Nutrition

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LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION TO NUTRITION

Every person has their own view of food and eating. Some people ‘eat to live’ whilst others ‘live to eat’.
This means that people have different concepts of nutrition and the role of food in the body.
Years ago life’s biggest problem seemed to be avoiding deficiencies (not getting enough vital nutrients).
Although it is still a problem for many people worldwide, the greatest worry facing Western societies
today is maintaining equilibrium essential to well-being. Over the last decade, it has become increasingly
clear that diet has a direct impact on health and many diseases. Eating habits have changed drastically
in our time and we are eating more meat, fat, sugar and processed foods that our bodies cannot properly
process. More people are moving towards healthier eating habits, exercising regularly and trying to make
use of organically produced foods.

WHY IS NUTRITION SO IMPORTANT?

A better question would probably be why do we eat? The answer; is for strength, energy and keeping up
the body’s vital functions. Foods have healing abilities and diets rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains,
legumes and nuts have been associated with a lower risk of diet-related diseases such as cancer,
diabetes, arthritis, cardiovascular disease and hypertension (high blood pressure). Therefore the chef’s
task is not only to make each dish delicious and attractive but also nutritionally balanced. It is vital to
understand how food, cooking techniques and nutrition are intertwined.

NUTRITION: A science that studies the nutrients and other substances found in food and their effect of
them on the body.

NUTRIENTS - 50 or more chemical substances found in foods (liquid/solid) that are needed by the body
for:
§ Sources of heat and energy (carbohydrates, fats, proteins)
§ Regulation of body processes (water, minerals, vitamins, proteins, fats, carbohydrates)
§ Building and maintaining body tissues (water, proteins, fats, carbohydrates, minerals)

OPTIMUM NUTRITION
Optimum nutrition means giving your body the best possible intake of
nutrients to allow it to be as healthy as possible and to work as well as it
can.
Optimum nutrition can:
§ Improve concentration
§ Increase IQ
§ Improve quality of sleep
§ Increase resistance to infection
§ Protect from Disease
§ Slow down the ageing process
§ More than half the risk of cancer, heart disease, diabetes and arthritis

The body has a basic biological need for food and if the body does not get
food, it will send a signal of hunger to the brain. This lets the body know that it needs to find food and
consume it.

There are other reasons for eating too:

• In Western civilization, eating has become a matter of habit. The reason is most likely the
availability of an abundance of different foods at any given time.
• There are also specific meal times when one is often expected to eat (breakfast, lunch, dinner,
and tea).
• Food provides us with sensory satisfaction and is usually pleasant to eat. We like to eat and
one can have a very personal relationship with food.
• Eating is an activity that can help pass time and have a pleasurable effect. Boredom provides a
major incentive to eat. Depression or anxiety can also make people turn to food for comfort. This
is possible because of the positive link between feelings of parental care and love and food given
to children by their parents. If ‘food for comfort’ becomes a habit, it could lead to being
overweight and other emotional problems.

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SENSORY EFFECT OF FOOD ON EATING/HUNGER:

When we look at the sensory effect of food, it is important to note that the stimulating effect of food can
increase our desire to eat. The visual appeal of food, although important to attract the eye, can be
deceptive as it gives no indication of the nutritional value. Seeing the food we are going to eat plays a
huge role in forming an idea/expectation of what we are about to taste. When your taste buds come into
contact with food, they send signals to your brain to interpret flavour. Because we look at our food
before eating, however, our eyes send signals to our brain before our taste buds get the chance. This can
predetermine how we will perceive the taste and flavour of what we are about to eat. For example, we
may expect yellow sweets to have a banana or lemon flavour. In fresh foods, such as fruits and
vegetables, we rely on colour to determine their level of ripeness and/or freshness.

If the colour of a food product does not match our expectations, we may perceive its taste and flavour
differently. The food industry is well aware of the importance of the appearance of food and often uses a
wide range of colourants to get the desired end product. We are so hardwired to respond to the colour of
our food that it actually overrides the flavour of our food.
Our brains will literally re-interpret the true flavours present in light of the colours present! The smell of
food must also meet the expectations of consumers.
Some foods can be identified by their smell alone, also whether they are edible or have gone ‘off’. Smell
and taste interact to produce the flavour of foods, if the sense of smell is lost (like when one has a cold)
food could seem tasteless. Children have the highest number of taste buds and the amount decreased
dramatically to the age of 70 years old.

