Geography

Geography of Everyday Life

Relationship between people and nature in their
neighbourhoods

People and nature depend on each other

People are dependent on nature:

●​ Nature provides essentials like air and water for humans to survive
●​ Nature provides recreational spaces to maintain humans’ physical
and mental well-being

Nature dependent on people:

●​ People in neighbourhoods may tend to the health of nearby nature to
ensure they continue thrive

Benefits/Advantages

Nature benefit people:

●​ Lower air temperature
○​ Presence of vegetation
○​ Cools air through evapotranspiration
●​ Remove pollutants
○​ Photosynthesis
●​ Provision of recreational spaces
○​ Provide outdoor activities
○​ Interactions with nature maintain physical and mental well-being
People benefit nature:
●​ Community events
○​ Promoting importance of environmental protection
○​ Raise awareness about value of nature areas
○​ Organise or participate in conservation efforts

Disadvantages

People disadvantage nature:

●​ Cause soil erosion and damage vegetation
○​ People hike along non-designated nature trails
○​ Trample on vegetation, damaging and affecting their growth
●​ Worsen pollution and disturb wildlife
○​ Littering, animals get cut by metal cans or get entangled with
plastic, and mistake litter for food
○​ Feeding wild animals changes their habits of wildlife,
human-wildlife conflict increases when animals associate food
with people

Nature disadvantage people:

●​ Increase in human-wildlife encounters
○​ Urban expansion; natural habitats shrinking, wildlife venture out
of nature areas for food or shelter
○​ People’s growing interest in outdoor recreation
●​ People unintentionally provoke wildlife leading to attacks
●​ Environmental protection may limit development
Common hazards in urban neighbourhoods

Fire hazards

Commonly caused by:

●​ Unattended cooking
●​ Faulty electrical appliances which ignite flammable materials

Health impacts:
●​ Burn injuries
●​ Carbon monoxide poisoning
○​ High levels of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide released
○​ Headache, dizziness, weakness, confusion
○​ Harder to escape fire
●​ Damage respiratory system
○​ Released acid gases
●​ Smoke inhalation
○​ Breathing difficulties

Property damage:
●​ Destroy commercial or residential properties
○​ Economic losses
○​ Goods, furniture, important documents may be destroyed
●​ Further costs incurred
○​ Money required to repair damaged properties in the fire
Air pollution

Commonly caused by:

●​ Burning vegetation
●​ Industrial and motor emissions

Health impacts:
●​ Respiratory infections
●​ Heart diseases
●​ Lung cancer

Traffic hazards

Commonly caused by:

●​ Speeding
●​ Red-light running
●​ Drink-driving

Health impacts:
●​ Disabilities or loss of life
Building sustainable urban neighbourhoods

Environmental stewardship

Actions taken by individuals or groups, to protect, care for or responsibly

use the environment to pursue environmental and/or social outcomes

Achieved through
●​ Promoting volunteerism among neighbourhood residents to share
knowledge with others about the importance of healthy ecosystems.
○​ Help residents be more aware of what they should do to
responsibly use and protect the natural environment
●​ Partnership of public and private stakeholders in environmental
stewardship efforts
○​ They may have different perspectives, resources and expertise
to enhance the efforts

Disaster Risk

The likelihood of damage to properties, injuries, and loss of lives from a

disaster in a given period of time

The product of the interaction between

●​ Nature of hazard
○​ The characteristics of the hazard
●​ Vulnerability
○​ The conditions determined by physical, social, economic and
environmental factors, which affect;
○​ Susceptibility of people and their belongings to the impacts of
hazards.
●​ Exposure
○​ The situation of people and their belongings located in
hazard-prone areas.
Disaster Risk Management

The plans and actions that are implemented to

●​ Prevent new risks from happening
●​ Reduce existing risks
●​ Manage disaster risks

Strengthens community resilience

Primarily focus on
●​ Improving residents’ emergency preparedness to respond to natural
and technological hazards
●​ Implementation of monitoring and warning systems

Community Resilience

The ability of a community to resist, adapt to and recover from impacts of

disasters in a timely and efficient manner

Can be developed by
●​ Strengthening relationships among residents and raising their
awareness of potential hazards
○​ Disaster risk management plans are only sustainable with long
term participation from residents
○​ Residents encouraged to get to know their neighbours so they
can depend on each other during an emergency
●​ Developing residents’ ability to organise and equip with resources to
adapt and recover from a disaster
○​ Residents involved in inclusive planning process involving
community leaders, civil society organisations and the
government
○​ Residents better understand the risks and adaptation options to
communicate to the planners and government
 Tectonics
Plate Boundaries & Volcanoes

Convection current (divergence)

1.​ Mantle heats up (from core high temperature) and rises towards crust
2.​ Molten magma spreads beneath crust
3.​ Thus causes plates to diverge
4.​ Cooled magma then sinks back to core
5.​ Cycle repeats (which keeps the divergence going)

Slab-pull force (convergence)

6.​ The end of the plates will collide with the neighbouring plates and
converge
7.​ The denser plate will subduct under the less dense plate and pull the
rest of the plate along
8.​ Thus more plate movements
O-O Divergence

1.​ Two oceanic plates diverge, small cracks formed in the crust
2.​ Decrease in overlying pressure causes mantle to melt, forming
magma
3.​ Magma rises through gaps in the crust
4.​ Lava cools and solidifies to form a mid-oceanic ridge made of basaltic
rocks
5.​ Magma also rises through weak parts in the crust to form underwater
volcanoes

Example: ​ Mid-Atlantic Ridge ​

​ ​ (North American Plate VS Eurasian Plate)

