CHALIMBANA UNIVERSITY

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

CVE 2200: Peace, Leadership and Conflict Resolution

FIRST EDITION 2018

CHALIMBANA UNIVERSITY

PRIVATE BAG E 1,

LUSAKA

Website: www.chau.ac.zm

AUTHORED: LACKSON LUNGU AND RAHABE BANDA

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Copyright

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

© 2018 Chalimbana University

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Directorate of Distance Education wishes to thank Lackson Lungu and Rahabe Banda for
production of this module.

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 INTRODUCTION

Chalimbana University welcomes you to the study of peace, leadership and conflict resolution.
This study is an academic field which identifies and analyses violent and nonviolent
behaviours, as well as the structural mechanisms attending violent and nonviolent social
conflicts. This is to better understand the processes leading to a more desirable human
condition. Peace studies, is an interdisciplinary effort aiming at the prevention, de-escalation,
and solution of conflicts. This contrasts with war studies, directed at the efficient attainment of
victory in conflicts. Disciplines involved may include political science, geography, economics,
psychology, sociology, international relations, history, anthropology, religious studies, and
gender studies, as well as a variety of others.

The term Peace is defined differently by many people who use it. Some people define peace
as the absence of war and violence. Others define peace as a state of harmony and brotherhood
between men and women. Yet others define peace as unity of love. According to Best (2004),
there is a tendency to conceptualise peace as the converse of war. Consequently, we often hear
of war and peace as being the two sides of the same coin. In other words, peace is defined as
the absence of war, and by logical extension, war is seen as the absence of peace. However, as
you will see in this module, this way of conceptualizing peace, though popular and attractive,
is inadequate for understanding the nature of peace.

Other people have said that peace is a state of harmony with the environment and the planet.
This situation leads to what is called environmental peace. This is because environmental
problems have a bearing on peace. Where there is a state of balance with the environment in a
society, peace prevails. But where there is perceived imbalance with the environment or in the
distribution of economic, political and social resources. When peace is disturbed then violence
emerges leading to conflict. For instance, in Darfur region of Sudan where actors in the war
are reported to be fighting over dwindling water resources.
By studying this course, you will appreciate various aspects concerning peace and conflict
resolution. You will become a necessary asset in the promotion of peace in your various
communities.

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RATIONALE
Civic education is and will be a necessary area of study in schools and higher learning
institutions. This is due to the fact that, the citizens need to be equipped with knowledge,
virtues and skills which will help them to handle issues of misunderstandings and conflict
resolution. Additionally, societies are facing more and more issues and challenges which
institutional frameworks of established democratic systems and their functional elites cannot
deal with on their own but they need the help of the committed and strong Citizenry, hence the
need to train Civic Education teachers who will be able to bridge the gap between the citizens
and the Government in terms peace and conflicts. These teachers also need to be equipped with
approaches and techniques in conflict resolution. The Ministry of Higher Education, Ministry
of General Education, and the Government are in need of Citizens who are socially,
Economically, Culturally and politically enlightened in order to address the global challenges.
This implies that there is need to have a Civic Education course at degree level which will
train teachers and citizens at Chalimbana University.

AIM

The course aims at meeting the needs of the education sector in Civic Education through the
training of students so that at the end of the course, the knowledge of how to teach Civic
Education is well be vested with skills and knowledge in peace, leadership and conflict
resolution .

Learning outcomes

At the end of the course students will be expected to:

(a) Define and explain the terms peace, conflict and social change
(b) Identify the various sources of conflict
(c) Differentiate between conflict resolution, conflict management, conflict transformation
and conflict suppression
(d) Itemize and explain the various conflict theories
(e) Identify and describe the various methods of conflict resolution

