Unit 4 – Social Psychology

and Personality
4.1 Attribution Theory and Person
Perception
Attribution theory explores how we explain behavior, both our own and others'. It covers internal
and external attributions, explanatory styles, and common biases that affect our judgments.
Understanding these concepts helps us navigate social interactions and self-perception more
effectively.

Person perception processes, including the mere exposure effect and self-fulfilling prophecies,
shape how we view and interact with others. Social comparison types further influence our
self-evaluation and satisfaction with life circumstances. These concepts are crucial for
understanding social psychology.

Internal vs external attributions

When people try to explain why something happened, they usually blame either the person or
the situation. Internal attributions (also called dispositional) mean that the behavior happened
because of who the person is, while external attributions (also called situational) mean the
behavior happened because of outside factors.

If someone does well on a test, different attributions could be made:

●​ An internal attribution would say they succeeded because they are smart or worked
hard.
●​ An external attribution would say they succeeded because the test was easy or they had
a great tutor.

Internal attributions focus on things like:

●​ Personality traits (they are naturally confident)

●​ Intelligence (they are smart)
●​ Effort (they studied a lot)
●​ Skills and abilities (they are talented at math)

External attributions consider things like:

 ●​ The environment (the test was simple)
●​ Social influences (they had a study group)
●​ Outside limitations (they didn't have enough time to prepare)
●​ Temporary conditions (they were feeling sick that day)

People often switch between these explanations depending on the situation. Sometimes, they
give themselves credit for successes (internal) but blame failures on outside forces (external), a
pattern called the self-serving bias.

Explanatory styles for events

Explanatory style is the way people usually explain what happens to them, both good and bad.
This habit of thinking can affect their mental health, motivation, and resilience. There are two
main styles:

Optimistic style ☀️
●​ Attributes good events to internal, stable, and global causes
●​ Views bad events as external, temporary, and specific
●​ Example: "I succeeded because of my skills" vs "I failed because it was a tough day"
●​ When something goes wrong: "I had a bad day, but tomorrow will be better."

Pessimistic style ⛈️
●​ Sees good events as external, temporary, and specific
●​ Attributes bad events to internal, stable, and global causes
●​ Example: "I succeeded because it was easy" vs "I failed because I'm not good enough"
●​ When something goes wrong: "I failed because I'm not smart enough, and this always
happens to me."

These thinking patterns shape how people handle challenges. Optimistic thinkers tend to
bounce back from setbacks more easily, while pessimistic thinkers may feel stuck or
discouraged. Recognizing and adjusting an explanatory style can help improve resilience and
overall well-being.

Biases in attributions

People naturally develop certain biases when making attributions about behavior. These biases
can significantly impact relationships and social interactions.

Actor-Observer Bias

●​ We explain our own actions differently than we explain others' actions.

●​ When we do something, we blame the situation ("I was late because traffic was
terrible.")
 ●​ When someone else does the same thing, we blame their personality ("They were late
because they are irresponsible.")

Fundamental attribution error

●​ Overemphasizing personality, underestimating circumstances

●​ People assume behavior is caused by personality and overlook situational factors.
●​ Example: If a cashier is rude, we might assume they are a rude person rather than
considering they might be having a bad day.

Self-serving bias

●​ People take credit for their successes but blame outside forces for their failures.
●​ Example: A student who gets an A on a test says, "I'm really smart," but if they fail, they
say, "The test was unfair."

These biases affect how we perceive others and how we explain our own behavior. Being aware
of them can help people judge situations more fairly and avoid misunderstandings.

Locus of control
Locus of control refers to a person’s belief about what influences their success or failure in life. It
develops through experience and affects motivation, decision-making, and how people handle
challenges. Some people believe they control their own fate (internal locus of control), while
others think outcomes are mostly due to outside forces (external locus of control).

People with an internal locus of control believe that their actions determine what happens to
them. They tend to:

●​ Work harder toward goals because they believe effort leads to success
●​ Handle stress better since they feel in control of their situation
●​ Take responsibility for their choices rather than blaming luck or others
●​ Actively look for solutions when facing challenges

People with an external locus of control believe that outside forces, such as luck, fate, or other
people, shape their lives. They are more likely to:

●​ Experience learned helplessness, feeling like they have no power to change their
situation
●​ Have lower motivation because they think their actions don't matter much
●​ Blame others or circumstances for their failures
●​ Avoid taking risks or trying to solve problems, expecting that things will just happen to
them
A person’s locus of control can influence their success in school, work, and personal life. While
having an internal locus of control is generally linked to better outcomes, a balance is important.
In some situations, recognizing that external factors play a role can help people adjust to
setbacks without unnecessary self-blame.

Person perception
Mere exposure effect

The mere exposure effect explains why people tend to like things more simply because they see
them often. Even without direct interaction or deep thinking, repeated exposure to something
makes it feel more familiar and comfortable. This phenomenon shapes preferences in many
areas of daily life.

