MODULE II

EQUIPMENT IN HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION
Highway engineering project involves different types of equipment for Earth Excavation,
Earth
moving, and Earth cutting, grading, and hauling of excavated earth, aggregate spreader,
roller,
binder sprayer and paver finisher etc.,.
1. EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT:
a. Dipper or Power shovel
b. Dragline
c. Clamshell
d. Hoe
2. COMPACTION EQUIPMENT:
a. Smooth wheel roller
b. Pneumatic type roller
c. Sheepsfoot roller
d. Vibratory roller
e. Hand operated vibratory roller
3. EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT:
a. Dozer
b. Grading
c. Wheel Loader
d. Hydraulic Excavator
e. Scrapper
4. SPECIAL EQUIPMENT FOR CEMENT CONCRETE AND BITUMEN
PAVEMENT:
a. Batching plant a. Paver finisher
b. Mixers b. Hot mix plant or Bitumen mixer
TRACTORS
Tractor is a multipurpose machine. It includes light models used for agricultural and small
hauling works. It is versatile equipment having a variety of uses in road construction, such as
To pull rippers and rooters. To pull towed scrapers. To pull sheepsfoot rollers. To push load
scrapers. To pull towed pneumatic rollers
There are two main types of tractors:
1. Crawler type
2. Pneumatic wheel type
Crawler tractors have a low maximum speed, around 10kmph and are used primarily where
high speeds are sacrificed in order to obtain good traction and high draw-bar pull. They are
also preferred where the ground is not firm. Crawler mounted dozers have a digging and
travelling with load speed of about 2.5kmph.
Pneumatic wheeled tractors are used for moving at high speeds (up to 50kmph) on firm
ground.
Pneumatic wheeled dozers have a digging and travelling with load speed of about 4 to 5
kmph.
Now a days wheeled tractor units are used commonly for all earth moving jobs.

TRACTOR DOZERS
A tractor dozer, popularly called bull-dozer, is a tractor with a 3-3.5m long, 0.9-1.2m height
blade mounted in front of it. If the blade of the equipment is set at angle, it is called an angle
dozer. The blade of some dozers can be tilted in the vertical plane to a tilt of about 1 in 10.
The equipment is versatile and can perform the following operations:
1. Clearing and grubbing land of vegetation and tree stumps.
2. Removing top soil from borrow areas.
3. Moving earth for short distances, say up to 100m.
4. Box- cutting a formation for laying pavement layers.
5. Opening up pilot road formations in steep hill sides to such a width that other equipment
can move in and complete the work.
6. Spreading earth in layers
Type of dozers:
Angle dozer: Meant to push its loads at an angle of approximately 300 to the direction of
travel of the tractor.
Specially useful in side-hill work where the material is to be piled in a long wind row to one
side of the line of travel.
Tilt dozer: Designed such that the blade can be tilted by raising one corner up to 10inches
above the other so that the machine can open up an excavation in hard ground or start
excavation for a ditch or a trench.
Tree dozer: It has a V-blade at the front end attachment so that trees can be pushed by the
upper frame of the blade while the lower edge is fitted with a stumper that can drive into the
root.

SCRAPERS
Scrapers dig their own load, as they move forward. They combine the operations of digging,
loading, hauling and discharging. There are main three operators is there:
Bowl or Bucket- The bowl is the loading and carrying component of a scraper. It has a
cutting edge that extends horizontally across its front bottom edge. The bow is lowered for
loading and raised during travel.
Apron or Lip- the apron is the front wall of the bowl. It is independent of the bowl. It is
raised during the loading and dumping operations to enable the material to flow into or out
of the bowl. The apron is lowered during hauling to prevent material spillage.
Ejector or Tail gate- the ejector is the rear vertical wall of the bowl. The ejector is in the rear
position during and hauling. During spreading, the ejector is activated and moves forward,
providing positive discharge of the material in bowl.
The working principle of scraper is a cutting blade, which can be raised or lowered up to
20cm, is pulled through the earth causing it to travel up the face of the blade into the bowl of
the scraper. Some of the earth falls forward into a carrying apron. When the bowl is full, the
aprons are lowered to prevent spillage and the cutting edge is raised. After hauling, the
material is dumped by lowering the cutting edge to the desired height above the fill and
opening the front apron. Two type of scrappers Towed and Motorized scrapers. Towed
scrapers are available in size of 7-12cum and used for short hauling, say 150-500m, at a
maximum speed of 10kmph. Motorized scrapers of size up to 25cum and haul for 500-
1500m with 30kmph speed.
USES
1. Better loading ability in loose free flowing material
2. It can operated independently.
3. Additional of ripper teeth to cutting hard compacted mate.

GRADERS
It principally consist a blade below a framework. The blade be lowered, lifted or rotated.
Graders are used for a number of purposes:
1. For spreading heaped earth into layers.
2. For shaping the cross-section during construction.
3. For maintaining the cross-section of embankment.
4. For maintaining gravel surface.
Graders are of two types Towed and Motorized.

The towed grader is by a tractor and isusually made in small size.

Motor grader has a blade of about 3.5m, but its effective length during spreading becomes
[Link] blade can be set at any angle (3600 horizontal) and some time vertically tilted
depend upon work. A 100-110HP motor grader is a popular size. The normal grading speed
is 3kmph. The output of a grader for spreading the earth, which is achieved generally in 4
passes, is about 1300sqm per hour, assuming 65% operating efficiency and a 50min working
hour. Assuming a normal compacted thickness of layer of 15cm, the output in terms of
compacted volume becomes about 200cum per hour.

APPLICATION
1. used for leveling or finishing earth work, making and maintaining project roads,
construction of air fields and land reclamation.
[Link] rollers can be attached to the rear, to compact the graded surface.
[Link] in material mixing, hard surface cutting and snow clearance.
[Link] particularly base course spreading, leveling bank cutting etc.
EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT

POWER SHOVEL
• used primarily to excavate earth and land it into trucks or tractor-pulled wagons or on the conveyer
belts.

• may be mounted on crawler trucks and rubber tired wheels. But power shovels mounted on rubber
tired wheels have high speed w.r.t. crawler mounted units.

CLASSIFICATION

POWER SHOVEL

FRONT SHOVEL BACK

HOE
FRONT SHOVEL

• A front shovels bucket excavates in upward direction. It develops excavation breakout force
by crowding material away from the machine. It is used to excavate about the earth surface.