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 CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... iv
RATIONALE ............................................................................................................................. v
UNIT 1: CONCEPTUALIZING PEACE .................................................................................. 1
1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Conceptions and Misconceptions of Peace ................................................................. 3
1.2 Direct Violence and Structural Violence .................................................................... 5
1.3 Approaches to Definition of Peace.............................................................................. 6
1.3.1 Philosophical Definition of Peace ........................................................................ 6
1.3.2 Sociological Definition of Peace ......................................................................... 7
1.3.3 Political Definition of Peace ................................................................................ 8
1.3.4 A Process View of Peace ..................................................................................... 9
1.4 Theories on Peace...................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Challenges to Peace ................................................................................................... 12
ACTIVITY ........................................................................................................................... 12
UNIT 2: SOCIAL CONFLICT ................................................................................................ 13
2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Understanding Social Conflict ....................................................................................... 13
2.2 Change and Conflict ....................................................................................................... 15
2.3 How Conflict Causes change ......................................................................................... 16
2.4 The Functions of Conflict .............................................................................................. 17
2.5 The Effects of External Conflict .................................................................................... 18
ACTIVITY ........................................................................................................................... 19
UNIT 3: THE SPECIAL CASE OF REVOLUTION .............................................................. 20
3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 20
3.1 Theories of Revolutions ................................................................................................. 20
ACTIVITY ........................................................................................................................... 22
UNIT 4: SOURCES OF SOCIAL CONFLICT ....................................................................... 23
4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 23
4.1 Human Nature and Violence .......................................................................................... 23
4.2 Frustration and Aggression ............................................................................................ 24
4.3 Psychoanalytic Perspectives ........................................................................................... 24
4.4 Relative Deprivation ...................................................................................................... 25

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 4.5 Basic Needs Perspective................................................................................................. 26
4.6 Identity Formation .......................................................................................................... 26
4.7 Dynamics in Divided Societies ...................................................................................... 27
4.8 Specific Causes of Social Conflict ................................................................................. 28
ACTIVITY ........................................................................................................................... 30
UNIT 5: THEORIES OF SOCIAL CONFLICT ..................................................................... 31
5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 31
5.1 Structural Conflict Theory ............................................................................................. 31
5.2 Realist Theories .............................................................................................................. 32
5.3 Biological Theories ........................................................................................................ 33
5.4 The Frustration-Aggression Theory ............................................................................... 34
5.5 Physiological Theories ................................................................................................... 35
5.6 Economic Theories ......................................................................................................... 35
5.7 Psycho-Cultural Conflict Theory ................................................................................... 36
5.8 Human Needs Theory..................................................................................................... 36
5.9 Systemic Theories .......................................................................................................... 36
5.10 Relational Theories ...................................................................................................... 37
ACTIVITY ........................................................................................................................... 37
UNIT 6: CONFLICT ANALYSIS........................................................................................... 38
6.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 38
6.1 Understanding Conflict Analysis ................................................................................... 38
6.2 Methods of Conflict Analysis ........................................................................................ 39
6.3 The Components of Conflict Analysis ........................................................................... 42
6.4 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 45
ACTIVITY ........................................................................................................................... 45
UNIT 7: METHODS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND TRANSFORMATION ........... 46
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 46
7.2 Methods of Conflict Resolution ..................................................................................... 48
7.3 Methods of Promoting Peace ......................................................................................... 53
ACTIVITY ........................................................................................................................... 54
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 55

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SUMMARY

“Teaching is hard as one has to teach from the heart.”

This means that you should dedicate the self to the job without looking at what you will get out
of it. Teaching is a 24 hours job as the teacher continues to think about his or her pupils even
when they are not physically present. It involves planning, teaching, assessing evaluation and
record management. In cases where there is poor performance, the teacher has to counsel the
child as well as think of how best to help that child without abandoning such a one.

The secret to successful teaching emanates from careful planning. Without planning, no teacher
can teach effectively.

There is no strategy for classroom management that will overcome pupil behaviour problems
if the teacher does not provide an interesting, engaging program that allows each Pupil to
become actively involved. There is no strategy for classroom management that will magically
create a positive classroom environment if the teacher does not engage all pupils in a busy
sense of working with the most compelling reward of all, that of realizing that they are learning
important things that are valued in the real world.

STUDY SKILLS

As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from your school days:
you will choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or personal
motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around other
professional or domestic responsibilities.

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence, you
will need to consider performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress
management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay
planning, coping with exams and using the web as a learning resource.

Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you dedicate to your
learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-study—to familiarize
yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web.

TIME FRAME

Applicants for both full time and distance studies are required to do a full academic year to
complete this module. You will be expected to spend at least 18 contact hours with the lecturer
and 60 hours of self-study

NEED HELP

The course instructor can be contacted on this

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Email address: [email protected]

Tutorial office number: 8

The university has a library, a few books can also be accessed from the departmental office

COURSE MATERIALS

For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a Curriculum
framework, syllabus, and formats of schemes of work and lesson plans

RECOMMENDED BOOKS

Best G. S. Introduction to Peace and Conflict Studies. Spectrum Books Limited, Ibadan.

Miller C. E. (2005) A Glossary of Terms and Concepts in Peace and Conflict Studies.
University for Peace Africa Programme, Addis Ababa.