C-C Divergence

1.​ Two continental plates diverge, fault lines are created

2.​ The middle portion along these lines sinks to form a rift valley
3.​ The sides of the rift valley then become block mountains
4.​ Decrease in overlying pressure causes mantle to melt, forming
magma and rise to form volcanoes

Example: ​ Great African Rift Valley ​

​ ​ (Nubian Plate VS Somalian Plate)​
​ ​ (Mount Kenya / Mount Kilimanjaro)
O-O Convergence

1.​ Two oceanic plates collide, denser plate subducts under the less
dense plate
2.​ This subduction forms an oceanic trench
3.​ The pressure of the subduction forces water out of the oceanic crust,
lowering the melting point of the underlying mantle
4.​ The mantle melts into magma and rises through cracks in the crust to
form underwater volcanoes

Example: ​ Mariana Trench

​ ​ (Pacific Plate VS Philippine Plate)
​ ​ (Mariana Islands – volcanoes)

C-C Convergence

1.​ Two continental plates collide, no subduction takes place as they are
too buoyant
2.​ Enormous pressure and stress of the movement causes the rock
layers to buckle and fold to form fold mountains
3.​ Since there is no subduction and magma does not rise through the
crust, no volcanoes are formed

Example: ​ Himalayan Mountain Range

​ ​ (Indo-Australian Plate VS Eurasian Plate)
O-C Convergence

1.​ When a continental and oceanic plate collide, denser oceanic plate
subducts under the less dense continental plate
2.​ This subduction forms a deep depression at the subduction zone
AKA oceanic trench
3.​ The pressure of the subduction forces water out of the oceanic crust,
lowering the melting point of the underlying mantle
4.​ The mantle melts into magma and rises through cracks in the crust to
form volcanoes
5.​ Rock sediments scraped from the oceanic crust in the subduction
process accumulates near the subduction zone forming fold
mountains

Example: ​ Peru-Chile Trench

​ ​ (Nazca Plate (O) VS South American Plate (C))
​ ​ Andes Mountain – fold mountain
​ ​ Nevado del RuiZ Volcano – volcano

Transform

1.​ When two plates slide past each other, friction between plates results
in transform fault
2.​ Along fault, stress and energy builds up as plates continue to slide
past each other
3.​ When stress and energy exceeds the strength of rocks, plates will
snap or shift in position to release pressure
4.​ Results in sudden movements that cause ground shaking AKA
earthquakes
High silica magma

●​ More viscous magma

●​ As magma rises towards the Earth’s surface, the dissolved gases in
the magma cannot escape easily
●​ More pressure builds up until gases escape explosively
●​ Results in violent, explosive eruptions
●​ Generally associated with stratovolcanoes

Low silica magma

●​ Less viscous magma

●​ As magma rises towards the Earth’s surface, the dissolved gases in
the magma can escape easily
●​ Less pressure builds up until gases escape effusively
●​ Results in gentle, effusive eruptions
●​ Generally associated with shield volcanoes

Stratovolcanoes

1.​ High viscosity magma rises through the weak areas of the crust
towards the Earth’s surface and erupts explosively as lava, ash and
rocks
2.​ Ash and rocks settle on the sides of the volcano, and are later
covered by lava
3.​ Over successive eruptions, a tall volcano consisting of alternating
layers of ash and lava develops
4.​ As the highly viscous lava travels a shorter distance before cooling
and solidifying, the volcano has steep sides and a narrow summit

Example: Mount Mayon in the Philippines

Shield volcanoes

1.​ Low viscosity magma rises through the weak areas of the crust
towards the Earth’s surface and erupts effusively
2.​ Over successive eruptions, a volcano consisting of layers of lava
develops
3.​ As the less viscous lava travels a longer distance before cooling and
solidifying, the volcano has gently sloping sides with a broad summit

Example: Kilauea in Hawaii, USA

Volcanic Explosivity Index

●​ Greater volume of ejected material = higher VEI

●​ Greater height of explosion cloud = higher VEI
●​ Longer eruption = higher VEI

Effusive eruptions are generally given a value of 0 or 1, as they are

non-explosive with less than 0.0001km3 of material ejected
●​ Example: The ongoing effusive eruption of Kilauea, Hawaii

Value of 8 represents a mega-colossal explosive eruption that can eject

more than 1,000km3 of tephra, with an eruption cloud column height of over
25km
●​ Example: Toba Volcano in Northern Sumatra, Indonesia, 74,000
years ago
Disaster Risk Management (Respond)

Land Use Planning

Aims to reduce community’s exposure to tectonic hazards by controlling

and minimising development in high risk areas

Example: After the 1993 tsunami in Japan, land use planning was
implemented and villages such as Touni-hongo that were near coastal
areas were shifted to higher grounds. This caused the village to be
unscathed when the 2011 Tohoku earthquake struck.

Hazard-resistant Building Designs

Earthquake-resistant building designs can withstand ground shaking by

●​ using shock absorbers or dampers to absorb vibrations under the
buildings
●​ reinforcing buildings using diagonal cross braces to restrain its shape
during shakes

Example: Taipei 101 which is built on an earthquake-prone zone. A

weighted damper near the top of the building balances out the ground
shaking during earthquakes which reduces the sway of the buildings and
keeps it standing.
Monitoring and Warning Systems

Monitoring and warning systems are used to detect seismic waves and
ground deformation and send out warnings about potential hazards

These warnings will allow people to evacuate to a safer place in time to

reduce the risk of injuries and casualties

Example: monitoring and warning systems managed to send out advance

warning to stop all bullet trains during the 2011 Tohoku earthquake (9.0
magnitude) which saved the lives of thousands of passengers.

Increasing Public Awareness for Response and Recovery

Being prepared for disasters means knowing what to do in the event of a

tectonic hazard so that the community can avoid the dangers associated
with the hazard.