The sight, smell and even thought of food can trigger the appetite and stimulate hunger. The secretion of
saliva and gastric juices prepares the digestive tract. When one starts eating, the texture and consistency
of food will stimulate taste and touch senses. When there are a variety of sensory properties in one meal,
it can stimulate eating. This is where the chef needs to focus on menu planning.

What children eat, is mostly driven by taste, they have a preference for very sweet things and avoid most
things that are bitter. Taste perception can change in some circumstances: women who are pregnant or
surgical and cancer patients sometimes report an altered ability to taste foods.

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THE INFLUENCE OF FOOD HABITS

Food habits also play a big role in the way we eat. These habits are usually acquired when one is young
and does not happen consciously. Children learn what is accepted as food and what is not. Foods that
can be associated with good memories are preferred (for example food eaten whilst on holiday). When
food habits are instilled in young children, it is most often the adults or caregivers that do so. So if there
is something that the adults do not include in their diet, it is very unlikely it will be included in the child’s
diet. When children go to school or hostel or travel as young adults, they are exposed to different
cuisines and this could alter their existing food habits.

Food habits are a particular behaviour of a specific group of people in relation to food.

Number of Timing of
People with
meals meals
whom meal
is eaten

Size of
FOOD HABITS meals

How food is
eaten
Food
Method of
choices
preparation

It is not easy to change food habits. Fewer households are eating food prepared from basic ingredients
as a busy lifestyle does not always allow cooking during the week. Weekday meals are often mostly made
up of convenience foods. This is made even easier with the use of microwaves and freezers. Young
children are even able to provide themselves with food during the week. This means those mealtimes, for
a lot of households, no longer mean quality time spent together.

It is very important to understand the factors that influence the availability of foods.

Physical/ Legislative Economic Food handling

environmental
Locality (soil/climate) National / international Money Access to shops
laws
Transport/marketing Health recommendations Budget priorities Cooking skills
Distribution costs Costs of foods Knowledge
Perishability Significance of foods Cooking facilities
Variety Time available

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MEDIA AND FOOD – CHOICES, APPETITE AND DIETS

The media is also responsible for influencing food habits. This could occur in different ways:
• Advertising and promoting new food products (information given could be considered biased).
• Programs or articles, which aim to increase people’s knowledge of health and nutrition.
• Providing role models who contribute toward subtle changes in food habits.

BASICS OF A HEALTHY DIET

In Western societies specially trained food technologists come up with new and interesting foods every
day, which means we are spoilt with choice. This in itself does not make it easier for consumers to make
choices for a healthy diet. As consumers we are bombarded with media information about good and bad
foods, health issues, do’s and don’ts and a constant stream of new products.
We are attracted by a variety of foods and if our diet was only based on one or two foods it would
become very monotonous and we would most likely eat less thereof. Yet, when presented with different
foods, we move from one to the other and are likely to eat more. A delicious dessert after a filling meal
will look so good; it is likely to be eaten even after feeling full. (‘Never too full for dessert’) In addition to
deciding what to eat, it is also important to decide how much to eat. This varies from individual to
individual. The ability to assess how much food we should eat comes directly from what we learn as
children.

WHAT ARE THE FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS OF A HEALTHY DIET AND LIFESTYLE?

• Balance and nutrient variety (Food Pyramid)

• Recommended portion sizes
• Fresh foods – fruit and vegetables
• Healthy fats
• Unprocessed foods (real food)
• Regular activity – exercise 4-6 times per week (30-45 minutes per day)
• Drink clean water – (8 – 10 glasses per day)
• Eat unrefined carbohydrates
• Refrain from eating/drinking added sugars or sugary drinks

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THE RESPONSE OF THE BODY TO FOODS

Digestion, absorption and metabolism

The digestive system is responsible for receiving food, breaking it down into nutrients (digestion),
absorbing the nutrients into the bloodstream, and eliminating the indigestible parts of food from the
body. When we eat food, it goes through three different processes: digestion, absorption and
metabolism. During the process of digestion, food is broken down into its components in the stomach
and small intestine with the help of digestive enzymes.

