🌊 Cambridge Marine Science 9693 Study
Guide (AS Level)
1. Water
1.1 Particle Theory and Bonding
Core Idea: Understanding how matter behaves and bonds explains water's properties and
importance in marine life.
● Changes of state: Water changes between solid (ice), liquid, and gas (vapor) due to
energy differences affecting particle movement (kinetic particle theory).
● Structure of atoms: Atoms have a central nucleus (protons + neutrons) surrounded by
electrons in shells.
● Seawater composition: A complex mixture of compounds (like salts) and elements.
● Covalent bonding: Atoms share electrons. In water (H2O), each hydrogen shares
electrons with oxygen.
● Identify covalent molecules: Recognize molecules like H2O, CO2, O2, SO2, glucose
via diagrams.
● Ionic bonding: Transfer of electrons creates charged ions that attract (e.g., NaCl).
● Identify ionic compounds: NaCl (table salt), CaCO3 (calcium carbonate).
● Seawater salts: Know chemical names and formulas: NaCl, MgSO4, CaCO3.
● Hydrogen bonds: Weak attractions between water molecules, giving water its unique
properties:
○ Solvent action: Dissolves many substances, critical for life processes.
○ Density: Water is densest at 4°C; ice floats.
○ Specific heat capacity: Water resists temperature changes, helping marine
climates stay stable.
1.2 Solubility in Water
Core Idea: Explains how substances dissolve in seawater and what affects this process.
● Key definitions:
○ Solute: the dissolved substance
○ Solvent: the dissolving liquid (e.g., water)
○ Solution: the mixture formed
○ Solubility: how much solute can dissolve
● Salt dissolution: Ionic compounds like NaCl dissociate into ions.
● Temperature effects: Warmer water holds more salt but less gas.
● Salinity: Measured in parts per thousand (ppt).
● PA: Investigate how salinity affects freezing point.
● Effects on salinity:
○ Run-off lowers it
○ Evaporation raises it
○ Precipitation lowers it
● pH and acidity: Measured on a scale (0-14). Low = acidic, high = alkaline. Marine pH
affects organism survival.
● PA: Use indicators and pH probes for measuring.
● Oxygen solubility: Low in water, especially when warm or salty.
● Solubility of gases depends on:
○ Water temp (cold = more gas)
○ Pressure (deep = more gas held)
○ Atmospheric pressure
○ Salinity (high salinity = less gas)
● Implications for organisms: Affects breathing, survival, and distribution of marine life.
1.3 Density and Pressure
Core Idea: Density differences in the ocean create layers and currents.
● Influencing factors:
○ Colder = denser
○ Saltier = denser
○ More pressure = denser
● Formula:
○ Density = Mass / Volume (units: kg/m3)
● Ice floats: Less dense than liquid water, providing insulation and habitat.
● Thermal insulation: Ice cover reduces heat loss from oceans.
● Ocean layers:
○ Surface layer: warmed by sun
○ Thermocline: rapid temp change
○ Halocline: rapid salinity change
○ Deep ocean: cold, dense water
● Mixing: Driven by wind, temperature, and salinity gradients.
2. Earth Processes
2.1 Tectonic Processes
Core Idea: Plate movements shape the seafloor and drive geological activity.
● Earth’s layers:
○ Crust (continental + oceanic)
○ Mantle
○ Core (inner and outer)
● Plate tectonics: Earth’s lithosphere is broken into plates that move.
● Evidence:
○ Matching fossils and rocks across continents
○ Magnetic striping on the ocean floor
○ Continental coastlines that "fit"
● Types of plate boundaries:
○ Convergent: plates move together (trenches, volcanoes)
○ Divergent: plates move apart (mid-ocean ridges)
○ Transform: plates slide past (earthquakes)
● Seafloor features:
○ Ocean trenches: deep areas from subduction
○ Mid-ocean ridges: seafloor spreading
○ Hydrothermal vents: hot, nutrient-rich water
○ Abyssal plains: flat deep ocean floors
○ Volcanoes and tsunamis from tectonic activity
● Vent plumes: Spread hot, mineral-rich water far from vents.
● Chimney formation: Salts precipitate from superheated water.
2.2 Weathering, Erosion, Sedimentation
Core Idea: Shapes coastlines and shore ecosystems.
● Weathering vs Erosion:
○ Weathering: breaking down rocks
○ Erosion: moving the particles
● Types of weathering:
○ Chemical (acid rain)
○ Physical (freeze-thaw)
○ Organic (roots, burrowing animals)
● Erosion agents: Ice, water, wind, gravity
● Sedimentation: Settling of suspended particles
● Water flow + particle size:
○ Fast flow = larger particles carried
○ Slow flow = deposition
● Littoral zone: Intertidal area (between tides)
○ Types: rocky, sandy, muddy shores; estuaries, deltas
● Shore morphology: Formed by combined weathering, erosion, sedimentation
2.3 Tides and Ocean Currents
Core Idea: Tides and currents regulate ocean mixing, climate, and marine life distribution.