BACK HOE

• A backhoe is in the form of a downward are unit. It develops exaction breakout force by
pulling the bucket toward the machine and curling the bucket inward. It is used to excavate
below the earth surface.
OPERATION
A shovel's work cycle, or digging cycle, consists of four phases:

• digging
• swinging
• dumping
• returning
The digging phase consists of crowding the dipper into the bank, hoisting the dipper to fill it,
then retracting the full dipper from the bank.
The swinging phase occurs once the dipper is clear of the bank both vertically and
horizontally. The operator controls the dipper through a planned swing path and dump height
until it is suitably positioned over the haul unit (e.g. truck).
Dumping involves opening the dipper door to dump the load, while maintaining the correct
dump height.
Returning is when the dipper swings back to the bank, and involves lowering the dipper into
the tuck position to close the dipper door.

SIZE OF A POWER SHOVEL

The size of a power shovel is indicated by the size of the bucket, expressed in cubic yards.
Power shovels are commonly available in the following sizes: 3/8, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2
and 2.5 cub. Yds.

APPLICATIONS

1. Embankment Digging

2. Loading into Haul Units

3. Side Casting

4. Dressing Slopes

5. Dumping on Soil Banks

6. Digging Shallow Trenches

ADVANTAGES
• The tractor is used for moving the other two components from place to place. As for
the loader and backhoe, when you dig up a lot of dirt to make a hole, you generally
require a loader to either move the dirt out of the area or to fill it back when the work
is done. Thus, the most common application of a backhoe loader is digging a trench
with the backhoe and then filling it back with the loader.
• Apart from performing the above mentioned basic tasks, backhoe loaders have other
benefits as well. In fact, backhoe loader is one of the most useful multi-purpose
machinery and is known for its versatility on any construction site. While the most
common uses of backhoe loaders are digging ditches, laying pipes, planting
underground cables or laying the foundation for buildings and drainage systems, with
few additional attachments, they can do much more.
• If an augur is attached to the backhoe, it can be used to drill holes for planting trees, signs and
fencing projects in a variety of soil types. By joining a bucket for cleaning the ditch on the rear,
grading and slope-cutting can be easily done with the backhoe loader. Asphalt cutter can be
attached to the backhoe to repair roads, gas and sewer lines.

• Apart from the above, various others attachments are also available which can be easily attached
to the backhoe loaders to perform some of the most difficult tasks at the job site such as grabbing
objects, dozing or levelling the ground. Thus, backhoe loaders can be put to various uses.

LIMITATIONS OF POWER SHOVEL

[Link] cost of transporting a large shovel is higher than for a smaller one.
[Link] possible to excavate soil below ground.
[Link] b/w foot & digging is less and not well suitable for wet soil.
[Link] high output rate is needed in the project a large shovel must be used.
[Link] shovels rotation required.
5. more wears parts.
DRAGLINE:
In dragline, larger booms are provided, which allows digging & dumping over long distances
as compared to the power shovel. It in most suitable for excavating the channels & canal, can
handle wet material & suitable for excavation under water. One advantage of dragline is
machine can be positioned on a higher elevation where trenches are excavated. It can dig
materials below its track level & can handle only soft material. Capacity of the dragline is
indicated by the bucket capacity measured in cum & generally available in 1 to15 cum
capacitie
s.

OPERATION:
• In a typical cycle of excavation, the bucket is positioned above the material to be
excavated.
• The bucket is then lowered and the dragrope is then drawn so that the bucket is
dragged along the surface of the material.
• The bucket is then lifted by using the hoist rope.
• A swing operation is then performed to move the bucket to the place where the
material is to be dumped.
 • The dragrope is then released causing the bucket to tilt and empty. This is called a
dump operation.

Draglines have following types of buckets,

Light: These are suitable for loose, dry soils, sand & gravel.
Medium: These are used for clays & compacted gravel….etc. where bucket teeth penetrates
with difficulty.
Heavy: These buckets are used for handling hard materials & broken rocks.
It is necessary to consider the weight of the bucket, since weight of the bucket with weight of
the material in it is determined by the boom strength.

APPLICATION
1. Below ground level is excavates easily
2. Where close trimming is required.
3. It swing horizontally at any angle and loading process is quick.

LIMITATIONS

1. [Link] bucket teeth sharp and built up to the proper size.

2. [Link] in layers, not in ditches.
3. [Link] digging surface sloped up towards shovel.
4. [Link] bucket unit with load cause twisted.
CLAM SHELL
It is a machine having most of the characteristics of dragline & crane in common. Clam shell
consists of a bucket of two halves or shell which is hinged together at top. The shells may be
attached to the shovel-crane units or at the boom of a drag line. The open clam-shell bucket
is thrown on the top of the loose material to be dug and as the bucket is lifted, the two halves
close entrapping the material into the bucket. This equipment is useful for excavation of soft
to medium materials and loose material at or below existing ground surface.

APPLICATION
a. Where digging or dumping in a vertical plane i.e., below at or above ground level is
required.
b. For digging trenches.
c. Where materials relatively soft or medium hard.
d. For charging the materials in a bin or a stock pile.
e. Where accurate dumping is required.
COMPARISON
Point of Dipper shovel Dragline Backhoe Clamshell
consideration
Operation in hard
good Poor Good good
soil or rock.
Operation in wet
poor Fair Poor fair
soil or mud.
Distance b/w
footing and small Long Small long
digging.
Loading
efficiency into Very good Fair Good Precise but slow
the vehicles.
At or above Below footing Below footing At or above
Digging level.
footing level level level footing level
Cycle time as - More Slightly more High
 COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS
Different Types of Soil Compaction Equipments:

The soil compaction equipments can be divided into two groups:

⚫ Light soil compacting equipments

⚫ Heavy soil compacting equipments

1. Light Soil Compacting Equipments:

(i)Rammers

(ii) Vibro Tamper

(iii) Vibrating Plate Compactors

2. Heavy Soil Compaction Equipments

(i) Smooth Wheeled Rollers

(ii) Sheep foot roller Roller

(iii) Pneumatic Tyred Rollers

(iv) Grid Rollers

(v) Pad Foot / Tamping Rollers

Light Soil Compacting Equipments:

⚫ These equipments are used for soil compacting of small areas only and where the
compacting effort needed is less. Below are light equipments for soil compaction:

(i) Rammers:

⚫ Rammers are used for compacting small areas by providing impact load to the soil.
This equipment is light and can be hand or machine operated. The base size of
rammers can be 15cm x 15cm or 20cm x 20cm or more.