Strategies to increase preparedness include:

●​ raising awareness through public education
●​ first aid training
●​ conducting evacuation drills

Example: Since 1960, 1st September has been designated Disaster

Prevention Day. On this day emergency drills organised by local
governments are held throughout the country
Challenges in Disaster Risk Management
(Respond)

Extent of Community Resources

Lack of resources may include financial, technological and/or physical

resources

This influences the ability of the community to reduce vulnerability,

exposure to tectonic hazards and to recover from the impacts of disasters

Capability of the community to organise itself for disasters

Lack of capability of the community to organise itself may limit their ability
to respond and recover from tectonic hazards

Such capabilities may be limited by

●​ Lack of effort to educate and train the community
●​ Political instability
●​ Incompetent or corrupt government (result in lack of funds)

Example: 2010 earthquake of 7.0 magnitude in Haiti resulted in more than

220000 deaths as the community was unable to organise itself. There was
no prior education or training and no emergency aid network was
established beforehand which made responses difficult. Poor law
enforcement also led to massive looting, chaos and unrest after the
earthquake and hampered recovery
Disaster Risk Management (Recovery)

Search and Rescue Efforts (Short-term)

Finding and saving survivors trapped in buildings or disaster zones

Skilled rescuers and specialised equipment such as heat sensors and

listening devices can reduce time taken to locate and evacuate survivors

Example: In the 2020 Aegean Sea, Turkey earthquake of 7.0 magnitude,

more than 8000 search, rescue and first aid teams were deployed and over
106 people were rescued

Timely Evacuation (Short-term)

Moving people away from areas at risk of hazards as quickly as possible to

safer location will reduce loss of lives (both before and after disaster
strikes)

Example: In 2010, after a warning of Mount Merapi’s imminent eruption was

issued, local authorities organised massive evacuation efforts to more than
700 evacuation centres and these efforts saved more than 10000 lives.
(before the disaster strikes)
Provision of basic social and psychological services

(Short-term)

During the hazards, water and food supply may be cut off due to
breakdown of pipes, factory and transport systems. Providing clean food
and water supply will reduce death due to diseases, thirst and hunger.

After the hazards, people may suffer from injuries and emotional distress
which requires immediate medical aid and counselling (to help process
trauma).

Example: After the Mount Agung eruption in 2017, Indonesian authorities

and non-governmental organisations provided for more than 75,000
evacuees.

Restoring and improving facilities and living conditions of

affected communities (Long-term)

Enable affected communities to rebuild their lives and minimise their

vulnerability and exposure to future tectonic hazards

Example: The 2011 Tohoku earthquake displaced about 500000 people

and by 2016, majority of these people were rehoused in settlements with
enhanced tsunami-resistant features. Ground level of sites for new houses
were raised by 10 metres and 2 more sea walls were built.
Challenges in Disaster Risk Management
(Recover)

Lack of domestic resources, including technological and

financial resources

Some countries may not have the financial and technological resources to
respond and recover effectively which may result in delays that cause more
injuries and deaths

Example: During the 2010 Haiti earthquake, Haiti’s lack of resources

hampered the disaster management efforts. There was a critical shortage
of ambulances to transport the injured and also heavy machinery to remove
rubble from collapsed buildings. As a result, rescuers had to remove the
rubble by hand which greatly delayed rescue efforts.

Engagement of relevant stakeholders for collaboration

It may be difficult to get stakeholders to collaborate and integrate disaster

management strategies into the practices.

Example: In Philippines, only 10% - 20% of buildings are insured against

earthquakes due to high costs.
 Tourism
Tourist

A tourist is a person who makes a trip outside their usual environment

Domestic tourists
●​ Travel within their country
International tourists
●​ Travel abroad to another country

Tourism system

Transit Routes

The availability of transit routes influences the volume and direction of

travel between regions.
●​ Limited or inconvenient transit routes:
○​ Volume of travel between the regions might be low
●​ More transit routes available:
○​ Volume of travel might increase
●​ Convenient or attractive transit routes available:
○​ Direction of travel might change
○​ Tourists might choose to travel via the transit route instead of
travelling directly to the destination region

Push Factors (Generating Regions)

Push factors to leave region:

●​ Stressful work environments
●​ Unpleasant living environments, including overcrowding and pollution
●​ Lack of recreational and entertainment options
Pull Factors (Destination Regions)

Pull factors to attract tourists:

●​ Places of scenic beauty.
●​ Special events such as concerts or festivals.
●​ Attractions, facilities and amenities that provide positive experiences.

Growth of tourism

Motivation to travel

A set of needs that can be satisfied by travelling

●​ For relaxation
○​ Increasing pressures of work and hectic lifestyles
○​ People see travel as a way to rest and rejuvenate
○​ E.g. Seeking nature and scenic views to escape urban
environments
●​ To discover unique travel experiences
○​ Satisfy curiosity about the world
○​ E.g. Tourism to Antarctica has increased significantly in the last
two decades due to increasing curiosity about one of the
world’s last inhabited regions.
●​ To achieve personal growth and self-fulfilment
○​ Develop further by learning something new or improving
existing knowledge and skills
○​ E.g. Pilgrimage tourism allows people to learn more about faiths
and religions
Ability to travel