● Tides:
○ Caused by gravity from Moon and Sun
○ Affected by coastal shape, wind, pressure, water body size
● Spring vs Neap tides:
○ Spring = high highs & low lows (Moon + Sun aligned)
○ Neap = small range (Moon + Sun at right angles)
● Interpret tide tables: Know how to find tidal height, range, and type.
● Ocean currents driven by:
○ Wind, temp, density, Coriolis effect (N = clockwise, S = anticlockwise), sea bed
shape
● Upwelling: Deep, nutrient-rich water rises
● Global conveyor belt:
○ Moves water/nutrients globally
○ Regulates climate and nutrient cycles
● El Niño & La Niña (ENSO):
○ El Niño: weakened winds, warmer Pacific water = disrupted marine food chains
○ La Niña: stronger winds = more upwelling, cooler water
3. Interactions in Marine Ecosystems
3.1 Symbiosis and Relationships
Core Idea: Organisms often live in close relationships that influence survival and biodiversity.
● Symbiosis = long-term biological interactions between species:
○ Parasitism: one benefits, one is harmed (e.g., copepods on fish)
○ Commensalism: one benefits, the other is unaffected (e.g., barnacles on
whales)
○ Mutualism: both benefit (e.g., boxer crabs with anemones)
3.2 Feeding Relationships
Core Idea: Energy flows through ecosystems via producers and consumers in food chains and
webs.
● Key terms:
○ Producers: photosynthetic or chemosynthetic organisms
○ Consumers: primary (herbivores), secondary, tertiary, quaternary
○ Other roles: decomposers, predators, prey
● Food chains/webs: Show how energy flows from producers to top consumers
● Photosynthesis: CO₂ + H₂O → glucose + O₂ (sunlight & chlorophyll needed)
● PA: Investigate light intensity's effect on photosynthesis rate
● Fate of glucose:
○ Used for biomass (growth)
○ Used for respiration (energy): glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O
● Productivity = biomass produced per area/time; affects food web size
● Energy loss: Between each trophic level due to heat, movement, waste
● Pyramids:
○ Numbers: count of organisms
○ Biomass: total mass
○ Energy: kilojoules per area
○ Can show parasites, plankton blooms
3.3 Nutrient Cycles
Core Idea: Nutrients cycle through ecosystems, supporting productivity and marine life.
● What are nutrients? Substances used for energy, growth, metabolism
● Examples:
○ Gases: CO₂
○ Ions: Mg²⁺, CO₃²⁻, PO₄³⁻, NO₃⁻
○ Compounds: carbs, lipids, proteins
● Macromolecule building:
○ Glucose → starch, cellulose
○ Amino acids → proteins
○ Fatty acids + glycerol → lipids
● Biological importance of elements:
○ Nitrogen: proteins, DNA
○ Carbon: all organic life
○ Magnesium: chlorophyll
○ Calcium: bones, coral
○ Phosphorus: DNA, bones
● Ocean nutrient sources:
○ Upwelling, run-off, tectonics, air dissolution, waste, decay
● Depletion: Uptake by organisms
● Marine snow: Organic debris falling to deep sea
● Harvesting: Removes nutrients
● Limiting factor: Low nutrients = low productivity
● Carbon cycle (overview): Combustion, photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition,
fossil fuels, carbonate rock formation/weathering
4. Classification and Biodiversity
4.1 Classification of Marine Organisms
Core Idea: Classification organizes biological diversity and helps us understand relationships
among marine species.
● Taxonomic hierarchy: Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family →
Genus → Species
● Binomial nomenclature: Scientific name with genus + species (e.g., Homo sapiens)
● Dichotomous keys: Tools that help identify organisms through paired, contrasting
statements.
● PA: Make and use keys, and draw marine species including Cnidaria (e.g., jellyfish,
corals).
4.2 Key Groups of Marine Organisms
Core Idea: Understanding marine biodiversity means knowing the features and roles of different
phyla and species.
● Plankton:
○ Phytoplankton: Photosynthetic, base of food chains (e.g., diatoms,
dinoflagellates)
○ Zooplankton: Consumers (e.g., larvae, copepods, jellyfish)
● Echinoderms: Pentaradial symmetry, tube feet (e.g., sea stars). Ecological role:
grazers, prey.
● Crustaceans: Carapace, jointed limbs, 2 antennae (e.g., krill). Important in food chains
& economy.
● Bony Fish: Bony skeleton, operculum, gills, swim bladder, fins, lateral line. Example:
anchoveta.
● Cartilaginous Fish: Cartilage skeleton, gill slits, denticles, fins. Example: blue shark.
● Chordate traits: All fish share features like notochord, dorsal nerve cord, pharyngeal
slits, post-anal tail.
● Macroalgae (e.g., kelp): Holdfast, stipe, blades, gas bladders. Producers, coastal
shelter.
● Marine plants (e.g., seagrass): Roots, rhizomes, leaves, flowers. Stabilize sediment,
support biodiversity.
4.3 Biodiversity
Core Idea: Marine biodiversity supports healthy ecosystems and provides resources.