⚫ For machine operated rammers, the usual weight varies from 30kg to 10 tonnes (6 lbs
to 22000 lbs). These hammers with 2- 3 tonnes (4400 to 6600 lbs)weights are allowed
to free fall from a height of 1m to 2m (3ft to 7ft) on the soil for the compaction of
rock fragments.

⚫ Rammers are suitable for compacting cohesive soils as well as other soils. This
machine in areas with difficulty in access.

(ii) Vibrating Plate Compactors:

⚫ Vibrating plate compactors are used for compaction of coarse soils with 4 to 8% fines.
These equipments are used for small areas. The usual weights of these machines vary
from 100 kg to 2 tonne with plate areas between 0.16 m2 and 1.6 m2.

(iii) Vibro Tampers:

⚫ Vibro tampers is used for compaction of small areas in confined space. This machine
is suitable for compaction of all types of soil by vibrations set up in a base plate
through a spring activated by an engine driven reciprocating mechanism. They are
usually manually guided and weigh between 50 and 100 kg (100 to 220 lbs).
2. Heavy Soil Compaction Equipments:

⚫ These compacting machines are used for large areas for use on different types of soils.
The heavy compaction equipments are selected based on moisture content of soil and
types of soil. Following are different types of these equipments:

I) Smooth Wheeled Rollers:

Smooth wheeled rollers are of two types:

⚫ Static smooth wheeled rollers

⚫ Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers

(i) Static smooth wheeled rollers

⚫ The most suitable soils for these roller type are well graded sand, gravel, crushed
rock, asphalt etc. where crushing is required.

⚫ These are used on soils which does not require great pressure for compaction.

⚫ These rollers are generally used for finishing the upper surface of the soil.

Description

⚫ The smooth wheeled rollers consists of one large steel drum in front and two steel
drums on the rear.

⚫ The gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tonnes (18000 to 22000 lbs).
The other type of smooth wheel roller is called Tandem Roller, which weighs between
6-8 tonne (13000 to 18000 lbs).
 ⚫ The performance of these rollers can be increased by increasing the increasing the
weight of the drum by ballasting the inside of drums with wet sand or water.

⚫ Steel sections can also be used to increase the load of the drum by mounting on the
steel frame attached with axle.

⚫ The desirable speed and number of passes for appropriate compaction of soil depends
on the type of soil and varies from location to location.

⚫ About 8 passes are adequate for compacting 20 cm layer. A speed of 3-6 kmph is
considered appropriate for smooth wheel rollers.

(ii) Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers

In case of vibrating smooth wheeled rollers, the drums are made to vibrate by employing
rotating or reciprocating mass.

Advantages

These rollers are helpful from several considerations like:-

⚫ Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work

⚫ Compaction can be done up to greater depths

⚫ Output is many times more than conventional rollers

⚫ Although these rollers are expensive but in the long term the cost becomes
economical due to their higher outputs and improved performance.

⚫ The latest work specifications for excavation recommends the use of vibratory rollers
due to their advantage over static smooth wheeled rollers.
(iii) Sheepsfoot roller Roller:
• Sheepsfoot rollers are used for compacting fine grained soils such as heavy clays and
silty clays. Sheepsfoot rollers are used for compaction of soils in dams, embankments,
subgrade layers in pavements and rail road construction projects.
• Sheepsfoot rollers are of static and vibratory types. Vibratory types rollers are used
for compaction of all fine grained soils and also soil with sand-gravel mixes.
Generally this roller is used for compaction of subgrade layers in road and rail
projects

• sheepsfoot rollers consist of steel drums on which projecting lugs are fixed and can
apply a pressure upto 14kg/sq cm or more. Different types of lugs are namely spindle
shaped with widened base, prismatic and clubfoot type.

• The weight of drums can be increased as in the case of smooth wheeled rollers by
ballasting with water, wet sand or by mounting steel sections.

• The efficiency of sheepsfoot rollers compaction can be achieved when lugs are
gradual walkout of the roller lugs with successive coverage. The efficiency is affected
by the pressure on the foot and coverage of ground obtained per pass. For required
pressure and coverage of ground, the parameters such as gross weight of the roller, the
area of each foot, the number of lugs in contact with the ground at any time and total
number of feet per drum are considered.

• The compaction of soil is mainly due to foots penetrating and exerting pressure on the
soil. The pressure is maximum when a foot is vertical.
III) Pneumatic Tyred Rollers:

⚫ Pneumatic tyred rollers are also called as rubber tyred rollers.

⚫ These rollers are used for compaction of coarse grained soils with some fines.
⚫ These rollers are least suitable for uniform coarse soils and rocks.
⚫ Generally pneumatic tyred rollers are used in pavement subgrade works both
earthwork and bituminous works.
⚫ Pneumatic rollers have wheels on both axles. These wheels are staggered for
compaction of soil layers with uniform pressure throughout the width of the roller.
⚫ The total weight of the roller can be increased from 11.0 tonne to 25.0 tonne or more
by ballasting with steel sections or other means

(IV) Grid Rollers:

⚫ Grid rollers are used for compaction of weathered rocks, well graded coarse soils.
⚫ These rollers are not suitable for clayey soils, silty clays and uniform soils. The main
use of these rollers are in subgrade and sub-base in road constructions.
⚫ As the name suggests, these rollers have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of
a network of steel bars forming a grid with squire holes.
⚫ The weight of this roller can be increased by ballasting with concrete blocks.
⚫ Typical weights vary between 5.5 tonnes net and 15 tonnes ballasted.
⚫ Grid rollers provide high contact pressure but little kneading action and are suitable
for compacting most coarse grained soils.

(V) Pad Foot / Tamping Rollers: These rollers are similar to sheepsfoot rollers with lugs of
larger area than sheepsfoot rollers.

