite) to the input and therefore the servo will stop motoring. In
reality, the pilot’s demand or fly-by-wire input will also diminish, just as you
straighten the steering wheel of a car as it progresses around a turn to take up
the new direction, and so both Input and Position Transducer signals will
effectively ‘meet in the middle’. There are, however, systems that will place a
fixed input signal into a servo which will not itself diminish and so the servo will
stop motoring when Position Feedback ‘grows’ to the full (but opposite) value of
the input to zero the Error Signal.

Closed Loop Servomechanism

Figure 2

[Link] FOLLOW UP

If in the previous example the rudder is displaced from its demanded position (i.e.
by turbulence acting on the flying control surface), an error signal occurs, and the
servo will motor the rudder back to its original position. This is another function of
feedback and is known as Follow Up.

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8.1.3 VELOCITY FEEDBACK

Velocity Feedback provides negative feedback (which opposes the input, just as
position feedback does) at the input of a servomechanism. A tachogenerator (a
velocity transducer already discussed at section 7.3.2) is used that provides an
output proportional to the velocity/speed of the servomotor, thus slowing it down.
The damping can be electrically adjusted such that it has greater effect at high
speeds compared to low speed and does not therefore affect the whole of the
movement of the servomotor. A servomechanism with both position and velocity
feedback is shown at Figure 3. Velocity feedback is applied at the input, in a
similar way that position feedback is applied, and must therefore be electrical. It
provides damping but because it is applied to the input, little power is required.

Velocity Feedback System

Figure 3

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8.2 SERVOMECHANISM FUNCTION

As already stated, servomechanisms are used to control the position of a shaft or

the velocity of a shaft. Dependent upon their function, they are called:

• Remote Position Control (RPC) Servomechanisms

• Velodyne Servomechanisms

8.2.1 RPC SERVOMECHANISM

RPC servos are used to control the angular or linear position of a load. Typical
examples are controlling a radar scanner direction and moving flying control
surfaces to positions demanded by the pilot or an automatic flight control system.
RPC servos have been discussed in the preceding pages.

8.2.2 VELODYNE SERVOMECHANISM

Velodynes are used to control the rotational speed of a shaft, a typical application
being to control the scan speed of a radar dish. A Velodyne using a centrally-
earthed potentiometer that provides slow-fast and forward-reverse control is
shown at Figure 4.

• A tachogenerator provides velocity feedback proportional to the speed of

the output shaft and the error signal is derived from comparing the demanded
speed and direction (from the control potentiometer) with the velocity feedback
signal.
• If the output shaft encounters higher or lower loading at the set speed then
velocity feedback will change to reflect this and the error signal will increase or
decrease to compensate, thus maintaining a constant speed.

Velocity Control Servomechanism (Velodyne)

Figure 4

[Link] VELOCITY LAG

A Velodyne, like the RPC servo, is prone to velocity lag. However, as the prime
function of a velodyne is to constantly adjust the speed of the load, velocity lag is
constantly being compensated for. Velocity lag in Velodynes is therefore ignored.

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8.3 SERVOMECHANISM APPLICATIONS

The following are examples of typical AC and DC servomechanism applications:

8.3.1 DC SERVOMECHANISM

A DC servo system is shown at Figure 5. Input is from the positioning of the

variable potentiometer wiper at the left of the circuit, position feedback being
provided by the position of the variable potentiometer wiper at the right of the
circuit which is attached to the servomotor. A mismatch between the
potentiometer output positions (by deliberate input or if the load becomes
misaligned) results in an error signal applied to the amplifier which then turns the
servomotor, the polarity of the error signal denoting direction of servomotor travel.
When alignment is reached, the error signal is zero and the servomotor stops.

DC Servo system
Figure 5

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8.3.2 AC SERVOMECHANISM

An AC servo that uses a Control Synchro system is shown at Figure 6. The input
shaft moves the position of the control transmitter (CX) rotor. When the rotor of
the CT is at 90 to the rotor of the CX no current is induced in the CT rotor and
the system is stationary. If there is a mismatch (an input on CX rotor shaft or the
load becomes misaligned), current is induced in the CT rotor, this is the error
signal. The error signal is amplified and passed to the servomotor which drives
the load in the direction denoted by the phase of the error signal. The servomotor
also drives the CT rotor shaft, thus providing position feedback and when
alignment is reached the error signal is zero and the servomotor stops.

AC Servo System
Figure 6

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