It is commonly seen in:

●​ Marketing and advertising, where brands repeatedly show their logos and slogans to
increase consumer trust
●​ Music, where songs played frequently on the radio become more popular over time
●​ Brand choices, as people are more likely to buy products they have seen before
●​ Social relationships, where people feel more comfortable around classmates, coworkers,
or acquaintances they see regularly

The mere exposure effect works because the brain processes familiar things more easily. When
something feels effortless to recognize, people tend to have a more positive reaction to it. This
happens unconsciously, meaning people may not even realize that exposure is shaping their
preferences.

Self-fulfilling prophecies

A self-fulfilling prophecy happens when a belief or expectation influences behavior in a way that
makes the belief come true. This creates a cycle where what we expect ends up becoming
reality, even if it wasn't true at first.

The process follows a pattern:

1.​ A person forms an expectation about a situation or another person.

2.​ They act in a way that reflects that belief.
3.​ Others respond based on that behavior.
4.​ The original belief is reinforced, making it seem true.

This effect can shape many areas of life:

●​ In school, if a teacher expects a student to do well, they may give them more attention
and encouragement, leading the student to perform better.
 ●​ In relationships, if someone believes they are unlikable, they may act withdrawn, causing
others to avoid them, which reinforces their belief.
●​ In careers, a person who believes they will succeed may take more risks and
opportunities, increasing their chances of advancement.
●​ In self-confidence, people who expect to fail may not put in effort, leading to poor results
that confirm their doubts.

Self-fulfilling prophecies can be positive or negative, depending on the expectation. Recognizing

this pattern can help people challenge limiting beliefs and create more positive outcomes.

Social comparison types

People naturally compare themselves to others to understand their own success, abilities, and
overall situation. These comparisons shape self-esteem, motivation, and life satisfaction. There
are two main types: upward and downward comparisons.

Upward comparisons happen when people compare themselves to those who are more
successful, skilled, or fortunate.

●​ Seeing someone do better can be motivating and inspire self-improvement.

●​ It can also lower self-esteem if the difference feels too large or impossible to overcome.
●​ These comparisons often happen in professional settings, where employees measure
their success against coworkers.
●​ They can influence career satisfaction by affecting how people see their progress and
potential.

Downward comparisons happen when people compare themselves to those who are worse off
in some way.

●​ This can boost self-esteem by making someone feel more capable or fortunate.
●​ It helps provide perspective, reminding people that their situation could be worse.
●​ However, it can reduce motivation if people feel too comfortable with their current level of
success.
●​ Relying too much on downward comparisons can lead to complacency and a lack of
personal growth.

Relative deprivation occurs when social comparisons create feelings of unfairness. If people see
others with more advantages, they may feel dissatisfied with their own situation. This can lead
to frustration, motivation for change, and even social movements when many people feel
deprived in the same way.
4.2 Attitude Formation and Attitude Change
Stereotypes and implicit attitudes shape our perceptions of others, often leading to biased
thinking and behavior. These mental shortcuts can reduce cognitive load but also reinforce
prejudices and discrimination, influencing our decisions without conscious awareness.

Belief perseverance and cognitive dissonance play crucial roles in how we maintain or change
our attitudes. We tend to cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence and experience
discomfort when our actions and attitudes clash, driving us to resolve these inconsistencies.

Stereotypes and implicit attitudes

Stereotypes as cognitive shortcuts

Stereotypes are broad generalizations about groups of people. They develop as mental
shortcuts to help process information quickly, but they often ignore individual differences and
reinforce unfair assumptions. While people may not intend to rely on stereotypes, they can
shape thoughts and actions in ways that affect social interactions, opportunities, and policies.

Stereotypes tend to be:

●​ Automatically triggered, influencing judgments without conscious awareness

●​ Difficult to change once established, especially when reinforced by repeated exposure
●​ A factor in shaping both personal beliefs and larger societal structures

They are formed and maintained through:

●​ Cultural norms and socialization, where people absorb messages about different groups
from an early age
●​ Personal experiences, which can be misleading if based on limited interactions
●​ Media portrayals, which often exaggerate or misrepresent certain groups, reinforcing
existing biases
●​ Lack of direct exposure to diverse communities, leading people to rely on secondhand
information instead of lived experiences

Implicit attitudes and biases

Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs and associations that influence thoughts and behaviors
without a person realizing it. These attitudes can contradict what someone openly believes and
can affect decisions in ways that contribute to inequality. They develop over time through
repeated exposure to cultural messages, social norms, and systemic patterns.