• The static pad foot rollers also called tamping rollers have static weights in the range
of 15 to 40 tonnes and their static linear drum loads are between 30 and 80 kg/cm.
• These rollers are more preferable than sheepsfoot roller due to their high production
capacity, and they are replacing sheepsfoot rollers.
• The degree of compaction achieved is more than sheepsfoot rollers. The density of
soil achieved after compaction with this roller is more uniform.
• These rollers operate at high speeds, and are capable to breaking large lumps. These
rollers also consists of leveling blades to spread the material.
• Pad foot or tamping rollers are best suitable for compacting cohesive soils.
 GRADING EQUIPMENTS

1. Bulldozers
2. Tractor Drawn Scrapers
3. Bottomless Scraper
4. Levellers and Floats
5. Crawler Tractors
6. Tractor Drawn Two Wheeled Automatic Levellers

1 Bulldozers

A bulldozer is a specialized tractor with two additional parts; a blade and a ripper. It is
used to level the ground at construction sites and in many other places. Bulldozer,
consists of crawler tractors equipped with dozer blades, is frequently employed in
cutting and pushing earth to short distance. They are suitable for rough grading when
the haul distance does not exceed 25 meters.

Bulldozer has attachments such as rippers, brush rakes and U blades.

a) Rippers: Rippers are hydraulically operated devices that consist of one or more
shanks or teeth. It is mounted on the rear of the bulldozer tractor used to remove
material from the ground and remove rocks from the soil. It is also used to aerate the
soil for drying or adding moisture.

b) Brush Rakes: Brush rakes are attached to the front of the bulldozer in place of the
blade. It is used to clear vegetation and debris from the soil without removing the top
soil.

c) U-blade: A U-blade is attached to bulldozer in place of the standard blade. The U-

blade gets its name from the fact that when viewed from above it looks like a “U”.
Because the blade is curved in at both edges, it will lose less soil in front of it than a
standard blade and it will carry the soil for a longer distance.
2 Tractor Drawn Scrapers

Scrapers are available in a wide range of sizes. The size ranging in capacity from 1.5
m3 to 19 m3. Large size scrapers where large quantities of earth are to be moved over
an appreciable distance. The carrier-type scrapers are widely used for large scale land
grading operations. It consists of a bowl or bucket mounted on rubber-tyred wheels
with a blade and apron across its front end for cutting, scooping and retaining soil. To
load, the bowl is lowered and the apron is partly lifted. In hauling position the apron is
closed and the bowl is lifted clear of the ground. To dump or spread, the apron is
lifted and the load is pushed forward through the open end of the bowl by an ejector
bowl. The machine cuts to grade, hauls the load for fairly long distances and spreads
the soil evenly at the desired location. The capacity of carrier type scrapers range
from 1 to 2.5 cubic meters. For medium size and small level levelling work the
wheeled type scrapers are used. To operate such scrapers it is necessary to loosen the
ground with a plough or harrow. The scrapping operation is done by pushing the soil
in a short distance and dumping at a desired place.

3 Elevating Scraper

Elevating Scraper are suitable for large size farm, the 5-and 8- yard sizes can be easily
handled by a 3-4 plough tractor, whereas the 11- yard size pulled by larger farm or
industrial tractors is becoming increasingly popular. Their desirable feature is the
ability of the PTO driven elevator to get a heaping load each time under varying
depths of cut and soil textures. Also the cutting and spreading can be done evenly.

4 Bottomless Scraper

Bottomless scrappers are used as finishing equipment to obtained desired uniform

surface. The two wheeled bottomless scraper is sometimes used ahead of land
planning to remove surface irregularities too large to be planned and too small to be
taken care of economically with a carryall scraper. This machine has number of
widths that serve various purposes, including widths up to 18 feet for handling large
value of earth over a short haul. Hydraulic controls facilitated cutting, dragging, and
dropping the load.

5 Levellers and Floats

The levellers and floats that can be pulled by medium sized farm tractors are more
important in maintaining the smoothness of levelled field than in removing small
irregularities left by heavy levelling equipment. Even wooden floats or drags ensure
better land preparation.
6 Crawler Tractors

A crawler tractor gives superior traction on various soil and ground conditions
encounter during operations. The top speed is limited to about 5 miles per hour when
pulling a scraper; it is restricted to relatively short hauls.

7 Tractor Drawn Two Wheeled Automatic Levellers

The use of automatic type levellers each year does much to improve field surfaces for
irrigation. The two wheeled automatic type leveller is usually used for the fine
grading of small and medium size fields. It is operated on a medium size fields by a
medium size wheel tractor. The machine has an adjustable blade which is so
constructed that it will drag a considerable volume of earth. Wheeled scrapers and
leveller blades are frequently used for medium and small scale levelling. They are
also called bottomless scrapers.
SPECIAL EQUIPMENT FOR BITUMEN AND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT

1. Bitumen storage equipment:

Bitumen is stored in drums or in special bulk handling depots. The capacity of one drum is
155-162kg of bitumen. The bitumen tank-lorry has a capacity in the range of 6-12 T. A
pump with a capacity of about 200-300 liters per minute is provided. The tank is
adequately insulated and arrangement for heating and pumping is provided.
2. Bitumen boilers:
Bitumen boilers are needed for heating bitumen obtained in packed form. Boilers of a wide
range of capacity are available. 100-10,000 liters capacity boilers are standardized by ISI.

3. Bitumen pressure distributers:

A bitumen pressure distributer is a tank of capacity 5000-20,000 liters mounted on a lorry,
having oil-fired burners and a pump. Bitumen can be applied at a pressure on to the road
surface in connection with specifications like surface dressing, grouted macadam, built-up-
spray grout, seal coat, tack coat etc. The quantity of bitumen can be accurately controlled
by a metering device and also with speed at which vehicle operates.
4. Bituminous Hot-Mix Plants:
In a batch mixing plant, various sizes of hot aggregates in storage bins are withdrawn in
pre-determined quantities to make one ‘batch’ before mixing with a predetermined
quantity of bitumen. It comprises the following:
a. Cold aggregate storage bins of different aggregate sizes: These should be at least
four in number, with discharge gates to control the flow of aggregates of different
sizes in the desired amounts.
b. Conveyor and cold elevator: The cold aggregate feeding system discharges onto a
conveyor in pre-set quantities to give the required grading and then into the cold
elevator which discharges into the dryer.
c. Dryer: The main functions of a dryer are (i) removal of moisture from the aggregates,
and this vapour is drawn off by the draught (ii) to heat the aggregate so that they are
of the right temperature for mixing with bitumen in the pug mill.
d. Temperature measuring device: It is essential for the control of quality of the mix
e. Hot elevators: These consist of a system of bucket elevators housed within a covered
chamber.
f. Hot screening unit: The hot materials carried by the elevators are discharged over a
multi-deck vibrating table screen which separates the different aggregate fractions
into the different hot bins.
g. Hot aggregate bins: These are the temporary storage for the hot aggregates of
different sizes. They have discharge gates opening at the bottom.
h. Fill silo: Because of its fineness, the filler material is stored separately in a filler silo
and, after weighing, the hopper discharges the filler material into the mixer, generally
after bitumen has been admitted into the mixer.
i. Bitumen supply arrangement: bitumen is pumped into a special bucket of known
weight and weighed on a scale or it may be measured in volume by a meter.
j. Measuring and mixing of aggregate and bitumen: The aggregate is drawn from hot
bins in predetermined quantities and dropped into a pug mill mixer in batches; the
required amount of bitumen is added and mixed with aggregate. The hot aggregates
and the hot bitumen are thoroughly mixed in the pugmill mixer.
k. Discharge into truck or hot storage silo: After the mixing operation has been
completed, the final mixture is discharged from the bottom of the pug mill mixer
directly to the hauling truck below or taken to a hot storage silo for temporary storing
the mix, before hauling.