ENZYMES are substances that speed up chemical reactions and aid in breaking down complex nutrients.

Before one can use any of the nutrients present in food it must pass through the walls of the stomach or
intestines into the body’s tissues – a process called absorption. Within each cell in the body, metabolism
takes place.

METABOLISM refers to all the chemical processes by which nutrients are used to support life and
sustain a healthy nutritional status.

The digestive tract consists of the mouth, throat, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large
intestine. It also includes organs that lie outside the digestive tract: the pancreas, the liver and the
gallbladder.

DIGESTION this is a mechanical or chemical process by which foods are broken down to their nutrients
so that they can be absorbed into circulation by the bloodstream

MECHANICAL DIGESTION is the physical breakdown of food, which starts in the mouth by means of
chewing.
CHEMICAL DIGESTION is the breakdown of food by means of acid and enzymes.

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THE ALIMENTARY CANAL (where digestion takes place)

The alimentary canal consists of – the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine and large intestine. Food is moved through the canal by a rippling
movement of muscles in the canal walls, this is called peristalsis or
peristaltic action.

Food components that need digestion are:

1. Proteins (amino acids)
2. Fats (fatty acids and glycerol)
3. Carbohydrates (simple sugars – glucose, fructose and galactose)

Minerals, vitamins and water can be used by the body without being
changed by digestion

THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION

MOUTH
The mouth is the entrance for both food and air. The inside of the mouth is
lined with a mucous membrane. Saliva is secreted from salivary glands
situated in the cheeks, under the tongue and under the jaw. On the floor of
the mouth lies the tongue which is needed to mix and taste food. Taste is
sensed by taste buds on the surface of the tongue. Smell is sensed by the olfactory receptors high in the
nose. The sense of taste is relatively simple, distinguishing between sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami.
The sense of smell is much more complex and can distinguish more subtle variations.

Food is chewed into small pieces by teeth and moistened with saliva to prepare for swallowing. Chewing
increases the surface area of the food particles for digestive action later. Between meals, the flow of
saliva washes away bacteria that can cause tooth decay. Saliva contains antibodies and digestive
enzymes like amylase; a starch-splitting enzyme.

Swallowing begins voluntarily and continues automatically; a small muscular flap; epiglottis, closes to
prevent food from going down the windpipe towards the lungs. The back of the roof of the mouth lifts to
prevent food from going up the nose.

OESOPHAGUS
The oesophagus is a thin-walled, muscular channel lined with a mucous membrane.
No digestion takes place here, it is merely a passage from the throat to the stomach.

STOMACH
The stomach is a large, bean-shaped, hollow, muscular organ. Food enters the stomach from the
oesophagus by passing through a ring-shaped muscle which opens and closes. This prevents the
contents of the stomach from flowing back into the oesophagus. This serves as a temporary storehouse
for food. Stomach walls secrete gastric juice containing hydrochloric acid and enzymes. Mucus coats the
cells of the stomach lining to protect them from being damaged by hydrochloric acid and enzymes. Any
disruption in the mucus layer (infection or use of aspirin) can result in damage that leads to stomach
ulcers.

The acid:
1. Kills the bacteria in food
2. Provides the right acidity for the enzyme activity
3. Increases the solubility of calcium and iron salts for quick absorption
4. Swells proteins making it more easily attacked by enzymes

The enzyme pepsin starts the digestion of protein into polypeptides. Rennin is an enzyme that coagulates
milk proteins into curds. Food is continually churned and mixed with gastric juice until it reaches semi-
liquid consistency known as chyme. Very little digestion of carbohydrates and fats happens in the
stomach, this occurs mostly in the small intestine. The only substances absorbed in the stomach are
alcohol and aspirin.

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SMALL INTESTINE
The stomach releases food into the small intestine. The first part of the small intestine’s lining is smooth,
but the rest have small folds called villi and microvilli. The villi and microvilli increase the surface area
allowing for greater absorption of nutrients.