Implicit biases show up in many ways:

 ●​ Microaggressions, which are subtle, often unintentional words or actions that reinforce
stereotypes and create barriers for marginalized groups
●​ Unconscious discrimination in hiring, education, healthcare, and law enforcement, where
bias affects outcomes without explicit intent
●​ Selective attention to information that supports existing stereotypes while overlooking
evidence that challenges them

Several common biases shape how people view others and interact with the world:

●​ Just-world phenomenon, the false belief that success and hardship are always earned
rather than influenced by external factors
●​ Out-group homogeneity bias, the assumption that members of other groups are all the
same while recognizing individuality within one’s own group
●​ In-group favoritism, the tendency to support and uplift people from one’s own group,
often at the expense of others
●​ Ethnocentrism, the habit of viewing one’s own culture as the standard while judging
others as inferior or unusual

These biases influence social structures and personal interactions, often reinforcing inequality.
Being aware of them can help people recognize unfair patterns and work toward more inclusive,
equitable systems.

Belief perseverance and dissonance

Belief perseverance and confirmation

When faced with information that contradicts what we believe, we often resist changing our
views. Instead of reconsidering, people tend to defend their existing beliefs, even when
presented with strong evidence. This happens because maintaining consistency in thinking feels
more comfortable than questioning deeply held ideas.

Belief perseverance happens in several ways:

●​ Seeking out only information that confirms what we already believe while avoiding
opposing viewpoints
●​ Interpreting ambiguous facts in a way that supports our existing perspective
●​ Dismissing or rationalizing contradictory evidence instead of considering it openly

The strength of belief perseverance depends on several factors:

●​ How closely the belief is tied to personal identity and worldview

●​ The emotional significance of the belief, as deeply held convictions are harder to change
●​ The perceived consequences of changing the belief, especially if it would require
admitting past mistakes or shifting long-held values
 ●​ Whether alternative explanations feel available or acceptable within a person’s social or
cultural environment

This tendency makes it difficult to correct misinformation, bridge political and ideological divides,
and adapt to new knowledge. However, recognizing belief perseverance can help people remain
more open to reevaluating their assumptions.

Cognitive dissonance and resolution

Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is a mismatch between a person’s beliefs, actions, or
feelings. This inconsistency creates discomfort, pushing people to find a way to restore mental
balance. Sometimes, this leads to personal growth and change, but it can also result in
rationalizing behavior to avoid discomfort.

People often experience cognitive dissonance when:

●​ They make a difficult decision and later second-guess if they chose correctly
●​ Their actions contradict their values or beliefs, leading to internal conflict
●​ They encounter new information that challenges their worldview

To reduce dissonance, people typically respond in one of several ways:

1.​ Changing their beliefs to align with their behavior

2.​ Modifying their behavior to match their values
3.​ Justifying the inconsistency by adding new explanations or reasoning
4.​ Minimizing the importance of the inconsistency, convincing themselves that it doesn't
really matter
4.3 Psychology of Social Situations
Social situations profoundly shape our behavior through norms, expectations, and various types
of influence. From conformity to obedience, our actions are molded by the presence and
attitudes of others, often in subtle ways we may not even realize.

Group dynamics further impact individual behavior, with phenomena like groupthink and social
loafing affecting decision-making and performance. Cultural influences, prosocial behavior, and
workplace psychology also play crucial roles in shaping our social interactions and responses.

Social situation's impact on behavior

Social norms and expectations

Social norms are the unspoken rules that guide how people act in different situations. They help
people know what is expected in social settings and make interactions more predictable.

Social norms influence behavior in many ways:

●​ They tell people how to act in different places, like being polite at a formal event or
relaxed with friends.
●​ They help define roles in society, such as how teachers, parents, or leaders are
expected to behave.
●​ They change across cultures, so what is normal in one place may be unusual in another.

Since people learn these rules from a young age, they often follow them without thinking. But
when norms change or differ from what someone is used to, it can be surprising or confusing.
Understanding social norms helps people adapt and interact smoothly in different situations.

Types of social influence

People often change their behavior based on the influence of others. This happens in two main
ways: normative influence and informational influence.

Normative influence is when people adjust their behavior to fit in with a group. They want to be
accepted, avoid rejection, or gain approval.

●​ Example: A teenager starts wearing a certain style of clothing because their friends do.

Informational influence happens when people look to others for guidance in uncertain situations.
They assume others know the right way to act.

●​ Example: A person in a fancy restaurant watches others to figure out which fork to use.
Both types of influence shape everyday decisions, from fashion choices to opinions on
important issues. They help people navigate social situations but can also lead to conformity,
even when it may not be the best choice.

Techniques of persuasion

Persuasion is the process of influencing someone's thoughts, beliefs, or actions. It works

through different methods, depending on whether people are thinking carefully or responding to
surface-level cues.

There are two main ways persuasion happens:

●​ The central route involves careful thinking and evaluation of facts and arguments. This
leads to stronger, long-lasting attitude changes.
○​ Example: A person chooses a car after researching safety ratings and fuel
efficiency.
●​ The peripheral route relies on emotions, attractiveness, or other superficial factors
instead of deep thinking. This can lead to quick but temporary changes in attitude.
○​ Example: A person buys a product because a celebrity endorses it, not because
they know much about it.