5. Paver finisher:
A paver finisher is indispensable for laying hot-mix hot-laid bituminous
specifications. The equipment is self-propelled and is capable of laying the bituminous
material to any desired thickness and partially compact it by means of a vibrating screed.
The paver has a hopper into which the rear-dump trucks can discharge the mix. The
paver may be crawler mounted (tracked) or equipped with rubber tyres which permit a
greater degree of freedom for movement. The crawler-mounted machines are more stable
and can support greater width of the screed. The screed width can be adjusted, generally
in the range 2 to 5m. The bituminous mix discharged for a tipper lorry into the receiving
hopper in the front portion of the paver is carried along the conveyor through flow
control gates to the augers which distribute the material in front of the screed, to the full
width of the screed. A strike of beam, which also tamps the mat, controls the layer
 thickness. The paver finisher operates at speeds 1.5-10m/min. A speed of 3-5m/min will
be found generally acceptable. The width of the mat can be adjusted in the range 2-5m.
The cross-profile can be controlled by adjusting the screws of the srike-off beam. Paver
finisher of capacity 45-75 T/hr are generally used for roadwork.

1. Batching and mixing plants:

The ingredients for concrete are always proportioned by weight in a weigh
batching equipment. Mixing of concrete is done by concrete mixers which are available
in a variety of sizes, mixing is continued for a period of not less than one and half
minutes after all the materials are introduce. Tilting drum type mixers are available in
small sizes, whereas not-tilting drum type mixers are available in large sizes.

2. Transportation, placing and compaction concrete:

Generally, 5 to 10 m3 tippers are ideal for transportation and placing concrete. Concrete
discharged on the carriageway is spread over the whole width with the help of screw
spreader. Concrete paver finisher consists of spreading, consolidating, screening, finishing,
texturing and curing operation. Slip form pavers are much heavier and more powerful
equipments which move on tracks compared to the fixed form machines. A typical slip form
train consists of paver, intended for spreading the mix over the width of the carriageway, a
finisher which vibrates, forms an appropriate mould and finishes the surface and lastly, a
piece of equipment capable of texturing and spraying the curing compound. Slip form paving
is more popular than fixed form paving.

Fixed Form Paver:

In fixed form paving, side forms are used to hold fresh concrete in place at the proper grade and alignment until it
sets and hardens. These forms may also serve as tracks for various pieces of placing and finishing equipment.
Fixed form paving is most appropriate for small jobs, complicated geometry pavements or variable width
pavements, however it can be used for large jobs as well. Particular advantages of fixed form paving are:

• Tight tolerances and side clearances. Existing curbs or other features can be used as forms.
• Custom geometry. Forms can be placed in just about any pavement geometry, which allows for multiple
changes in pavement width, smooth curves, blockouts and other abnormalities.
 • Better construction staging. Forms can be placed such that staged construction can be used to maintain
traffic flow or intersection use.
• Less expensive equipment and mobilization. Forms and equipment are less expensive than slipform paving
equipment. If paving operations are small enough, this cost savings can more than offset the higher
production rates of slipform paving.

The following lists some general guidance when using forms:

• Form depth should be equal to PQC slab thickness. This way PCC slab elevation can be tightly controlled
out to and including the edges.
• Forms should have some base width to provide stability. If they do not, they may fall over when subject to
the loading imposed by the fresh PQC.
• The top of the form should be straight and true. Specifications vary, but generally anything more than 3
mm (0.12 inches) every 3 m (10 ft.) is considered excessive.
• Form ends should be able to lock together. If not, they may come apart when subject to the loading
imposed by the fresh PQC.
• Forms should be attached to the ground (via stake) every 1 – 2 m (3 – 6 ft.). Forms that are not staked may
move and forms that are infrequently staked may bow out between stakes.
• ‘Forms should be cleaned and oiled before use. Dirty, unlubricated forms will cause surface defects in the
slab sides and may stick to the slab during removal.
• Curves less than about 30 m (100 ft.) in radius should be done with flexible forms (e.g., wood) or curved
metal forms. Above 30 m (100 ft.) straight 3 m (10 ft.) long metal forms can be laid in a smooth enough
curve.

Slipform Paver:

Slipform paving is defined as a process used to consolidate, form into geometric shape and surface finish a PCC
mass by pulling the forms continuously through and surrounding the plastic concrete mass.

Slipform paving is most appropriate for larger jobs that require high production rates. Particular advantages of
slipform paving are:

• Uses low-slump PCC. Low-slump PCC (on the order of 0 – 75 mm (0 – 3 inches)) is necessary so that the
fresh PCC is able to hold its shape once the slipform paver has passed. Low slump PCC can be made with
less water and usually has higher compression and flexural strengths than comparable high slump mixes.
• High productivity. Large jobs generally require high production rates in order to be profitable. Slipform
paving production rates are typically in the range of 65 – 100 m3/hr (85 – 131 yd3/hr) for mainline paving.
That translates into between 70 – 90 m/hr (230 – 300 ft./hr) of 3.66 m (12 ft.) wide, 250 mm (10 inch)
thick PCC surface course.
• Smooth riding surface. Automation and computer control allow slipform pavers to produce very smooth
riding surfaces (IRI on the order of 0.90 m/km or less).