In the small intestine, 3 secretions mix with the semi-liquid chyme from the stomach:
1. Bile – made by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, emulsifies fats and the alkaline bile and
neutralizes the acid chyme
2. Pancreatic juice – contains 4 enzymes that continue the breakdown of nutrients that were started
in the stomach
3. Intestinal juices from the walls of the small intestine, which contain peptidase which
breakdowns peptides into amino acids, maltase/lactase/sucrose which breakdown the respective
disaccharide’s into simple sugars (monosaccharides)

THE PANCREAS is an organ and important

when it comes to digestion as it secretes
digestive enzymes into the small intestines
(for digestion of proteins, carbohydrates and
fats) and hormones (insulin and glucagon)
into the bloodstream. The pancreas also
secretes a large amount of sodium
bicarbonate, which protects the small
intestine by neutralizing the acid from the
stomach.

THE LIVER is a large organ with many

functions. The nutrients from food are
absorbed into the wall of the intestines,
which are supplied with many capillaries
(small blood vessels). The capillaries flow
into one vein into the liver and separate
again so the incoming blood can be
processed.
Blood is processed in two ways: bacteria and other foreign particles absorbed from the intestines are
removed and many nutrients from the small intestine are broken down further. The liver performs its
processing duty at very high speed and passes the blood, filled with nutrients, into general circulation.

The liver manufactures most of the needed cholesterol in the body and about 80% of the cholesterol is
used to produce bile. Bile is stored in the gallbladder.

Bile has two important functions; it assists in the digestion and absorption of fats and is responsible for
the elimination of certain waste products from the body (destroyed red blood cells and excess
cholesterol).

Large Intestine
Digestion and absorption of nutrients have been essentially
completed by the time the food mass reaches the large intestine.
Some water and digestive juices are reabsorbed so that the intestinal
contents gradually take on a solid consistency. The bacteria in the
large intestine are responsible for the production of vitamin K.
Medication prescribed for all types of illnesses like antibiotics cannot
distinguish between good and bad bacteria, this means that all
bacteria in the intestinal tract are eliminated. A probiotic will be
necessary to restore the balance in the intestinal tract.

PROBIOTICS are usually dairy and fermented foods or dietary supplements containing live bacteria that
replace or add to the beneficial bacteria normally present in the gastrointestinal tract.

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DIGESTIBILITY is the completeness, speed and ease of digestion of different foods.

§ Fibres and small seeds are not digested

§ Completeness of digestion is reduced greatly in some disorders of the gastrointestinal tract such as
severe diarrhoea
§ In some diseases, enzymes needed for the digestion of fats and carbohydrates may be missing (e.g.
lactose intolerance)
§ Speed of digestion varies widely according to the size of the meal
§ Emotional or psychological factors may have an effect
§ Poorly chewed food requires a longer digestion time
§ Small meals will remain in the stomach for a shorter time than large meals

ABSORPTION
§ The process whereby nutrients released from food by
digestion are transferred from the intestinal fluid into the
blood-lymph circulation
§ The walls of the small intestine absorb the soluble products of
digestion
§ Amino acids and simple sugars like glucose pass into the
bloodstream and onto the liver
§ The fatty acids and glycerol reunite to form fat in the lymph
system and enter the bloodstream later
§ Minerals, vitamins and water are unaffected by digestion and
are reabsorbed

ELIMINATION
Four organs are involved in the elimination of body waste,
namely:

§ Skin – water by visible or invisible perspiration, small amounts

of some mineral or nitrogenous waste
§ Lungs – carbon dioxide and water
§ Bowel – indigestible fibre and undigested food, bile pigments,
cholesterol, other products of metabolism, bacterial residues
and broken down cellular waste
§ Kidneys – most of the nitrogenous waste, water, mineral salts,
excesses of water-soluble vitamins and detoxification products
and other metabolic waste products

The recommended dietary allowance: The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) is the standard
for the daily intake of various nutrients

THE FOOD PYRAMID AND A BALANCED DIET

The food pyramid prioritises and proportions the food choices among the food groups and gives a visual
presentation of proper daily nutrition. As the pyramid narrows, the recommended number of daily
servings decreases.

The base of the pyramid contains the bread, cereal, rice and pasta group (RDA is 6-11 servings per day).
Try to include more complex carbohydrates than simple sugars. A serving consists of a slice of bread and
½ cup of cooked pasta/rice or cereal.

The second tier from the bottom is divided into 2 unequal sections namely vegetables and fruits. You
should eat 3-5 servings from the vegetable group each day. A serving is ½ cup of cooked or raw
vegetables. You should also eat 2-4 servings of fruit a day. A serving would be a unit or a cup peeled and
chopped or a ¼ of a cup of dried fruit.