Some common persuasion strategies involve using a sequence of requests:

●​ The foot-in-the-door technique starts with a small request. Once the person agrees, they
are more likely to accept a larger request later.
○​ Example: A neighbor asks to borrow a small tool, then later asks to borrow a
more expensive one.
●​ The door-in-the-face technique begins with a large request that is likely to be rejected.
Then, a smaller, more reasonable request follows, making it seem more acceptable.
○​ Example: A charity asks for a $100 donation, when refused they ask for $10.

Conditions for conformity

The pressure to conform depends on several factors, including the size of the group, the level of
agreement among members, and the nature of the task. In some situations, people follow the
majority without much thought, while in others, they are more likely to resist social pressure.

Factors that influence conformity include:

●​ Group size affects how much pressure people feel to conform.

○​ Larger groups create more influence, but after a certain point, adding more
people does not significantly increase conformity.
●​ Unanimity strengthens conformity.
○​ When everyone in a group agrees, individuals are less likely to speak up with a
different opinion.
 ○​ Even one person disagreeing can make it easier for others to resist pressure.

The characteristics of the task also affect how likely people are to conform:

●​ Task difficulty and ambiguity increase conformity.

○​ When people are unsure of the correct answer, they are more likely to look to
others for guidance.
●​ Personal importance of the issue decreases conformity.
○​ If a topic matters deeply to someone, they are more likely to stick to their beliefs,
even if the group disagrees.

These factors show that conformity is not automatic but depends on the situation and the
individual’s confidence in their own judgment.

Conditions for obedience

People are more likely to obey authority figures based on who is giving the orders and the
situation they are in. Certain factors make obedience stronger, while others make it weaker.

The authority figure's influence:

●​ People obey more when the person giving orders seems powerful, like a police officer or
teacher.
●​ If the authority figure is nearby, obedience increases. If they are far away, people are
less likely to comply.

Situational factors that affect obedience:

●​ When orders start small and build up gradually, people are more likely to keep following
them.
●​ If responsibility is shared among a group, people feel less accountable and are more
likely to obey.

Obedience happens more easily when people trust the authority figure and feel less personally
responsible for their actions.

Group effects on individual behavior

Cultural influences on perception

Culture shapes how people see the world and interact with others. Different cultural values
influence whether individuals focus more on personal achievements or group connections.

Two main cultural frameworks affect perception:

 ●​ Individualistic cultures focus on personal goals and self-expression.
○​ People are encouraged to think and act independently.
○​ Success is often defined by personal achievements.
●​ Collectivistic cultures emphasize group harmony and cooperation.
○​ Individuals are expected to follow group norms and put the community first.
○​ Decisions are often made based on what is best for the group.

Modern societies often blend different cultural influences:

●​ Multiculturalism values diversity and allows different cultural perspectives to coexist.

○​ This can lead to greater tolerance, adaptability, and more inclusive social
interactions.

Cultural background affects how people interpret social situations, communicate, and make
decisions. Understanding these differences helps improve cross-cultural interactions and
reduces misunderstandings.

Group membership behavioral impact

Being part of a group can change how people think and act. In group settings, individuals often
behave differently than they would on their own due to social influence and shared
responsibility.

Group decision-making can lead to:

●​ Group polarization, where discussions with like-minded people strengthen existing

opinions, making attitudes more extreme.
●​ Groupthink, where the desire for agreement causes people to ignore alternative
viewpoints and critical thinking.

Individual behavior also shifts in group settings:

●​ Diffusion of responsibility makes people feel less personally accountable for their
actions. The larger the group, the easier it is to assume someone else will take
responsibility.
●​ Social loafing happens when individuals put in less effort because they assume others
will contribute. This is common in group projects where some members do most of the
work.
●​ Deindividuation occurs when people lose their sense of self-awareness and restraint in a
crowd, sometimes leading to impulsive or risky behavior.

Groups can be powerful forces that influence both positive and negative behaviors. Recognizing
these effects can help people stay aware of how group dynamics shape decision-making and
personal responsibility.

Social facilitation in groups

The presence of other people can change how well someone performs a task. Whether
performance improves or worsens depends on how familiar or difficult the task is.

●​ When a task is simple or well-practiced, having an audience can improve performance.

○​ People feel more energized and motivated to do well when being watched.
○​ Example: A musician plays a familiar song better in front of a crowd.
●​ When a task is difficult or unfamiliar, the presence of others can hurt performance.
○​ Increased pressure and self-consciousness can make it harder to focus.
○​ Example: A person learning to drive may make more mistakes if others are
watching.

This effect happens because being around others increases arousal, which can be helpful for
easy tasks but overwhelming for complex ones. Understanding social facilitation can help
people prepare for high-pressure situations and manage performance anxiety.