This section presents PCC placement, consolidation, finishing and curing as it is typically done in slipform
paving. Most often, these steps are accomplished by three pieces of equipment: the placer/spreader (used for
rough placement), the concrete paver (used for final placement, consolidation and initial finishing), and the
texturing and curing machine. These machines usually travel together in series down the length of the project.
The paver usually performs screeding, consolidation and initial finishing. A typical track-mounted, self-
propelled paver operates at speeds between 1 and 2.5 m/minute (3 and 8 ft./min). Some pavers are equipped to
place reinforcing steel (if needed), dowel bars and tie rods as well.
 STABILIZED SOIL ROAD CONSTRUCTION
The soil stabilization means the improvement of stability or bearing power of the soil by the
use of controlled compaction, proportioning and/or the addition of suitable admixture or
stabilizers.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SOIL

STABILIZATION Evaluating the properties of
given soil
Deciding the lacking property of soil and choose effective and economical method of soil
stabilization
NEED FOR SOIL STABILIZATION
1. Designing the Stabilized soil mix for intended stability and durability values
[Link] Financial Resources to provide a complete network Road System to build in
conventional method
[Link] utilization of locally available soils and other suitable stabilizing agents.
[Link] the use of Industrial Wastages in building low cost construction of roads.

METHODS OF SOIL STABILIZATION

1. Mechanical Stabilization
2. Soil Cement Stabilization
3. Soil Lime Stabilization
4. Soil Bitumen Stabilization
5. Lime Fly ash Stabilization
6. Lime Fly ash Bound Macadam.
1. Mechanical Stabilization
a. This method is suitable for low volume roads i.e. Village roads in low rainfall areas.
b. This method involves the correctly proportioning of aggregates and soil, adequately
compacted to get mechanically stable layer
c. The Basic Principles of Mechanical Stabilization are Correct Proportioning and Effective
Compaction.

Factors Affecting Mechanical Stabilization

1. Mechanical Strength of aggregates
2. Gradation
3. Properties of the Soil
4. Presence of Salts
5. Compaction

Mechanical Strength
When the soil is used in small proportion to fill up the voids the crushing strength of
aggregates is important
Gradation
A well graded aggregate soil mix results in a mix with high dry density and stability
values Properties of soil
A mix with Plasticity Index, results poor stability under soaking conditions. Hence it is
desirable to limit the plasticity index of the soil
Presence of Chemicals
Presence of Salts like Sulphates and mica are
undesirable Presence of Calcium Chloride is
Beneficial Compaction
Effective Compaction is desirable to produce high density and stability mix
 [Link] Cement Stabilization
1. Soil Cement is an intimate mix of soil, cement and water, compacted to form a strong base
course.
2. Cement treated or cements modified soil refers to the compacted mix when cement is used
in small proportions to impart some strength.
3. Soil Cement can be used as a sub-base or base course for all types of Pavements

Factors affecting soil cement stabilization

[Link]
2. Cement
3. Pulverisation and Mixing
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Cement stabilization of soil is done by mixing pulverized soil and Portland cement with
water and compacting the mix to attain a strong material. The material obtained by mixing
soil and cement is known as soil-cement. The soil cement becomes a hard and durable
structural material as the cement hydrates and develops strength.

Cement stabilization is done while the compaction process is continuing. During the
compaction process we use some amount of cement. Some void space can be found in soil
particle. Cement is just like paw, so cement can fill the void space of soil easily. As a result,
void ratio of soil may reduce. After this primary tasks, when we add water in the compaction
the cement reacts with water and become hard. So unit weight of soil is also may increased.
Because of the hardening of cement, shear strength and bearing capacity will be increased.
Because of the stabilization, permeability of soil may decrease.

CONSTRUCTION STEPS

The soil stabilization process is carried out in layers and consists of:

• Excavation and spreading of material to the required layer thickness for stabilizing

• Lime or cement spreading, with regular checks to control dosage

• Mixing, to a depth depending on the soil and on the design requirements

• Sealing the material, preventing carbonization of the lime while it reacts with the moisture in

the soil. This involves trimming of the treated layer using bulldozers and passing over by a

smooth roller

• Allowing (or maturation) period - to allow time for the exothermic chemical reaction to take

place between the lime and clay

• Compacting the treated layer with a roller until required compaction is achieved

• 7 days curing

Assessment and Testing

The soils of the site are thoroughly tested to determine the existing conditions. Based on

analysis of existing conditions, additives are selected and specified. Generally, a target

chemical percentage by weight and a design mix depth are defined for the sub-base

constructed. The selected additives are subsequently mixed with soil samples and allowed

to cure. The cured sample is then tested to ensure that the additives will produce the desired

results.\

Curing Sufficient curing will allow the additive to fully achieve its engineering

potential. For cement, lime, and fly ash stabilization, weather and moisture are critical

factors, as the curing can have a direct bearing on the strength of the stabilized base.

Bituminous-stabilized based often require a final membrane of medium-curing cutback

asphalt or slow-curing emulsified asphalt as a moisture seal. Generally, a minimum of seven

days are required to ensure proper curing. During the curing period, samples taken from the

stabilized base will reveal when the moisture content is appropriate for surfacing.
[Link] Lime Stabilization
[Link]- Lime has been widely used as a modifier or a binder
[Link]-Lime is used as modifier in high plasticity soils
[Link] Lime also imparts some binding action even in granular soils

Factors affecting Properties of Soil-Lime

1. Generally increase in lime content causes slight change in liquid limit and considerable
increase in Plasticity index
2. The rate of increase is first rapid and then decreases beyond a certain limit
[Link] point is often termed as lime fixation point
[Link] is considered as design lime content

Construction same as soil cement stabilization

[Link]- Bituminous Stabilization

[Link] Basic Principles of this stabilization are Water Proofing and Binding
[Link] Water Proofing inherent strength and other properties could be retained
3. Most Commonly used materials are Cutback and
Emulsion [Link] Stabilized layer may be used as
[Link]-base or base course for all the roads

5. Lime fly ash stabilization

1.A mixture of fly ash and soil when stabilized using lime is called lime flyash stabilization.
.This material can be used for constructing sub base or base course of rural roads.
[Link] would be particularly attractive where fly ash is easily available.