● Levels of biodiversity:
○ Genetic: Variation within a species
○ Species: Variety and relative abundance
○ Ecological: Variety of ecosystems
● Importance of biodiversity:
○ Stability and resilience of ecosystems
○ Protection of coastlines (e.g., reefs)
○ Climate regulation (e.g., CO₂ absorption by plankton)
○ Food, medicine (e.g., KLH from limpets)
4.4 Populations and Sampling Techniques
Core Idea: Studying marine populations helps scientists monitor biodiversity and ecosystem
health.
● Ecological terms:
○ Ecosystem: Interaction of biotic/abiotic factors
○ Habitat: Where an organism lives
○ Niche: Role in ecosystem
○ Species, population, community: Levels of biological organization
● Biotic factors: Competition, predation, symbiosis, disease
● Abiotic factors: Temperature, salinity, pH, oxygen, CO₂, nutrients, light, turbidity, tides
● Population estimation:
○ Mark-release-recapture: Use Lincoln index: N = (n₁ × n₂)/m₂
● Sampling methods:
○ Random: Reduces bias
○ Systematic: Patterned sampling
○ Tools: quadrats, transects, recapture
○ PA: Apply safe, ethical methods in littoral zones
● Biodiversity indices:
○ Simpson’s Diversity Index (D): Measure species diversity
○ Spearman’s Rank Correlation (r ): Analyze variable relationships (correlation ≠
causation)
5. Examples of Marine Ecosystems
5.1 The Open Ocean
Core Idea: The open ocean is vast, deep, and essential to Earth’s climate and biological
productivity.
● Five oceans: Arctic, Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Southern — all interconnected as a World
Ocean
● Zones by depth and light:
○ Epipelagic (sunlight zone)
○ Mesopelagic (twilight zone)
○ Bathypelagic (midnight zone)
○ Abyssopelagic (near the bottom)
○ Benthic (ocean floor)
● Atmospheric interaction:
○ Oceans act as carbon sinks
○ Produce oxygen
○ Buffer temperatures
○ Influence global climate
● Ocean regions: Polar, temperate, tropical — vary by temperature, light, and productivity
5.2 The Tropical Coral Reef
Core Idea: Coral reefs are biodiverse ecosystems formed by living corals in warm, shallow
seas.
● Conditions for formation: Warm, clear, shallow, low-nutrient water
● Types of coral reefs:
○ Fringing (along coast)
○ Barrier (separated by lagoon)
○ Patch (scattered in lagoons)
○ Atoll (ring around lagoon)
● Corals:
○ Animals in phylum Cnidaria
○ Sessile polyps, often with zooxanthellae (algae) in mutualism
● Hard vs soft corals:
○ Hard: stony skeletons, often with zooxanthellae
○ Soft: flexible, often no symbiotic algae
● Coral polyp anatomy: Tentacles, nematocysts, mouth, stomach, calyx, theca, basal
plate
● Nutrition: Photosynthesis from zooxanthellae + capturing small prey
● Importance:
○ Biodiversity
○ Food and tourism
○ Coastal protection
○ Medicines (e.g., anti-cancer compounds)
● Threats to reefs:
○ Ocean acidification (pH change)
○ Rising temperatures (bleaching)
○ Predators (e.g., crown-of-thorns starfish)
○ Physical damage, sedimentation
● Artificial reefs: Structures that support reef development and biodiversity
5.3 The Rocky Shore
Core Idea: Rocky shores are structured by tidal changes and are home to organisms adapted
to extreme variation.
● Zones: Splash zone, upper, middle, lower shore, subtidal
● Abiotic changes during tides: Light, temperature, water, salinity vary across zones
● Biotic interactions: More competition/predation in lower zones
● Adaptations:
○ Resistance to desiccation
○ Attachment mechanisms (e.g., holdfasts, suction)
○ Shells or mucus to reduce water loss
5.4 The Sandy Shore
Core Idea: Sandy shores are unstable environments with low biodiversity, but specialized
adaptations.
● Substrate: Shifting, porous sand — hard to anchor or shelter
● Abiotic extremes: Temperature, desiccation, salinity fluctuate strongly
● Biodiversity: Low due to harsh, unstable conditions
● PA: Investigate how particle size affects water permeability
● Adaptations:
○ Burrowing (e.g., clams, worms)
○ Tube-building or mucus-secreting structures
○ No need for strong attachments
5.5 The Mangrove Forest
Core Idea: Mangroves are tropical coastal ecosystems with trees adapted to salty, waterlogged
soils.
● What is it? Coastal tidal forest in tropical/subtropical regions
● Formation conditions: Muddy shores, low wave energy, tropical climates
● Red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) adaptations:
○ Prop roots: Stability + oxygen access in low-oxygen soil
○ Salt exclusion at roots
○ Vivipary: Live young (propagules that root quickly)
● Ecological importance:
○ Nursery for juvenile fish, crustaceans
○ Traps sediment — protects reefs and seagrass beds
● Human value:
○ Timber, fuel, food, biodiversity, coastal protection, tourism
● Threats:
○ Climate change (temperature, sea level)
○ Overharvesting
○ Coastal development
○ Storm damage