Conditions that allow an individual to make trips

●​ Increase in disposable income
○​ Greater spending on travel
○​ E.g. In China, the GDP quadrupled from 1999 to 2019 which
resulted in increased tourism from China from 9 million to 154
million.
●​ Increase in leisure time
○​ Time when people are free from work and other responsibilities
○​ Increase in paid leave also increases the ability of workers to
finance their travel
○​ E.g. In 2015, the Chinese government encouraged companies
to give workers half a day of paid leave on Fridays during the
summer months to help boost domestic tourism
●​ Business innovations in the tourism-related industry
○​ Increase in businesses providing value-for-money experiences
○​ E.g. Thomas Cook invented tour packages where companies
purchase transport and accommodation in bulk to sell as
package deals which made tourism more affordable and
increased demand in the United Kingdom.
●​ Lower transport costs
○​ Air fares have significantly decreased over the years with the
emergence of budget airlines
○​ E.g. Budget airlines such as Air Asia offer significantly cheaper
flights and are gaining more popularity in Southeast Asia.
●​ Lower accommodation costs
○​ Increasing variety of accommodation types such as hotels,
rented properties and homestays
○​ The wide variety caters to different budgets which allows for
increased travelling at more affordable prices.
○​ E.g. AirBnB is a business innovation which connects home
owners to tourists who would like to rent temporary
accommodation at cheaper rates. In 2019, an estimated more
than 2 million people stayed in an AirBnB property every day.
Mobility to travel

The ability to move around easily and conveniently to tourist destinations

●​ Expansion of public transport services and infrastructure
○​ Increases the connectivity between different parts of a country,
as well as between countries.
○​ Allows for travelling to different destinations in shorter times and
with greater convenience
○​ E.g. Changi Airport’s Terminal 4’s opening allows for more
flights from other parts of Asia to Singapore, increasing regional
tourism.
●​ New modes of travel
○​ Rapid development of transportation technology
○​ Tourists have more options at more competitive travelling prices
○​ E.g. In early 1950s, a flight between Singapore and London
would take 2 to 4 days, now it takes 14 hours without any
stopovers
●​ Increase in private car ownership
○​ More freedom in the number of destinations one can visit and
the time spent on the road
○​ E.g. Car ownership in India is increasing exponentially and
Srinagar City is increasingly experiencing an influx of tourists
travelling by car in the summer.

Tourism destination development cycle

Exploration stage

Tourist arrivals and contributions

●​ The destination is only visited by a small number of adventurous
tourists who travel there individually.
●​ Such visits are irregular and do not occur throughout the year.
●​ The people who visit the destination make minimal contributions to
the local economy as they visit these places largely for existing
 natural or cultural attractions which may not bring in much income for
the locals.

Features of the destination

●​ Tourists are attracted to the destination due to the following:
○​ Natural attractions or features (e.g. beaches, coral reefs,
volcanoes), which offer scenic views or an attractive unspoilt
natural environment
○​ Cultural attractions with historical (e.g. ancient temples or
castles) or heritage (e.g. indigenous tribal villages) value
○​ Few tourism facilities

Example:
●​ Jaco Island in Timor Leste has few international visitors due to
inaccessible location and lack of tourism facilities

Involvement stage

Tourist arrivals and contributions

●​ Tourist arrivals increase as awareness of the destination spreads
through:
○​ Word of mouth
○​ Advertisements by local authorities and media
●​ There are varying numbers of tourists in different parts of the year,
leading to the development of peak and off-peak tourist seasons
●​ Tourists contribute to the local economy

Features of the destination

●​ With more tourist arrivals, the destination evolves with the following:
○​ Locals offering more goods and services to cater to tourists (i.e.
food and drink vendors, leisure service providers like surfing
and boat rentals)
○​ More public facilities such as car parks and toilets,
infrastructure such as roads and bridges, and amenities such
as Wi-Fi and local eateries as locals begin requesting these
 from the authorities. These are usually built and maintained by
the local authorities or governments

Example
●​ Kuang Si Waterfalls in Laos had an increasing number of tourists
when authorities invested money to improve facilities

Development stage

Tourist arrivals and contributions

●​ Tourist arrivals increase rapidly
●​ The tourism sector employs a significant number of workers,
comprising locals and foreign labour, contributing significantly to the
local economy.
○​ Workers from other parts of the country and from other
countries will be attracted to work in the booming construction,
retail and tourism sectors of the destination.

Features of the destination

●​ There is a faster pace in the development of the following:
○​ Tourist facilities (e.g. tourist information centres)
○​ Infrastructure (e.g. airports and ports)
○​ Amenities (e.g. shopping malls)
○​ Attractions (e.g. museums, amusement parks, and casinos)
●​ There is heavy advertising of the destination, its attractions, facilities
and amenities.
●​ There is also an increase in large and medium businesses that
provide goods and services to cater to the needs of tourists (such as
large international hotel chains).
●​ The destination becomes recognised as a tourist destination.

Example
●​ Phu Quoc island in Vietnam received investments to build an
international airport and in 2019 had a rapid increase in tourist
arrivals to 5.1 million
Consolidation stage

Tourist arrivals and contributions:

●​ Total annual tourist arrivals to the destination outnumber the local
population.
●​ The growth in tourist arrivals starts to slow.
●​ The tourism industry:
○​ Dominates the local economy.
○​ Continues to employ a significant amount of workers and
contributes significantly to the local economy.

Features of the destination

●​ There is a slowing down in the number of attractions and facilities
built
●​ The majority of tourist facilities and amenities are often owned by
large multinational companies.

Example
●​ In 2019, Gao in India had 7 million foreign tourists outnumbering 1.5
million locals, and many large multinational companies owned hotels.

Stagnation stage

Tourist arrivals and contribution

●​ Tourist numbers have peaked and begin to decline because the
destination has reached or exceeded its carrying capacity, resulting in
negative effects
●​ Tourists' contributions to the local economy will start to stagnate.