Mitchell, C.R (1981). The Structure of International Conflict. New York: Martins Press.

ASSESSMENT

1. Continuous Assessment - 50%

(i) One test - 20%
(ii) Two Assignments of 15% each - 30%
2. Examination - 50%
Total 100%

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 UNIT 1: CONCEPTUALIZING PEACE

1.0 Introduction
This unit seeks to introduce you to the concept of peace. You will discover the various
conceptions and misconceptions of the term peace. You will also endeavour to understand the
difference between direct and structural violence. Through this unit various approaches to
defining peace and the theories on peace are outlined. You will also be able to observe the
challenges to peace in society.

1.0.1 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Conceptualise peace
 Understand the different approaches to defining peace
 Explain the various theories on peace
 Describe the challenges to peace

1.1 Conceptions and Misconceptions of Peace

Many people regard peace as the absence of war and conflict or violence. If peace is the absence
of war and violence, then it means countries where there is no war and violence people enjoy
peace. But in reality this is not true. We know of many countries that have never fought wars
with any country and yet there is no peace in those countries. What this means is that peace is
not just the absence of war and violence. It goes beyond these two definitions. Therefore, in
defining peace we must say that peace is the presence of justice. If a family, community, society
or country practices justice, it will be very hard to create a situation of violence and conflict.
As it is said, “If you want peace work for justice.”

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Peace describes a society or a relationship that is operating harmoniously and without violent
conflict. Peace is commonly understood as the absence of hostility, or the existence of healthy
or newly healed interpersonal or international relationships, safety in matters of social or
economic welfare, the acknowledgment of equality and fairness in political relationships. In
international relations, peacetime is the absence of any war or conflict.

Some peace thinkers have abandoned the idea that there is a single or all-embracing definition
of peace. Instead, they promote the idea of many peaces which they call “plural peaces.” They
argue that since no singular, correct definition of peace can exist, peace should be perceived as
a plurality. For example, in the Great Lakes Region of Africa, the word for peace is Kindoki,
which refers to a harmonious balance between human beings, the natural world and the cosmos.
This vision is a much broader view of peace than a mere “absence of war” or even a presence
of justice.”

Another meaning of peace refers to inner peace, which is a state of mind, body and perhaps
soul. It is a peace within ourselves. People that experience inner peace say that such a feeling
is not dependent on time, people, place or any external object or situation. An individual may
experience inner peace even in the midst of war. Some people say that peace and quiet go hand
in hand. In this way, peace can mean a state of quiet or tranquillity or an absence of disturbance
or irritation. As a result of this understanding, many people find the natural world to be peaceful
and, therefore, may visit quiet places like forests, lakes or other natural things. Mahatma
Gandhi’s idea of peace was that peace is not an end, but a means to something else. He stated
that “there is no way to peace; peace is the way” to some destination.

Yet another view of peace is one which subdivides it into “negative peace” and “positive
peace”. Negative peace is considered as the absence of direct physical violence such as war or
any form of conflict. Positive peace is the presence of conditions of well-being and just social,
economic, political and ecological relationships. Violence can either be direct or structural.
Direct violence is where there is war or torture while structural violence is a situation where
peoples’ living standards become unbearable due to factors such as poverty, discrimination,
abuse of human rights and inequality.

Many philosophical, religious and cultural traditions have referred to peace in its ‘positive’
sense. In Chinese, for example, the word ‘heping’ denotes world peace, peace among nations.

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While the words ‘an’ and ‘mingsi’ denote an ‘inner peace’, a tranquil and harmonious state of
mind and being, akin to a meditative mental state. Other languages also frame peace in its
‘inner’ and ‘outer’ dimensions.

1.2 Direct Violence and Structural Violence

Violence can be direct or structural

Direct Violence

Direct violence refers to physical injuries and infliction of pain caused by another person. Acts
such as killing and beating represent direct violence. Direct violence may also take the form of
verbal and psychological abuse. It involves a clear subject-action-object relationship as
someone hurts another with a violent act. Direct violence is personal, visible, manifest and non-
structural, (Galtung, 1996:31).

The use of physical force happens either randomly or intentionally in diverse social set ups.
Whereas violence in interpersonal relations may be used as an instrument for robbery, revenge
or honour, states use organised violence to achieve foreign policy goals. Mass violence such
as war and revolutions bring about social change and power imbalance. At a group level,
violence is a deliberate policy that serves particular interests. Such physical violence as
imprisonment and torture is often used for political purposes. The capacity for violence is
institutionalised in prison systems, concentration camps, military and militia groups. genocide
is a good example of organised violence where one group carefully applies violent tactics to
eliminate others. In most cases the weaker groups are on the receiving end of violent activities
as victims.