6. Lime fly ash bound macadam

[Link] conventional WBM, low plastic materials, with screenings are used as filler materials.
[Link] is made up of a mixture of lime, fly ash and moorum in suitable proportion improves
the performance.
3. This is termed s LFBM
4. The load bearing capacity of LFBM will be superior to that of WBM.
1. Explain the procedure of the compacting equipment’s used for highway
construction? Mention its specific uses.
2. List any four types of equipment’s used for i) Grading ii) Compaction and explain any one
equipment for each.
[Link] the working principle of i) Power shovel ii) Drag line with neat sketch iii)scrapers
iv)pavers.
[Link] the equipment’s used for excavation in the construction of bituminous pavements.
Explain any two, with neat sketches. for wet mix macadam.
[Link] various equipment s used for the road construction .state the merits and demerits of
any three sophisticated equipment.
[Link] any one test procedure of quality control test used to evaluate adequacy of sub
base compaction.
[Link] and explain types of compacting equipment used for highway construction .bring out
advantages and disadvantages of sheep foot rollers.
[Link] any four types of equipment’s used for i)excavation ii)cement concrete pavement
construction and explain any one equipment for each.
[Link] the specification and working principle of a paver finisher.
[Link] the steps in the preparation of subgrade .how is the adequacy of the
compaction in the field evaluate?
 PART - B
PAVEMENT CONSTRUCTION
UNIT - 6
SUBGRADE: Earthwork grading and construction of embankments and
cuts for roads. Preparation of subgrade, quality control tests. 6 Hours

Highway construction is generally preceded by detailed surveys and subgrade preparation.

The methods and technology for constructing highways has evolved over time and become
increasingly sophisticated. This advancement in technology has raised the level of skill sets
required to manage highway construction projects. This skill varies from project to project,
depending on factors such as the project's complexity and nature, the contrasts between new
construction and reconstruction, and differences between urban region and rural region
projects.

There are a number of elements of highway construction which can be broken up into
technical and commercial elements of the system. Some examples of each are listed below:

Technical Elements
Materials
Material quality
Installation techniques
Traffic
Commercial Elements
Contract understanding
Environmental aspects
Political aspects
Legal aspects
Public concerns
Typically, construction begins at the lowest elevation of the site, regardless of the project
type, and moves upward. By reviewing the geotechnical specifications of the project,
information is given about:
Existing ground conditions
Required equipment for excavation, grading, and material transportation to and from the
site Properties of materials to be excavated
Dewatering requirements necessary for below-grade work
Shoring requirements for excavation protection
Water quantities for compaction and dust control
Subbase course construction
A subbase course is a layer designed of carefully selected materials that is located between
the subgrade and base course of the pavement. The subbase thickness is generally in the
range of 4 to 16 inches, and it is designed to withstand the required structural capacity of the
pavement [Link] materials used for a highway subbase include gravel, crushed
stone, or subgrade soil that is stabilized with cement, fly ash, or lime. Permeable subbase
courses are becoming more prevalent because of their ability to drain infiltrating water from
the surface. They also prevent subsurface water from reaching the pavement surface. When
local material costs are excessively expensively or the material requirements to increase the
structural bearing of the sub-base are not readily available, highway engineers can increase
the bearing capacity of the underlying soil by mixing in Portland cement, foamed asphalt, or
with emerging technologies such as the cross-linking styrene acrylic polymer that increases
the California Bearing Ratio of in-situ materials by a factor 4 – 6.
Base course construction
The base course is the region of the pavement section that is located directly under the
surface course. If there is a subbase course, the base course is constructed directly about this
layer. Otherwise, it is built directly on top of the subgrade. Typical base course thickness
ranges from 4 to 6 inches and is governed by underlying layer properties. Heavy loads are
continuously applied to pavement surfaces, and the base layer absorbs the majority of these
stresses. Generally, the base course is constructed with an untreated crushed aggregate such
as crushed stone, slag, or gravel. The base course material will have stability under the
construction traffic and good drainage characteristics.
The base course materials are often treated with cement, bitumen, calcium chloride, sodium
chloride, fly ash, or lime. These treatments provide improved support for heavy loads, frost
susceptibility, and serves as a moisture barrier between the base and surface layers.
Surface course construction
There are two most commonly used types of pavement surfaces used in highway
construction: hot-mix asphalt and Portland cement concrete. These pavement surface courses
provide a smooth and safe riding surface, while simultaneously transferring the heavy traffic
loads through the various base courses and into the underlying subgrade soils.
Road surface or pavement is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to
sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as a road or walkway. In the past, gravel road surfaces,
cobblestone and granite setts were extensively used, but these surfaces have mostly been
replaced by asphalt or concrete laid on a compacted base course. Road surfaces are
frequently marked to guide traffic. Today, permeable paving methods are beginning to be
used for low-impact roadways and walkways.
Asphalt (specifically, asphalt concrete), sometimes called flexible pavement due to the
nature in which it distributes loads, has been widely used since the 1920s. The viscous nature
of the bitumen binder allows asphalt concrete to sustain significant plastic deformation,
although fatigue from repeated loading over time is the most common failure mechanism.
Most asphalt surfaces are laid on a gravel base, which is generally at least as thick as the
asphalt layer, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are laid directly on the native
subgrade. In areas with very soft or expansive subgrades such as clay or peat, thick gravel
bases or stabilization of the subgrade with Portland cement or lime may be required.
Polypropylene and polyester geosynthetics have also been used for this purpose and in some
northern countries, a layer of polystyrene boards have been used to delay and minimize frost
penetration into the subgrade.
Depending on the temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix, warm
mix, or cold mix. Hot mix asphalt is applied at temperatures over 300 °F (150 °C) with a free
floating screed. Warm mix asphalt is applied at temperatures of 200–250 °F (95–120 °C),
resulting in reduced energy usage and emissions of volatile organic [Link] mix
asphalt is often used on lower volume rural roads, where hot mix asphalt would cool too
much on the long trip from the asphalt plant to the construction site.

An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high-volume primary highways
having an average annual daily traffic load greater than 1200 vehicles per day.[5]
Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared
with other paving methods, and perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less
durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to
become slick and soft in hot weather and a certain amount of hydrocarbon pollution to soil
and groundwater or waterways.
Hot-mix asphalt (HMA) layers
Hot-mix asphalt surface courses are referred to as flexible pavements. The Superpave
System was developed in the late 1980s and has offered changes to the design approach, mix
design, specifications, and quality testing of materials.
The construction of an effective, long-lasting asphalt pavement requires an experienced
construction crew, committed to their work quality and equipment control.