False consensus effect

The false consensus effect is a cognitive bias where people assume that their own beliefs,
attitudes, and behaviors are more widely shared than they actually are. This leads to an
overestimation of how many others think or act the same way.

●​ People tend to believe that their opinions are the norm, even when they are in the
minority.
●​ This bias can cause misunderstandings in social interactions, as individuals may assume
others agree with them without real evidence.
●​ It influences decision-making by making people feel more confident that their choices
align with what most others would do.

For example, someone who dislikes a popular TV show may assume that most people feel the
same way, even if the show is widely loved. Recognizing this bias can help people stay
open-minded and better understand differing perspectives.

Superordinate goals vs social traps

Collective behavior can be shaped by both positive and negative group dynamics:

Superordinate goals unite groups:

●​ Shared objectives that require cooperation among different groups

🚀
●​ Reduces intergroup conflict and promotes positive interactions (international space
station)

Social traps create collective challenges:

●​ Occur when individuals prioritize short-term self-interest over long-term collective

well-being
 ●​ Leads to suboptimal outcomes for the group (overfishing depleting shared resources)

Industrial-organizational psychology concepts

Workplace behavior is influenced by various psychological factors that affect both individual and
organizational outcomes.

Employee well-being factors:

●​ Job satisfaction refers to employees' overall contentment with their work and workplace
●​ Burnout is a state of emotional, mental, and physical exhaustion caused by prolonged
work stress

Organizational dynamics:

●​ Organizational culture encompasses the shared values, beliefs, and practices within a
company
○​ Shapes employee behavior, communication, and decision-making processes

Prosocial behavior's effects

Altruism and social norms

Helping behavior is governed by two primary social norms:

●​ Social reciprocity norm suggests that people help others with the expectation of future
reciprocation
○​ Helping behavior creates a sense of social debt that the recipient feels obligated
to repay
●​ Social responsibility norm dictates that people should assist those in need without
expecting anything in return
○​ Reinforced by societal values and the belief that helping is the right thing to do

Bystander effect factors

The bystander effect is influenced by three main psychological processes:

Emergency response inhibitors:

●​ Diffusion of responsibility occurs when the presence of others reduces individual

accountability
●​ Pluralistic ignorance arises when individuals mistakenly believe that others are
interpreting the situation differently

Personal concerns:
●​ Evaluation apprehension is the fear of being judged negatively by others for one's
actions
○​ Inhibits helping behavior due to concerns about appearing foolish or overreacting
4.4 Psychodynamic and Humanistic
Theories of Personality
Psychodynamic theory emphasizes unconscious processes in personality development. It
explores how the id, ego, and superego interact, shaping behavior and emotions. Ego defense
mechanisms protect against anxiety, while projective tests assess personality by tapping into
unconscious thoughts.

Humanistic theory focuses on individual potential and growth. It emphasizes unconditional

positive regard and self-actualization as key factors in personality development. This approach
prioritizes present experiences and subjective perspectives over past events or unconscious
drives.

Psychodynamic theory of personality

Psychodynamic theory is based on the idea that our personality is shaped by unconscious
influences—things happening in our mind that we aren’t aware of. These hidden forces affect
how we act, feel, and think, and they are often shaped by our childhood experiences.

According to Freud, the mind has three parts:

●​ id = wants instant pleasure and doesn’t think about consequences.

●​ ego = balances the id’s desires with reality, making sure we act in a socially acceptable
way.
●​ superego = our conscience, guiding us with moral values and a sense of right and
wrong.

These three parts are always interacting, sometimes causing inner conflicts. These conflicts
help shape our personality and can also lead to stress or emotional struggles.

Ego defense mechanisms

Defense mechanisms help the mind handle stress and difficult emotions without us realizing it.
They change how we see or react to a situation to make it feel less overwhelming. Here are
some common ones with examples:

●​ Denial is when someone refuses to accept the truth because it’s too painful. A person
with a drinking problem might say, "I don’t drink that much," even if it’s affecting their life.
●​ Displacement happens when someone takes out their emotions on the wrong person or
thing. If someone is mad at their boss but can't show it, they might go home and yell at
their family instead.
 ●​ Projection is when a person blames others for their own feelings. If someone feels guilty
about lying, they might accuse a friend of being dishonest instead.
●​ Rationalization is making excuses to avoid feeling bad about something. A student who
fails a test might say, "The teacher hates me," instead of admitting they didn’t study.
●​ Reaction formation is acting the opposite of how you really feel. If someone secretly
feels insecure, they might act overly confident to hide it.
●​ Regression is when a person deals with stress by acting younger than they are. An adult
might throw a tantrum when things don’t go their way.
●​ Repression is when the mind pushes away painful thoughts or memories. A person who
had a tough childhood might not remember much about it.
●​ Sublimation is turning negative feelings into something positive. Instead of getting angry
and lashing out, someone might channel their frustration into painting or exercising.