Structural Violence
Structural violence is a form of human abuse characterised by situations which cause human
misery. The quality of life is reduced by denial of social services such education opportunities,
health care and other freedoms. These conditions are assovciated with uneven life chances,
inequitable distribution of resources and unequal decision making power. This type of violence
mostly works slowly in eroding human values and shortening life spans. It is typically built
into the structures of society and cultural institutions.

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1.3 Approaches to Definition of Peace
‘Peace’, like many theoretical terms, is difficult to define. But also like ‘happiness’, ‘harmony’,
‘love’, ‘justice’ and ‘freedom’, we often recognize it by its absence. Perhaps ‘peace’ is like
‘happiness’, ‘justice’, ‘health’ and other human ideals, something every person and culture
claims to desire and venerate, but which few if any achieve, at least on an enduring basis. Due
to its complex nature, peace can be conceptualised and defined in philosophical, sociological
and political terms.

1.3.1 Philosophical Definition of Peace

Many philosophers see peace as a natural, original, God-given state of human existence. Peace,
from a philosophical standpoint, is the pre-corruption state of man in society as established by
God. As such, peace is a state of perfection, an earthly expression of the uncorrupted Kingdom
of God. Thus St. Augustine of Hippo distinguished between the city of God founded on perfect
heavenly peace and the earthly city of man which is founded on appetitive and possessive
impulses, is corrupt and torn by strife. John Jacques Rousseau conceptualises peace as the
original state of the existence of man in which there are no desires. In that state, man existed
as a free, gentle savage. Men were naturally good in the state of nature. They were born free
and had few desires. However, this tranquil state subsequently became corrupted by human
desire and greed, thus undermining the peaceful, pristine state of nature. Rousseau made a
scathing attack on the private property, which he saw as a major reason for the depravity of
man, (Best. 2004:5).

Another philosopher, Thomas Hobbes, argues that the state of nature was rampant with conflict
and violence. In this original state, a great man could be murdered in his sleep or overwhelmed
by great numbers. Life in this state was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short. In order to
escape this nasty life, men resolved to create a social contract in which each individual gave
up his/her right to self-defence to a Leviathan, a powerful force above all and to which all were
subject, thus creating a more peaceful and orderly life. Other philosophers such as the hedonists
and utilitarian suggest that human beings instinctively seek happiness and avoid pain. As a
consequence, they naturally prefer peace to violence.

However, while these philosophical traditions relate peace to the original inclination and
desires of human beings, they do not address the social context of peace beyond the state of

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nature. One of the earliest normative political philosophers to explore these issues in the social
context is Plato. In his Republic, Plato discusses justice as the most fundamental basis of
ordered social life. For him, justice is the basis for peaceful social existence. He defines justice
as giving to each his/her due. He argues that every society requires three functions to achieve
harmony (Peace), namely, production, security and political rule, (Best, 2004:6).

1.3.2 Sociological Definition of Peace

Like normative philosophy, sociological definition of peace addresses the social context.
However, while philosophy addresses what ought to be, the sociological definition addresses
what is. Sociologically, peace refers to a condition of social harmony in which there are no
social antagonisms. In other words, peace is a condition in which there is no social conflict and
individuals and groups are able to meet their needs and expectations. Social harmony can be
achieved through structural functionalism and dialectical materialism.

Structural functionalism is a tradition of social analysis that sees society as a mosaic of

functions and structures that perform them. For example, in order to survive, a society needs
to educate its children, produce goods, govern itself and provide security for its members.
These are functions and they necessitate a number of structures such as schools, industries,
parliaments, courts, armed forces and many other institutions. Thus structure means a set of
interrelated roles necessary for performing a specific function. When structures perform their
functions properly, there is order in society and it inherently moves in the direction of order
and stability. Consequently, from a structural-functionalist perspective, peace is achieved
where existing social structures perform their functions adequately, supported by the requisite
culture, norms and values. To illustrate, if the school structure, which consists of the roles of
principal, teacher, administrator and student performs its functions of educating children
properly by inculcating the right values and norms such as tolerance, patience and love, then
peace would prevail in society.