Construction issues:
Asphalt mix segregation
Laydown
Compaction
Joints

A prime coat is a low viscosity asphalt that is applied to the base course prior to laying the
HMA surface course. This coat bonds loose material, creating a cohesive layer between the
base course and asphalt surface.
A tack coat is a low viscosity asphalt emulsion that is used to create a bond between an
existing pavement surface and new asphalt overlay. Tack coats are typically applied on
adjacent pavements (curbs) to assist the bonding of the HMA and concrete.
Portland cement concrete (PCC)
Portland cement concrete surface courses are referred to as rigid pavements, or concrete
pavements. There are three general classifications of concrete pavements - jointed plain,
jointed reinforced, and continuously reinforced.
Traffic loadings are transferred between sections when larger aggregates in the PCC mix
inter-lock together, or through load transfer devices in the transverse joints of the surface.
Dowel bars are used as load-transferring devices to efficiently transfer loads across
transverse joints while maintaining the joint's horizontal and vertical alignment. Tie-bars are
deformed steel bars that are placed along longitudinal joints to hold adjacent pavement
sections in place.
Subgrade is that portion of the earth roadbed which after having been constructed to
reasonably close conformance with the lines, grades, and cross-sections indicated on the
plans, receives the base or surface material. In a fill section, the subgrade is the top of the
embankment or the fill. In a cut section the subgrade is the bottom of the cut (Figure 1). The
subgrade supports the sub base and/or the pavement section. To ensure a stable, long-lasting,
and maintenance free roadway, the subgrade is required to be constructed using certain
proven procedures that provide satisfactory results.
After the rough grading is completed, the fine grade stakes are set and the final processing of
the subgrade may begin. The rough grade is the top grade of the embankment as built using
the information provided on the grade sheets. The grade is normally with in 2 in. at this
point. The finish grading operation consists of trimming the excess material down to the final
grade. Filling any low spots with thin lifts of materials tends to slide these lifts around if not
properly worked into the underlying materials.
Construction Procedure –
Setting out – After the site has been cleared, the work should be setout. The limits of
embankment are marked by fixing batter pegs on both sides at regular intervals. The
subgrade should be wider than the design dimension so that surplus material may be
trimmed.
Dewatering – If the foundation of the embankment is in area with stagnant water, it is
feasible to remove it by bailing out or pumping.
Stripping & Storing top soil – In localities where most of the available embankment
materials are not conductive to plant growth, the top soil from all areas of cutting shall be
stripped to specified depths not exceeding 150mm & stored in stock piles of height not
exceeding 2m for covering embankment slopes.
Compacting ground supporting embankment / subgrade – where necessary, the original
ground shall be leveled to facilitate placement of first layer of embankment, scarified, mixed
with water and then compacted by rolling so as to achieve minimum dry density as given in
table. In case difference in subgrade level and ground level is less than 0.5m & the ground
does not have 97% relative compaction, the ground shall be loosened upto a level 0.5m
below the subgrade level, watered & compacted in layers to not less than 97% of dry density.
Spreading material in layers & bringing to appropriate moisture content –
a. The embankment & subgrade material shall be spread in layers of uniform thickness not
exceeding 200mm compacted thickness over the entire width of embankment by mechanical
means, finished by a motor grader & compacted.
b. Moisture content of the material shall be checked at this site of placement prior to
commencement of compaction, water shall be sprinkled from a water tanker filled with
sprinkler capable of applying water uniformly.
c. Moisture content of each layer should be checked with respect to table – 1 in accordance
with IS – 2720.
d. Clods or hard lumps of earth shall be broken to have max size of 75mm when placed in
embankment & max size of 50 mm when placed in subgrade.
e. Embankments & other areas of unsupported fills shall not be constructed with steeper side
slopes, or to greater widths.
f. Whenever fills is to be deposited against the face of a natural slope, steeper than 1 verticle
on 4 horizontal, such faces shall be benched.
Compaction –
a. Smooth wheeled, vibratory, pneumatic tyred, sheep foot or pad foot rdlers of suitable size
and capacity should be used for different types & grades of materials.
b. Mostly compaction will be done with vibratory roller of 80 to 100KN static weight or
heavy pneumatic tyred roller.
c. Each layer of the material shall be thoroughly compacted to the densities in table – 1,
subsequent layers should be laid only after the finished layer has been tested.
d. The measurement of field dry density is recorded by nuclear moisture / density guage.
e. When density measurement revel any soft areas in embankment, further compaction is
carried out.
Drainage – The surface of embankment at all times during construction shall be maintained
at such across fall as will shed water and prevent pending.

Construction of Embankments
A road, railway line or canal is normally raised onto an embankment made of compacted soil
(typically clay or rock-based) to avoid a change in level required by the terrain, the
alternatives being either to have an unacceptable change in level or detour to follow a
contour. A cutting is used for the same purpose where the land is originally higher than
required.

Materials

Embankments are often constructed using material obtained from a cutting. Embankments
need to be constructed using non-aerated and waterproofed, compacted (or entirely non-
porous) material to provide adequate support to the formation and a long-term level surface
with stability.
Intersection of embankments
To intersect an embankment without a high flyover, a series of tunnels can consist of a
section of high tensile strength viaduct (typically built of brick and/or metal) or pair of facing
abutments for a bridge.

Cuts for roads :In civil engineering, a cut or cutting is where soil or rock material from a
hill or mountain is cut out to make way for a canal, road or railway [Link] cut and fill
construction it keeps the route straight and/or flat, where the comparative cost or practicality
of alternate solutions (such as diversion) is prohibitive. Contrary to the general meaning of
cutting, a cutting in construction is mechanically excavated or blasted out with carefully
placed explosives. The cut may only be on one side of a slope, or directly through the middle
or top of a hill. Generally, a cut is open at the top (otherwise it is a tunnel). A cut is (in a
sense) the opposite of an embankment. When used in reference to transportation routes, it
reduces the grade of the route.

Cuts can be created by multiple passes of a shovel, grader, scraper or excavator, or by

blasting. One unusual means of creating a cut is to remove the roof of a tunnel through day
lighting. Material removed from cuts is ideally balanced by material needed for fills along
the same route, but this is not always the case when cut material is unsuitable for use as fill.
The word is also used in the same sense in mining, as in an open cut mine.
Quality Control Tests
Quality control tests for Embankment, Subgrade construction.

a) Compaction Control – At least one measurement of density for each 1000sqm of

compacted area, test locations should be chosen with random sampling techniques.
Control should be based on the mean value of 5 – 10 density determinations. The number of
tests in one set of measurements shall be 6. For earth work in shoulders at least one density
measurement for every 500sqm for the compacted area should be made and the number of
tests in each set shall be at least 10.