Features of the destination

●​ The destination may no longer be attractive
●​ Tourist facilities and attractions may decline as they become old and
run down
●​ Tourists are starting to feel that the location no longer has anything to
offer them in terms of experience or interest
Example
●​ In Hawaii, USA, Waikiki, a major tourism spot, in the late 1990s had
become very crowded and the facilities and attractions were getting
old and run down and in need of major renovations

Post-stagnation (decline stage)

Tourist arrivals and contributions

●​ Tourist arrivals decline significantly if no steps are taken to revive the
destination. Tourists seek other new and exciting destinations.
●​ Tourists' contributions to the local economy will decline significantly.

Features of the destination

●​ Local businesses are affected and may close, negatively affecting the
economy and livelihoods of the people.
●​ There is less money available to maintain and improve the facilities,
resulting in further deterioration.
●​ This can further reduce the attractiveness of the destination, resulting
in fewer tourists.

Example
●​ In the 1990s, Blackpool, United Kingdom, once a popular coastal
tourist destination, lost its attractiveness due to competition from
other European coastal locations with more competitive pricing,
causing fewer tourists and many old inns deteriorating or shutting
down

Post-stagnation (rejuvenation stage)

Tourist arrivals and contributions

●​ Tourist arrivals increase as the destination becomes more attractive
again due to the following:
 ○​ Investments and funding to develop new attractions and
facilities
○​ Re-branding of the destination
●​ Tourists' contributions to the local economy increase again.

Features of the destination

●​ New facilities, amenities, infrastructure and attractions are developed,
making the destination more attractive.
●​ Efforts are made to advertise the revamped destination.

Example
●​ In the present, Blackpool, United Kingdom, re-marketed itself as a
muslim-friendly and disabled-friendly destination

Personality characteristics

Dependables

●​ Are more cautious in spending money

●​ Guided by authority figures in making travel decisions e.g.
government-issued travel advisories
●​ Follow the travel trends by other Venturers and public personalities
e.g. travel bloggers and social media influencers
●​ Prefer structure and routine
●​ Travel in groups as they like to feel comfortable and secure.
●​ Visit popular and familiar destinations which have well-developed
tourism facilities and amenities for their convenience, such as hotels
and family-friendly restaurants
●​ More likely to return to the same place again
●​ Hence, they prefer mass tourism or packaged tours because of the
predictability and routine nature of the activities.
Venturers

●​ Spend money more readily

●​ Guided by their personal judgement rather than authority figures in
making travel decisions
●​ Prefer to be spontaneous and have a diversity of activities
●​ Travel alone
●​ Explore less-developed, unique places where they can participate in
new experiences and activities, even if it is less convenient. Often,
they set travel trends for others
●​ More likely to visit new places each time they travel
●​ Hence, they prefer to make their own travel plans, and often opt for
niche tourism

Impacts

Economic impacts

Positive
●​ Employment opportunities in formal and informal tourism sectors.
○​ Creates employment opportunities for people of varying skills
such as hotel service staff and tour guides
○​ E.g. In 2015 to 2019, about 25% of new jobs were created by
the tourism industry
●​ Income generation from tourists’ spending on consumer goods and
services.
○​ Tourists spending money on consumer goods and services
offered by locals such as accommodation and food can
increase the locals’ income
○​ Tourism can alleviate poverty as it can transfer wealth from
wealthier to poorer regions
○​ E.g. In the 1980s, Maldives was one of the world’s poorest
countries. Today, its economy has grown due to the tourism
 opportunities offered by its natural landscape, resulting in low
poverty rates

Negative
●​ Economic leakages resulting in less tourism revenue
○​ Revenue generated by tourism in destination region is lost to
the economies of other countries
○​ Reduces revenue from tourism, minimising locals’ income
○​ E.g. According to the United Nations Environment Programme,
for every US$100 spent by a tourist on a holiday to a
developing country, only US$5 remains in the local host country
●​ Overdependence on tourism, which increases vulnerability to a
sudden fall in tourist numbers
○​ May occur due to unexpected events, causing economic
benefits from tourism to fluctuate and affect the livelihoods of
people
○​ Natural disasters → people fear for their safety →
cancel/postpone travel plans
○​ Unfavourable political situations → riots and protects → hotels
and tourist attractions close
○​ Economic downturn → people experience pay cuts → less
disposable income → spend less on travel
■​ E.g. In 2009, the Maldives, which is highly dependent on
tourism, suffered a drop of 4% in tourism arrivals due to
the global economic crisis then
○​ Outbreak of diseases → people fear for their safety →
cancel/postpone travel plans

Social impacts

Positive
●​ Enhancing cultural ecosystem services
○​ Achieved by protecting the environment for tourist activities and
experiences
 ○​ Provides tourists and locals with educational and recreational
benefits
○​ E.g. In Sanjiangyuan National Park in China, sightings of rare
snow leopards have drawn tourists
●​ Cultural preservation
○​ Many tourists are interested to visit places with rich cultural
heritage and are keen to learn more or participate in activities
and festivals
○​ Ensures the passing down of knowledge and cultural practices
from generation to generation
○​ E.g. Show puppetry in China is an ancient art form which is
culturally important to local communities as it passes on history
and traditions

Negative
●​ Commodification of cultural practices and art forms
○​ Traditions may undergo commodification, thus losing their
authenticity and cultural value
○​ Cultural rituals may be exaggerated or staged to suit the needs
and requests of tourists
○​ In Vancouver, Canada, totem poles have been commodified
and widely available for tourists to purchase as souvenirs
●​ Cultural clashes
○​ Tourists can be insensitive to local norms, resulting in negative
sentiment against tourists
○​ Tourism may also result in negative impacts to local
communities and their environments such as congestion and
pollution, leading to negative attitudes towards tourists
○​ E.g. In Hawaii, USA, it was found that most locals did not wish
for Hawaii to be opened up to the public after months of
COVID-19 lockdown
●​ Rise in crimes
○​ Pickpocketing may occur as tourists often carry large sums of
money, making them targets
 ○​ Tourists may be targeted if negative sentiments from locals
towards them continue to build up
○​ Locals feel less safe due to the increased crime rates
○​ E.g. In 2017, a tourist bus in Barcelona, Spain was attacked by
anti-tourist protestors who punctured the tyres and sprayed
anti-tourism graffiti on the bus