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The third tier from the bottom is divided in half namely the milk, yoghurt and cheese group and then the
meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, dried beans, soybeans, eggs and nut group. You should have 2-3 servings
from each group every day. A serving of milk or yoghurt is 1 cup and about 100-120g of lean meat.

Capping the pyramid is the fat, oil and sweets group. Intake from this group should be limited. The small
triangles scattered throughout the pyramid indicate that food within this group also contains amounts of
fat and sugar, which should be considered during your choices of food groups during the day.

FOOD REQUIREMENTS
Food provides human beings with the energy needed to perform all the functions vital to life. Young and
active individuals require different amounts of food in comparison to elderly and inactive people because
they use more energy. Energy is measured in units known as calories or kilocalories.

CALORIE/KILOCALORIE: this is a unit of energy measured by the amount of heat required to rise
1000g of water with 1ºC. It is also the means of describing the amount of energy specific food will
provide.

This information is important when dealing with special dietary requirements and the setting of
nutritionally correct menus. Calories are found in 4 basic components:
1. carbohydrates
2. proteins
3. fats
4. alcohol
A new unit is gradually replacing the calorie called the joule. Since the joule is too small for practical
nutrition, the kilojoule is used:
- 1 calorie = 4,18 kilojoules

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Food contains amounts of various nutrients, which are measured in grams. Their energy value follows:
1g carbohydrates produce s 4 calories (17 kJ)
1g protein produces 4 calories (17 kJ)
1g fat produces 9 calories (37 kJ)
1g alcohol produces 7 calories (29 kJ)

The energy value of food, diet or menu is calculated from the nutrients it contains
§ Example:

10g carbohydrates: 10(g) x 4(calories) = 40 Cal (167.2 kJ)

3g protein: 3(g) x 4(calories) = 12 Cal (50.16 kJ)
5g fat: 5(g) x9 (calories) = 45 Cal (188.1 kJ)
Total = 97Cal (405.46 kJ)

Foods containing high-fat content will naturally have a high-energy value and those containing a lot of
water will have a low energy value.

BASAL METABOLIC RATE

BASAL METABOLIC RATE: the rate at which the body uses energy while at rest to maintain vital
functions such as breathing and keeping warm.

The number of calories required for basal metabolism is approximately 1700 calories per day. If the food
that we eat provides more calories than the body requires, the excess is stored as fat and weight is
gained. The chef might make some simple modifications, for example – using olive oil to replace butter
on the table, using canola and olive oil spreads, including whole grain breads and pasta and use low-fat
yoghurt and fat-reduced or fat-free milk. Vegetables dried beans and fruit are taking a more dominant
spot on the plate

The number of calories needed by an individual is based on three factors:

1. your energy needs when your body is at rest and awake
2. your level of physical activity (referred to as basal metabolism)
3. energy required for vital bodily functions when the body is at rest and awake

Your Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) depends on many factors:

(a) Sex – men have a higher (BMR) than women because men have a higher proportion of muscle tissue
(muscle requires more energy for metabolism than fat), the BMR of women is about 10% lower than
men
(b) Age – as people get older, they generally gain fat tissue and lose muscle tissue, so the BMR declines
about 2-3% per decade after your 20’s
(c) Height – tall thin people have more body surface and lose body heat quicker, their BMR is therefore
higher
(d) Lean body mass – the greater the lean body mass/muscle, the higher the BMR, this is important in
maintaining weight
(e) Growth – growth during childhood, pregnancy, and lactation requires anabolic work, therefore,
increasing the BMR. By stimulating the growth hormone, weight loss can be increased
(f) Fever and disease – fever increases BMR by about 7% for each 0.83ºC it rises. Diseases like
cancer, cardiac failure and hypertension increase the BMR considerably, thus people with such
illnesses tend to lose weight
(g) Cold climate – BMR rises in response to lower temperatures as a compensatory mechanism to
maintain body temperature

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BMI (body mass index): is a statistical measurement of a person’s body weight that is based on both
weight and height. It is used to determine what a person’s ideal weight is.
18 and lower = under-nourished
20-25 = ideal
30 and higher = obesity

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