On the other hand, dialectical materialism is a tradition of social analysis associated with the
German Philosopher Karl Marx. It suggests that to understand society we should look at the
processes through which society produces and distributes the means of its material existence
and the struggles, usually among social classes, that are integral to the process. In other words,
it is about how human societies produce and how they distribute work and rewards. In societies

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divided into classes, the dominant classes do less work but appropriate most of the rewards.
This exploitative relation gives rise to the class struggle, which sometimes entails
open/objective violence such as violence by state agencies like armed forces against
underprivileged groups, but most times entails covert/structural violence.

This latter form of violence is not immediately perceived as violence. It is expressed in such
conditions as poverty, inequality, psychological violence, oppression and social exclusion. The
use of open or structural violence by the dominant groups depends on the level of hegemony it
has established. That is the extent to which the dominant ideology of the dominant classes has
been able to pervade life, such that even the underprivileged classes accept the rule of the
dominant classes. As the hegemony of the dominant classes become established, they reduce
the use of ‘naked force’ in enforcing their material interests.

This perspective also makes distinction between the violence inflicted by the dominant classes
and the state they control (state violence) and revolutionary violence that is organised violence
of the underprivileged classes designed to overthrow the dominant classes and seize state
power.

We may then summarise that the sociological perspective assumes that peace is not possible
insofar as society is divided into antagonistic classes and there is a persistence of objective,
structural and revolutionary violence. Peace is only feasible in societies in which classes are
non-existent because society produces enough to give to each according to his/her needs. In
reality, however, such a society remains an aspiration in modern times and we have to go back
many centuries to find very simple societies that came close to this aspiration, (Best, 2004:8)

1.3.3 Political Definition of Peace

According to the University for Peace, peace is a political condition that makes justice possible.
More strictly, politically, peace entails political order; that is, there should be
institutionalisation of political structures. Institutionalisation means that political structures
acquire value and stability. In the absence of institutionalisation, there is a primacy of politics.
In that condition, every group uses unique endowments to pursue and enforce its interests –

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mobs riot, student demonstrate, workers strike and soldiers organise coups. To create peace,
politics must be mediated by stable structures and secular culture. This means that citizens
become more participant and political values like tolerance, bargaining and negotiation are
made the norm. Citizens also become more rational and evaluative when dealing with political
issues.

As political order, peace entails that government minimally employs the coercive apparatuses
of the state, such as the armed forces and police, in dealing with citizens usually because there
is no threat to the interests of the ruling class by the underprivileged classes. Instead, the
worldwide of the ruling class, as congealed in the dominant ideology is thorough going and
pervasive.

Politically, peace could also be seen as a contractual pact in which the parties, especially nation
states, mutually respect the pact and recognize each other. For instance, the Peace of
Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years War in Europe in 1648, marked the beginning of
modern international order, which has remained relatively stable.

However, portraying peace simply as order could also be a way of perpetrating and
perpetuating oppression of the underprivileged by the privileged classes. This is because behind
the appearance of a seemingly neutral order, which ostensibly is desired by everyone, is the
domination of one social class by another and the domination of the weak by the powerful.
Consequently, privileged groups perceive their privileges, comfort and dominance as order,
and any challenge to that status quo is deemed to undermine peace. Yet, sometimes it may be
necessary for an existing order to be overthrown so that lasting peace can be established. For
example, imagine what the world would be like today if the order enunciated by the Nazis was
not challenged in World War II, or the devastating impact of the Mobutu’s order on the people
of the Democratic Republic of Congo.

1.3.4 A Process View of Peace

One thing that extant or contemporary conceptions of peace have in common is that there is a
state of affair or condition in thought, nature and society that is characterised as peace. This
condition is pristine, perfect, ordered and tranquil. It is a condition in which, according to

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Rousseau, “all men are born free” and exist as “gentle savages”, but subsequently social
conditions put them “everywhere in chains”.

While the forgoing extant conceptions of peace we have discussed are not necessarily wrong,
they are inadequate in understanding the entire reality of peace. One problem many of them
share is that there is no recorded human society corresponding to such a stylised state of tranquil
existence. Even the earliest humans had to confront nature in its raw and brutal form, including
dangers posed by wild animals. Another problem is that these conceptions of peace create the
impression that we can find peace as an absolute, once-and-for-all condition. Although many
have come to see conflict as inherent in society, they fail to also see that peace exists in all
societies in different conditions.

Therefore, in conceptualising peace, we should see it as a process not as a condition. In other

words, it is a dynamic socio-economic process, rather than condition. Peace is a process
involving activities that are directly or indirectly linked to increasing development and
reducing conflict, both within specific societies and in the wider international community.
Simply put, development is a process of improving the condition in which human beings live.
It involves first, improving man’s understanding of the laws of nature (science), second,
applying this understanding to creation of tools and other implements that improve man’s
working conditions and living environment (technology), and third, equitable organisation of
work and rewards (social relations of production). Put differently, development is a process of
progressively eliminating conditions that alienate labour in society. These conditions emanate
from a complex interplay of the natural or biophysical environment.