Environmental impacts

Positive
●​ Conservation of natural environments and preservation of biodiversity
○​ Local communities and governments in destination regions
maintain a pristine environment to attract tourists to visit
○​ Tourism revenue generated may be used to fund the protection
of the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, protecting biodiversity
○​ E.g. An entrance fee of US$100 is charged to visitors entering
the Galapagos National Park in Ecuador, where the revenue
generated from the fees are channelled to the conservation and
upkeep of the park
●​ Restoration of degraded aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
○​ Aquatic and terrestrial sites have the potential to be tourist
attractions, providing motivation to restore degraded aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems to create new natural attractions
○​ E.g. A regional project led by the United Nations Development
Fund has been initiated to restore the coral reef ecosystem in
Mauritius and Seychelles as coral reefs are economically
significant for the tourism industry

Negative
●​ Greenhouse emissions
○​ Travelling by air, sea, or land requires large amounts of fossil
fuels to be burned
○​ Cause respiratory issues like asthma
●​ Improper waste disposal
 ○​ Tourists may leave litter behind → environmental degradation
like land and water pollution
○​ E.g. Climbers that climb Mount Everest discard tents and food
on the slopes in the area
●​ Depletion of natural resources
○​ Overuse in natural resources such as water can lead to
negative impacts like droughts
○​ Harm people and aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
●​ Threats to wildlife habitats
○​ Construction of tourist facilities may encroach on natural areas,
destroying natural environments and threatening wildlife
habitats
○​ E.g. In the Maldives, the government built large-scale facilities
for accommodation, food and recreation for tourists, threatening
the coastal environment

Achieving sustainable tourism development

Economic

●​ Provide continual provision of employment opportunities and income

growth (short-run)
○​ Ensure locals have stable employment and source of income
○​ Provide skills training to ensure career progression and income
growth in long run
○​ Provide seasonally employment locals with greater variety of
skills so they can get employed during off-peak season
●​ Increasing provision of social services to raise locals’ standards of
living (long-run)
○​ Tourism revenue can be used to build schools or clinics for local
communities
○​ Education can allow for more employment opportunities and
locals can seek better employment and income
Social

●​ Respecting authenticity of local communities, practices and art forms

○​ Ensure that authenticity of traditional practices and artforms are
respected to maintain significance for locals and allow for
preservation and continued practice by locals
○​ Prevent conflicts from occurring between locals and tourists
which might end up discouraging tourism
●​ Contributing to intercultural understanding and tolerance
○​ Exchanges between tourists and locals should enhances
understanding, tolerance and better appreciation towards each
others’ culture

Environmental

●​ Maintain essential ecological processes

○​ Ensure that ecological systems are able to thrive despite use to
allow current and future demands to be met
○​ Stakeholders should come together to ensure responsible use
of the ecological systems
●​ Conserving natural heritage and biodiversity
○​ Establish national parks and areas of conservation to regulate
and protect the environment from threats such as illegal
poaching and pollution
○​ Manage tourist numbers and the waste generated in tourist
areas
Stakeholders in sustainable tourism
development

Government

Effectiveness
●​ Establishing policies and creating plans
○​ authority to set up policies that stakeholders are legally required
to adhere to
○​ ensure minimal damage to the environment while maximising
benefits to locals
○​ E.g. In Sentosa, Singapore, authorities bring together different
stakeholders → develop plans to ensure sustainability →
conserving Sentosa’s heritage and biodiversity → achieve
carbon-neutrality by 2030
●​ Enforcing regulations
○​ includes regulating the types of tourism activities and number of
tourists allowed to enter
○​ E.g. In Bhutan, tourists can only enter through booking with
licensed tour operators who are tasked to ensure tourists
adhere to laws and regulations to minimise negative impacts
(i.e only trekking on designated trails etc)

Ineffectiveness
●​ Poor enforcement
○​ some governments lack resources or political influence or are
corrupt which reduced their ability to enforce regulations
●​ Decision to prioritise economic development
○​ some governments may prioritise economic development and
neglect environmental and social sustainability as the tourism
industry develops.
International organisations

Effectiveness
●​ Provide consultancy and technical assistance
○​ help market villages to encourage tourists to visit them which
gives the locals jobs and income
○​ locals can also receive skills training to create products that can
be sold to tourist for income
○​ E.g. In handicraft villages in Ha Tay Province, Vietnam, the UN
World Tourism Organisation provided advice on marketing and
technical help.
●​ Financial assistance
○​ provided to carry out small-scale infrastructural improvements,
such as public toilets and village information boards to support
tourism
○​ E.g. In Wadi Al-Hitan, Egypt, fossil remains were threatened by
large tourist arrivals and UNESCO stepped in to provide
financial support to relay information to tourists about the fossil
remains and how to preserve them.