Projective tests for assessment

Projective tests are a type of personality test that help reveal hidden thoughts and feelings.
Instead of answering direct questions, people respond to unclear images or situations, which
allows their subconscious mind to influence their answers.

Two types:

●​ Rorschach Inkblot Test – A person looks at a series of inkblots and describes what they
see. Since the images are random, their answers might reveal deeper thoughts and
emotions. A psychologist then analyzes their responses to understand their personality.
●​ Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) – A person is shown pictures of people in different
situations and asked to make up a story about what’s happening. The way they interpret
the scenes can give insight into their emotions, experiences, and personality traits.

Since these tests rely on personal interpretation, psychologists look for patterns in responses
rather than right or wrong answers.

Humanistic theory of personality

Humanistic theory sees personality as shaped by a person’s experiences, choices, and natural
drive to grow. It focuses on how people view themselves and their potential rather than on
unconscious conflicts or fixed traits.

Two key ideas in this approach are:

●​ Unconditional positive regard – Feeling valued and accepted no matter what. When
people receive love and support without conditions, they develop a healthier self-image
and confidence.
●​ Self-actualizing tendency – The natural motivation to grow, improve, and reach one’s full
potential. This could mean developing talents, setting personal goals, or striving for a
meaningful life.
To assess personality, humanistic psychologists focus on personal experiences rather than strict
tests. They use:

●​ Interviews and open-ended conversations to understand how a person sees themselves

and their life.
●​ Self-report questionnaires that explore personal growth, values, and self-perception.

This approach avoids rigid labels and instead looks at how individuals shape their own
personalities through choices and personal development.
4.5 Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of
Personality
Social-cognitive theory views personality as shaped by interactions between thoughts,
behaviors, and environment. It emphasizes self-concept, self-efficacy, and self-esteem as key
factors influencing how we perceive ourselves and interact with the world around us.

Trait theories, on the other hand, focus on enduring characteristics that influence our responses
across situations. The Big Five model identifies five broad personality dimensions:
agreeableness, openness, extraversion, conscientiousness, and emotional stability, which are
measured through personality inventories.

Reciprocal determinism and self-concept

Reciprocal determinism explains how personality develops through the constant interaction of
thoughts, behaviors, and the environment. A person’s actions influence their surroundings,
which then shape their thoughts and future behaviors.

This process involves three key factors:

●​ Personal (thoughts, emotions, biology)

●​ Behavioral (choices, habits, actions)
●​ Environmental (social influences, surroundings)

Through these interactions, people form their self-concept, or how they see themselves in
relation to others. This includes their abilities, social roles, and future goals. Since these factors
influence each other, a change in one can shape the rest. For example, believing in one’s ability
to succeed can lead to greater effort, better outcomes, and a stronger sense of self.

Two major influences on self-concept are:

●​ Self-efficacy – belief in one’s ability to succeed, which affects motivation, persistence,

and resilience.
●​ Self-esteem – overall self-worth, which impacts confidence, emotions, and relationships.

Trait theories of personality

Trait theories suggest that personality is made up of stable characteristics that influence how a
person consistently thinks, feels, and behaves. These traits remain relatively constant over time
and shape how individuals respond to different situations.
For example, someone high in extraversion tends to be outgoing and social in most situations,
while someone high in conscientiousness is usually organized and responsible. Trait theories
focus on identifying and measuring these characteristics to understand personality patterns.

Big Five personality traits

The Big Five theory of personality explains that personality is made up of five major traits, which
remain relatively stable over time and influence how people think, feel, and behave. These traits
are measured using personality inventories (psychological assessment tool that measures and
evaluates various aspects of an individual's personality, such as traits, behaviors, and attitudes)
that apply factor analysis, a statistical method that groups related responses together to identify
underlying personality patterns.

A helpful way to remember these traits is using the OCEAN mnemonic:

●​ Openness to experience – Reflects curiosity, imagination, and a willingness to try new

things. People high in openness enjoy exploring new ideas, experiences, and creative
pursuits, while those low in openness prefer routine and familiarity.
●​ Conscientiousness – Relates to being responsible, organized, and disciplined. Highly
conscientious people plan ahead, set goals, and complete tasks efficiently, whereas
those low in conscientiousness may be more spontaneous or careless.
●​ Extraversion – Describes how outgoing, energetic, and social a person is. Extraverts
thrive in social situations and feel energized by interactions, while introverts tend to be
more reserved and prefer solitude or smaller gatherings.
●​ Agreeableness – Measures kindness, cooperation, and empathy. Highly agreeable
people are compassionate and trusting, while those lower in agreeableness may be
more competitive or skeptical of others.
●​ Neuroticism (Emotional Stability) – Indicates how well a person handles stress and
negative emotions. People high in neuroticism tend to experience mood swings, anxiety,
and emotional instability, while those low in neuroticism are more calm, resilient, and
emotionally steady.
4.6 Motivation
Motivation drives human behavior, influencing our actions and decisions. This topic explores
various theories explaining why we do what we do, from basic physiological needs to complex
psychological factors.