1.4 Theories on Peace

Many different theories of peace exist in the world of peace studies, which involves the study
of conflict transformation, disarmament, and cessation of violence. The definition of peace can
vary with religion, culture, or subject of study.

Peace is a state of balance and understanding in yourself and between others, where respect is
gained by the acceptance of differences, tolerance persists, conflicts are resolved through
dialog, people's rights are respected and their voices are heard, and everyone is at their highest
point of serenity without social tension.

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Game theory

The Peace War Game is a game theory approach to peace and conflict studies. An iterated
game originally played in academic groups and by computer simulation for years to study
possible strategies of cooperation and aggression. As peace makers became richer over time, it
became clear that making war had greater costs than initially anticipated. The only strategy that
acquired wealth more rapidly was a constant aggressor making war continually to gain
resources. This led to the development of the "provocable nice guy" strategy, a peace-maker
until attacked, improved upon merely to win by occasional forgiveness even when attacked.
Multiple players continue to gain wealth cooperating with each other while bleeding the
constant aggressor. Such actions led in essence to the development of the Hanseatic League for
trade and mutual defence following centuries of Viking depredation.

Democratic peace theory

The democratic peace theory holds that democracies will never go to war with one another. It
is expected of democracies to be tolerant and respect the rules of society at all costs.

Active Peace Theory

This theory posits that Peace is part of a triad, which also includes justice and wholeness (or
well-being), consonant with scriptural scholarly interpretations of the meaning for salvation,
justice, and peace. Furthermore, the consortium have integrated Galtung's teaching of the
meanings of the terms peace-making, peacekeeping, and peace building, to also fit into a triadic
formulation. Vermont Quaker John V. Wilmerding, Jr., founder of John Woolman College,
posits five stages of growth applicable to individuals, communities, and societies, whereby one
transcends first the 'surface' awareness that most people have of these kinds of issues, emerging
successively into acquiescence, pacifism, passive resistance, active resistance, and finally into
Active Peace, dedicating themselves to peace-making, peacekeeping, and/or peace building.

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1.5 Challenges to Peace

One challenge to peace is that some people argue that war and violence is organic, meaning
that war and violence are inevitable and unavoidable features of human society. But other
people argue that generosity and good heartedness are predominant. Another challenge is that
peace and justice are sometimes viewed as contradictions in practical terms. If one believes
that the only way to prevent injustice and create justice is by force, then such a person believes
that justice requires hostilities and war. This approach is exemplified by the belief of Allied
forces during the Great War in Europe where Allies argued for a “War to end all Wars”.
Unfortunately although the Allies won the war, the resulting “peace” Treaty of Versailles only
set the stage for the even Bloodier World War II. Therefore, peace and justice may not always
be achieved by war. Yet another challenge to peace comes from people’s desire to have power
and to be at an advantage in relation to others. Such a situation often leads to competition which
may result into violence and war. This situation is seen in some religious and ethnic groups.
These groups sometimes see themselves as being oppressed and, therefore, they resort to argue
that violence and war are the only ways to defend their religions or ethnic groups.

There is a Nobel Peace Prize which is awarded annually to notable peacemakers and thinkers
who have overcome violence, conflict or oppression through their moral leadership. The prize
has sometimes met with controversy because some of the people awarded may have previously
sponsored war and violence but, due to exceptional agreements made with them, they may have
helped to achieve peace.

ACTIVITY
1. In your own words, based on what you have read, how would you describe peace?
2. Differentiate between negative peace and positive peace.
3. Do you agree with the assertion that peace is the converse of war? Give a reason for
your answer.
4. How does direct violence defer from structural violence?
5. Briefly describe the different approaches in defining peace.

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 UNIT 2: SOCIAL CONFLICT

2.0 Introduction

This unit brings to your attention the aspect of social conflict. You will learn about the
relationship about change and conflict in terms of how conflict causes change. You are aware
that conflicts occur when the idea, needs, interests or goals of individuals, groups of people or
nations differ. Conflict shows itself through anger, hurt, frustration, resentment,
disappointment, quarrel, physical fight, verbal fight or using abusive language. You know that
conflicts can occur at individual level in a household involving a wife and a husband or
involving children in the same household. It is also common to witness conflicts between
parents and their children over certain fundamental family issues such as marriage, farming
land and other family properties (estates). Conflicts can also occur at community, regional,
national and international levels. At each level the causes for the conflicts vary. In our study,
we shall identify a number of reasons or causes of conflicts in the world, with some examples
coming from Africa and Zambia. Under this unit you will be made to understand certain
functions of conflict in society as well as the effects of external conflict.