Ineffectiveness
●​ Lack of understanding of local contexts
○​ international organisations are made up of members from
various countries and background
○​ may have differing perspectives regarding the same issue
without full understanding of the local contexts
○​ decisions and actions without full knowledge and consideration
of local contexts may not be supported by the locals which
hinders sustainable tourism development
●​ Lack of funding
○​ most international organisations tend to be non-profit and may
not be able to provide financial assistance to many tourist sites /
villages
 ○​ without sufficient funding, some of the projects may not be
implemented properly or at all, which reduce the effectiveness
of developing tourism sustainably

Businesses

Effectiveness
●​ Participating in decision making for sustainable tourism development
○​ incentive to pursue sustainable tourism as it can keep them
profitable
○​ large amount of financial resources to include sustainable
tourism development
○​ contribute by seeking advice from other stakeholders and
participate in making decisions that will help promote
sustainable tourism development
○​ E.g. Quicksilver Cruises in Australia specialises in tours of the
Great Barrier Reef and they work with planning authorities to
promote ecotourism and also work with marine biologists to
conduct research on how to manage the Great Barrier Reef
better while promoting tourism there.

Ineffectiveness
●​ Compromising on sustainable practices to survive
○​ businesses ultimately may prioritise profits over sustainability
especially for small business that depend heavily on tourism
revenue for survival
○​ businesses may end up polluting the environment or exploiting
resources and locals just to make profits
●​ Differing understanding and ways to measure sustainability
○​ when there is no standardised understanding and measure of
sustainability, businesses may end up greenwashing and
market themselves as sustainable despite their practices not
being aligned with what actual sustainable tourism is (lead to
tourists making misinformed decisions)
Local communities

Effectiveness
●​ Seeking advice from other stakeholders
○​ locals may not have necessary knowledge and experience to
develop tourism sustainably
○​ by seeking advice from other stakeholders with knowledge and
experience, sustainable tourism can be developed more
effectively
○​ E.g. In Singapore, locals can seek advice from the NEA to
pursue sustainable tourism practices such as waste
management and recycling when hosting international events
●​ Participate in decision making
○​ with better knowledge of local culture and heritage, the locals
can suggest ways in which tourism can be developed to
maintain their culture and heritage
○​ taking part in the tourism industry can ensure benefits gained
stay within the local community
○​ E.g. The local community of Klemtu in Canada took part in
community based-tourism to protect their homeland and make a
living

Ineffectiveness
●​ Lack of financial or technical assistance
○​ locals may not have the information on how to apply for
financial or technical assistance → lack sufficient resources to
carry out plans for sustainable tourism development despite
having advice from the other stakeholders
●​ Prioritising economic benefits over sustainability
○​ some locals may pursue tourism practices that may not be
sustainable as long as it brings in higher levels of income to
support themselves and their families
○​ low level of incentives for some locals when it comes to
protecting the environment and community
Tourists

Effectiveness
●​ Develop genuine interest in tourist destination
○​ tourists to choose tours or services which prioritise sustainable
tourism or channel their revenue towards sustainability efforts
○​ E.g. At a sea turtle volunteering conservation programme in
Costa Rica, tourist can help care for injured sea turtles and
patrol the beaches to protect the turtles their eggs from
poachers
●​ Responsible interactions with the environment and locals when
travelling
○​ prior to their trip, tourists can learn more about local cultures
and practices and be mindful of their behaviour when travelling
to show respect to the locals and environment
○​ E.g. In Bali, Indonesia, tourists can be more mindful of the way
they dress in religious sites that are more conservative. The
tourists can also be more mindful about unintended littering or
vandalism during their trips.

Ineffectiveness
●​ Lack the ability to afford sustainable tourism options
○​ some sustainable tourism options can be more expensive
(niche tourism) due to the costs required to ensure
sustainability
○​ not all tourists are able to afford the significantly higher costs
even if they are interested in this sustainable options
●​ Lack of clear information / Misinformed
○​ differing understanding and interpretations of sustainability →
some tourists may lack clear information or are misinformed →
end up taking part in tourism activities that are actually not
sustainable
○​ some tourists may also be purposefully misled by tour operators
in order to make profits without actually making sustainable
efforts
Approaches to sustainable tourism
development

Community-based tourism

Small-scale tourism managed by local communities only

Strategies
●​ Encouraging local community to participate in decision making
○​ locals will have greater knowledge of their economic, social and
environmental needs
○​ therefore their decisions will be most useful in ensuring these
meets are met
○​ this involvement will also ensure locals continue to support the
tourism industry
●​ Put in place measures to increase economic and social benefits to
locals
○​ locals are encouraged to innovate and set up businesses and
offer tourism services to cater to the tourists (subsidies and
training can be provided for them)
○​ tourism revenue can be directed to community projects such as
schools and healthcare to improve the standard of living for the
locals
●​ Educate and increase tourists’ appreciation of local cultures and
protection of the environment
○​ promote interaction between locals and tourists to develop
respect for local cultures and the environment
○​ E.g. when tourists stay in traditional homestays in Binsar
Wildlife Sanctuary, tourists can live with local families and learn
more about their daily lives, culture and heritages. This allows
for better understanding and appreciation of the culture which
leads to cultural preservation.
Limitations
●​ Loss of Culture
○​ Without sufficient measures, when local communities offer
tourism experiences out of their culture, there might be a loss of
authenticity of the culture
○​ E.g. In Kyrgyzstan, commodification of local traditions to suit
tourists' preferences has been observed. Traditional yurts have
been modified to include beds and modern furniture which
provides comfort for tourists but is far from authentic.
●​ Competition with large-scale tourism development
○​ many locals lack skills and and financial resources to provide
experiences for the tourists that can match up to that of the big
corporations such as hotels and resorts and tourists will tend to
not want to take part in CBT due to these reasons
○​ E.g. In Vietnam, Thanh Ha Pottery village may have been
successful in attracting some tourists, but it continues to face
competition from more established potteries in Central Vietnam
as they lack highly skilled pottery artisans.
Ecotourism

Takes place in natural areas which are scenic and allows tourists to
experience nature
Aims to conserve natural environment while benefiting the local community

Example
●​ The Galapagos Islands in Ecuador attract many tourists with their
unique floral and fauna.
●​ 97% of the island was declared to be a national park to conserve the
biodiversity
●​ In addition, the authorities only allow a limited number of tourists per
day to minimise disturbances, and tourists are required to pay an
entrance fee of USD$100 to fund conservation projects.
●​ There are also locals who work as tour guides to not only earn a
living but to educate tourists about the island and conservation efforts
as no one is allowed on the island without a guide.