Eating behavior exemplifies the interplay between biological and environmental influences on
motivation. Understanding these concepts helps explain the diverse range of human behaviors
and the factors that shape our choices and actions.

Physical needs and desires

Our bodies have complex mechanisms for maintaining balance and optimal functioning. These
mechanisms drive much of our motivated behavior.

Drive-reduction theory: This theory says we act to satisfy basic needs

●​ When we're hungry, we eat

●​ When we're thirsty, we drink
●​ The goal is homeostasis - keeping our body in balance
●​ Example: You haven't eaten all day, so you feel hungry (drive increases) and go get food
(reduces drive)

Arousal theory: This theory says we seek the right amount of stimulation

●​ Too little stimulation makes us bored

●​ Too much stimulation makes us anxious
●​ We each have our own "sweet spot" of arousal
●​ Example: Some people love roller coasters while others prefer reading

The Yerkes-Dodson Law explains this relationship:

●​ Very low arousal = poor performance (you're too sleepy/bored)

●​ Medium arousal = best performance (you're alert and focused)
●​ Very high arousal = poor performance (you're too stressed/anxious)
●​ Example: Taking a test with mild nervousness helps you focus, but extreme anxiety
makes you forget everything

Self-Determination Theory
Self-determination theory distinguishes between two main types of motivation:

Intrinsic motivation comes from within

 ●​ Doing something because it's inherently enjoyable
●​ Example: playing piano because you love music
●​ Driven by personal satisfaction, curiosity, or growth

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside sources

●​ Doing something for external rewards or to avoid punishment

●​ Example: studying to get good grades or avoid failing
●​ Driven by praise, money, recognition, or avoiding negative outcomes

Incentive Theory
Incentive theory focuses specifically on how rewards motivate behavior:

Positive incentives encourage behavior

●​ Money, praise, recognition, privileges

●​ Example: employee bonuses for meeting sales targets

Negative incentives discourage behavior

●​ Fines, criticism, loss of privileges

●​ Example: speeding tickets to discourage dangerous driving

The strength of the incentive affects motivation

●​ Larger rewards typically produce stronger motivation

●​ Quality of rewards matters (meaningful vs. token rewards)

Instincts and Motivation

Non-human animals often rely on instincts to guide their behavior. These are innate patterns
that don't require learning.

●​ Birds build specific nest types without being taught

●​ Salmon swim upstream to spawn in their birthplace
●​ Spiders spin webs following genetic patterns
●​ Baby turtles instinctively move toward the ocean after hatching

Humans, however, show very few truly instinctual behaviors. Most human behavior is:

●​ Learned through observation and experience

●​ Culturally transmitted between generations
●​ Modified based on context and environment
●​ Influenced by conscious thought and decision-making
The few possible human instincts might include:

●​ Infant rooting reflex (turning toward touch on cheek)

●​ Fear response to sudden loud noises
●​ Basic facial expressions for emotions

This distinction helps explain why human behavior is so flexible and varies dramatically across
cultures, while animal behavior within a species remains relatively consistent. Humans rely more
on learning, reasoning, and cultural transmission than on fixed instinctual patterns.

Lewin's motivational conflicts

Lewin's theory explains that our motivation often comes from the conflicts we experience when
making choices. These conflicts arise because every decision involves weighing different
options.

The theory identifies three main types of conflicts:

●​ approach-approach conflict: This happens when you must choose between two
attractive options. You feel pulled toward both, but you can only pick one.
●​ approach-avoidance conflict: In this situation, one option has both positive and negative
aspects. You are drawn to the good side but also repelled by the bad side, which makes
the decision hard.
●​ avoidance-avoidance conflict: This occurs when both choices are unattractive. You have
to choose between two undesirable options, creating stress and discomfort.

The idea is that these conflicts create an inner tension. This tension is what drives you to
resolve the conflict, and in doing so, it motivates your actions.

Sensation-Seeking Theory
This theory suggests that our motivation can come from a desire for new or exciting
experiences. People are driven by a need for variety or novel activities.

The theory identifies several types of sensation seeking:

●​ experience seeking: looking for new ideas and experiences

●​ thrill or adventure seeking: wanting to engage in risky or exciting activities
●​ disinhibition: seeking situations that lower self-control or social norms
●​ boredom susceptibility: finding it hard to tolerate repetitive or dull situations

Eating as a Motivated Behavior

Eating is a complex behavior that shows how physical and mental processes work together. It is
influenced by both internal signals and external factors. The objectives include:

Hormonal influences:

●​ Hormones like ghrelin and leptin control feelings of hunger and fullness.
●​ These hormones are regulated by the hypothalamus through the pituitary gland.