2.0.1 Learning Outcome

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Understand social conflict
 Explain how change relates to conflict
 Demonstrate how conflict causes change
 Discuss the functions of conflict in society
 State the effects of external conflict

2.1 Understanding Social Conflict

A just society will work harmoniously and will also be in a state of harmony with the
environment. If you are not in harmony with the environment you will be in conflict with each
other as human beings. Conflicts will develop into violence. We can explain conflict as a

13
quarrel, struggle or fight between two individuals, communities, societies or countries.
Conflicts may be physical, which means directed towards the body.

Conflict is a normal, natural part of human relationships. People will not agree about everything
all the time. In and of itself, conflict is not necessarily a negative thing. When handled
constructively it can help people to stand up for themselves and others, and work together to
achieve a mutually satisfactory solution. But if conflict is handled poorly it can cause anger,
hurt, divisiveness and more serious problems.

A just society will work harmoniously and will also be in a state of harmony with the
environment. If you are not in harmony with the environment you will be in conflict with each
other as human beings. Conflicts will develop into violence. We can explain conflict as a
quarrel, struggle or fight between two individuals, communities, societies or countries.
Conflicts may be physical, which means directed towards the body.
Violence, which is defined as extreme destructive force wilfully exerted against someone, is
always negative, and begins in our minds. It begins in our minds only when we lose inner peace
and harmony. It is also the first resort in conflicts. Conflicts occur when the idea, needs,
interests or goals of individuals, groups of people or nations differ. Conflict shows itself
through anger, hurt, frustration, resentment, disappointment, quarrel, physical fight, verbal
fight or using abusive language. Conflicts can occur at individual level in a household
involving a wife and a husband or involving children in the same household. It is also common
to witness conflicts between parents and their children over certain fundamental family issues
such as marriage, farming land and other family properties (estates).

Conflicts can also occur at community, regional, national and international levels. At each level
the causes for the conflicts vary. In our study, we shall identify a number of reasons or causes
of conflicts in the world, with some examples coming from Africa and Zambia. The following
activity illustrates conflict at an individual level.

Conflict is a normal, natural part of human relationships. People will not agree about everything
all the time. In and of itself, conflict is not necessarily a negative thing. When handled
constructively it can help people to stand up for themselves and others, and work together to
achieve a mutually satisfactory solution. But if conflict is handled poorly it can cause anger,
hurt, divisiveness and more serious problems.

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2.2 Change and Conflict
Change simply means transformation of society in different spheres. Change can either be
positive or negative. Just like change can sometimes breed conflict, it is also true that conflict
between different social groups can bring about changes in the larger society. One common
theory about social change through social conflict was devised by Karl Marx. “Much of the
discussion on the nature of social change and conflict depends on Marx’s ideas, (Coser,
1983:467).

According to Marx’s sociology of social conflict and revolutionary change, the normal
condition of a society is not stability and order but continuous change and conflict. Marx saw
history as a succession of class struggles and defined historical progress as a shift of dominance
from one ruling group to another. Therefore, in Marx’s view, social change was impossible
without conflict.

Marx’s theory of history rests on his concept of an economic class system. According to him,
as societies emerged from undifferentiated hordes of primitive peoples, they developed a
division of labour and a social organisation for producing means of subsistence. It is this social
order that leads to a class system based on the relationship of each class to the means of
production. Those who own the means of production have power and property while those who
do not own the means of production are dominated and exploited by the ruling class. The
relationship is that of free men and the slaves in ancient times, barons and serfs in the feudal
period and the bourgeoisie and the proletariat in the modern capitalist era – all constitute the
two basic antagonistic classes of owners and workers. Human history, has been a continuous
process of change from one ruling class to another.

According to the prediction of Marx, the capitalist era would end in social revolution. At the
critical historical moment, when the weaknesses of capitalism forced a breakdown of the
economic and political system, then an aroused, well organised proletariat would seize the
means of production and overthrow their corrupt bourgeois oppressors. The ultimate stage
would be a Marxist utopia: a classless society without private ownership of property and
without class conflict.

15
Despite its shortcomings, Marx’s analysis of class conflict continues to stimulate sociological
thought. He saw potential for social conflict inherent in every stratified society, and he showed
how economic conditions affect power relationships.