Strategies
●​ Educating and increasing tourist appreciation of nature
○​ tours that take places with natural areas allows for interaction
with nature and increases tourist knowledge and appreciation
for nature
○​ ideally, this will encourage tourists to take action to conserve
and minimise damages to the environment
●​ Put in place measures to minimise the negative impacts on the
environment
○​ tourism revenue is channelled into conservation of the natural
environment (eg: hiring park rangers)
○​ there can be campaigns or signages put up to help minimise
damages as well
Limitations
●​ Uncertainty over the continuity of efforts in conserving nature
○​ ecotourism will not work if ecotours become overwhelmingly
popular
○​ strong desire to earn profits as ecotourism gets more popular
may compromise the effects of ecotourism
○​ E.g. In the Galapagos Island, large number of ecotourism has
resulted in erosion along some trails and caused disturbances
to the wildlife
●​ Uncertainty over involving local communities
○​ demand for manpower to made the needs of tourists may
results in the need to hire non-locals especially when the local
do not have skills and knowledge to provide the services
required
○​ E.g. In Kufri, India, economic leakages occurred when the
locals do not have necessary skills required for the jobs and are
not provided with training in time

Pro-poor tourism

Focuses on improving livelihoods of the poor through training and access

to micro-finance (bank loans to low-income individuals)
Aims to generate net benefits (economic, social and environmental) and
improving livelihoods and well-being of the poor

Example
●​ In villages around China’s Three Parallel Rivers Region, a UNESCO
World Natural Heritage Site takes part in pro-poor tourism.
●​ Many tourists visit this site for the scenic views and to experience
village life.
●​ Authorities have provided financial assistance to help the poor
villagers set up homestays and restaurants to engage in the tourism
industry
●​ As a results, the local community have experienced an increase in
income and standard of living
Strategies
●​ Training of the poor
○​ through gaining of new skills, poor locals can gain employment
in the tourism sector
●​ Increasing access to micro-finance
○​ enables the poor to set up businesses such as homestays and
restaurants
○​ providing communication materials to help the poor locals
understand how to get access to and apply for micro-finance

Limitations
●​ Inability to significantly reduce poverty as compared to direct
investment in social services
○​ may be difficult to channel benefits to the poor as effectively as
compared to directly investing in social services
○​ poor may be reluctant to participate in PPT due to lack of skills
or information
○​ E.g. In the village of Arb, Iran, many poor locals lack the
confidence to undergo training and some are unable to afford
the small fee to get trained and therefore majority of the poorest
are not benefiting from PPT.
●​ Economic benefits may be highly unevenly distributed, with most
benefits channelled to non-poor locals
○​ non-poor locals may have greater access to micro-financing or
training (seen to be more reliable to banks and authorities than
the poorest)
○​ as such, non-poor become wealthier while the poorest remain
poor which defeats the intentions of PPT
Continuity of sustainable tourism development

Sustainable tourism production

●​ Demands on ecosystems services do not exceed supply of resources

○​ Tourism is heavily dependent on ecosystem services
○​ To ensure sustainability, the demands on ecosystem services
should not exceed thes supply of resources available
○​ E.g. In Bali, Indonesia, many hotels and resorts use large
amounts of water and in the long run these will reduce the
water resources for other industries especially rice farming. As
such continued development of these hotels and resorts will
affect rice farms which are also tourist attractions and tourism
will no longer be sustainable.
●​ Different stakeholders work together and adopt responsible long-term
approaches
○​ When different stakeholder come together to ensure water and
energy conservation, demands of ecosystem services will not
exceed the supply of resource available
○​ E.g. In Sentosa, Singapore, authorities have brought together
businesses and locals to establish long-plans to achieve carbon
neutrality by using locally sourced products and adopting
renewable energy solutions.
Sustainable tourism consumption

●​ Destination regions manage demand and when tourism is consumed

responsibly by tourists
○​ Tourists can ensure sustainability by making responsible
choices such as staying in hotels that embrace sustainability or
change their behaviours by reducing use of energy and water
resources
○​ Destination regions can control access or limit number of
tourists to reduce damages to the environment
○​ E.g. In 2018, Maya Bay in Thailand was closed completely to
allow the coral reefs to recover and was only reopened in 2022
when the coral reefs have recovered
●​ Policies give local communities primary attention while considering
needs of tourists
○​ Local communities are to be involved in planning and
implementing tourism policies to ensure that their needs and
concerns are addressed
○​ Can be carried out by implementing rules and regulations to
protect needs and practices of local communities (i.e dress
codes etc)
Equitable distribution of tourism benefits

●​ Implementing effective tourism management to ensure tourism

benefits are enjoyed by all stakeholders
○​ Uneven distribution of benefits may lead to tensions and result
in some stakeholders not supporting future tourism
developments
○​ E.g. when PPT only benefits the non-poor locals instead of the
poorest, there will be a widening income gap without effective
management
●​ Minimising negative trade-offs within or between economic, social
and environmental dimensions
○​ Conflicting priorities and understandings of sustainability may
results in challenging negotiations between stakeholders on
developing tourists sites
○​ E.g. In Maya Bay in Thailand, locals and tourism businesses
may need time and convincing to accept the fall in profits in
exchange for a healthier environment and compromises have to
be made from all parties involved.