External influences:

●​ The presence of food can prompt eating.

●​ The time of day and established meal schedules play a role.
●​ Social settings, such as gatherings around meals, also affect eating behavior.
4.7 Emotion
Emotions are complex psychological processes influenced by internal and external factors.
Theories explore the interplay between physiological and cognitive experiences, while the
broaden-and-build theory suggests positive and negative emotions affect awareness and
thinking differently.

Social influences shape our emotional experiences. While some emotions may be universal
across cultures, display rules and elicitors for emotional expression can vary. Cultural norms,
gender roles, age, and socioeconomic status all play a role in how emotions are expressed and
interpreted.

Theories of Emotion
Emotion, or affect, is a psychological process that differs from reasoning or knowledge. It
involves both internal (such as thoughts and physiological responses) and external (such as
social interactions or environmental events) factors that influence how a person feels.

In the early 20th century, psychologists developed different theories about how emotions work,
particularly focusing on the relationship between the body's physical reactions and a person's
thoughts. These theories generally fall into three main categories:

●​ Sequential Theories – Some theories suggest that emotions happen in steps—first, the
body reacts (such as an increased heart rate), and then the brain interprets that reaction
as an emotion.
●​ Simultaneous Theories – Other theories propose that physical reactions and emotional
experiences happen at the same time rather than one causing the other.
●​ Cognitive Labeling Theories – Another perspective argues that for an emotion to be fully
experienced, the brain must label it. In other words, a person needs to consciously
identify what they are feeling.

One specific idea related to these theories is the facial-feedback hypothesis. This suggests that
a person’s facial expressions can influence their emotions. For example, smiling might make a
person feel happier, while frowning could make them feel sadder. This supports theories that
claim physical responses (like facial expressions) come first and influence emotional
experiences. However, research on this idea has shown mixed results, meaning it’s still debated
among psychologists.

​ (You don’t need to learn the specific names of the theories for the AP)

Broaden-and-Build Theory
Both positive and negative emotions serve essential functions in human experience and
survival. Emotions influence how people think and behave.

Positive emotions (like joy or curiosity) help broaden a person’s awareness and encourage
exploration, leading to long-term personal growth. They can create:

●​ Enhanced mental and physical health

●​ Greater creativity and problem-solving capacity
●​ Stronger social bonds and the ability to build supportive relationships

Negative emotions (like fear or anger) tend to do the opposite, narrowing a person’s focus on
immediate threats or problems. This can be useful in dangerous situations but may also limit
long-term growth. They can lead to:

●​ Heightened stress responses

●​ More limited cognitive processing and rigid thinking
●​ Potential strain on relationships due to reduced social openness

This contrast shows how positive emotions help people expand their thinking and develop
valuable resources over time, while negative emotions prioritize short-term survival needs.

Social influences on emotions

Research suggests that some basic emotions may be universal across human cultures. Studies
have examined whether people from different backgrounds recognize and express emotions in
similar ways.

Key Findings:

😡 🤮 😞
😃 😲 😨
●​ Six commonly identified universal emotions – anger , disgust , sadness ,
happiness , surprise , and fear
●​ Some research supports the idea that these emotions are recognized across cultures,
while other studies show mixed evidence
●​ Emotional expressions may have an evolutionary basis, helping humans adapt and
survive

These universal emotions likely developed to:

●​ Facilitate survival – Fear helps people react to danger, while disgust helps avoid harmful
substances
●​ Enable social cooperation – Emotions help people communicate their feelings and
intentions to others
●​ Support group cohesion – Shared emotional experiences strengthen relationships and
group bonds
Even though these emotions may be biologically rooted, cultural factors can still shape how
people express and interpret them. Some cultures encourage open emotional expression, while
others promote emotional restraint, leading to variations in how emotions appear across
different societies.

Cultural Differences in Emotional Expression

Although some emotions may be universal, the way they are expressed and triggered can vary
across cultures. This is influenced by display rules and elicitors of emotion.

Social norms that regulate how emotions should be expressed in different situations. They can
vary based on:

●​ Culture – Some cultures encourage open emotional expression, while others promote
emotional restraint.
●​ Gender – Certain emotions may be considered more acceptable for one gender than
another (e.g., men may be discouraged from showing sadness in some cultures).
●​ Age – Children and adults may have different expectations for expressing emotions.
●​ Socioeconomic Class – Emotional expression can be influenced by social status, with
some groups encouraged to show more or less emotion in public.

These are the events or situations that trigger emotional responses, which can also differ across
cultures.

●​ What makes one person feel pride, shame, or anger may depend on cultural values and
norms.
●​ Some cultures may place a strong emphasis on group harmony, meaning emotions like
anger might be discouraged in social settings.
●​ Other cultures may value individual expression, making it more acceptable to display
emotions openly.