2.3 How Conflict Causes change

Pressure to change society is expressed in social conflict. During periods of social change, new
groups and classes rise to power and influence, and other groups decline or fall. If the result of
conflict is a new equilibrium in which the social system is flexible enough to adjust to the new
situation, then social conflict has led to a change within the system. On the other hand, if the
social system is not able to adjust, then the strain and frustration are allowed to accumulate and
as a result the system breaks down and is replaced by another social order, then it means that
conflict has brought about a change of a system. A change of a system can come peacefully,
over long periods of time, as the social structure transforms itself by continual small
adjustments to conflict within. It can also come rapidly and violently, as a result of resentment
over deep, unresolved divisions within society.

Change within the System: By its very nature, conflict prevents society from being static.
Conflict within and between social groups disturbs habits of thought and behaviour and creates
pressure for innovation and creativity. The clash of values and interests, the tension between
vested interests and new contenders for power – these forces produce vitality and release
creative energy. Though not all social conflicts have positive consequences, many bring
unanticipated long term benefits.

Change of the System: The distinction between changes within the system and the change of
the system, is sometimes rather arbitrary. There is always some continuity between the past
and the present, between the old social system and the new one. Societies do not have precise
dates of birth and death, although they may be assigned one. Whether conflict will lead to
readjustment within a system or to breakdown and the formation of a new system seems to
depend on the behaviour of the dominant groups. If powerful interests resist change and
suppress dissent, they tend to intensify the conflict. If the pressure for change continues to be
frustrated by the dominant groups, then society divides into “us” against “them” and violent
confrontations are more likely to occur. A flexible social system, however, will permit open

16
airing of grievances and adjust itself to changes in the internal balance of power. Such a system
is less likely to be divided into hostile camps, and contending groups are more likely to resolve
their conflicts peacefully.

2.4 The Functions of Conflict

Social conflict is not always destructive. In open and flexible societies, internal conflict can
resolve tension and restore stability. Some specific benefits of internal conflict include
maintenance of group unity, readjustment of group norms and rearrangement of balance of
power.

Maintenance of Group Unity: In flexible social structures, each individual participates in

many different groups. He or she belongs to a family, an ethnic group, a social class, an
occupation group, etc. Several of these groups may be naturally antagonistic towards each
other, and individuals may be involved in conflict between them. For example members of the
same religious grouping may belong to different conflicting ethnic group. In such instances the
religious grouping may help to end ethnic conflict.

In open, pluralistic societies, these multiple small conflicts crisscross and prevent society from
being split down in the middle. Affiliation with many groups that are sometimes allies and
sometimes enemies is a stabilizing factor in social relationships. As such, multiple conflicts
may be said to sew society together rather than breaking it.

On the other hand, rigid societies that repress conflict are more likely to divide into hostile
camps. When members of rival groupings finally act out their long suppressed antagonisms
towards each other, the resulting conflict is likely to be intense and emotional. That is why civil
wars are usually more cruel and bloody than international conflict.

When there are no multiple, crisscrossing associations among its members, a society may
divide in half along a single axis. Such is the case in Northern Ireland, where the members of
the conflicting groups have no common bonds. The social system in Northern Ireland has
broken down into two opposing groups; in one, the Irish-Catholic working class seeking a
larger share of power; and the other, the Scotch-Irish property-owning protestant who control

17
the government and the economy. The membership of the two groups does not overlap on any
major basis. The Irish conflict is particularly intense and bitter because each side has tended to
keep to itself and resent the presence of the other. For many years, open conflict has been
suppressed, often by force. In such a closed society there is little basis for compromise, and the
conflict is likely to continue.

Readjustment of Group Norms: conflict continually, creates new norms and modifies old
one. In bringing about new situations to which the usual rules do not apply, conflict stimulates
the establishment of appropriate guides for action.

Rearrangement of balance of Power: Conflict with some groups produces alliances with
others. As a result, it maintains or revises the balance of power among warring parties. When
conflict breaks out, the former accommodation between the parties involved is rejected, the
relative power of each group is tested, and a new equilibrium can be established. Such
rearrangement in the balance of power prevent any one group from dominating and exploiting
the rest. As long as their power is continually challenged, members of the ruling group will be
blocked from exclusive control of the social system.

2.5 The Effects of External Conflict

Conflict with other groups also affects internal group structure. Some of the effects of external
conflict include the following:
i. Differences between the in-groups and out-groups (us vs them)
ii. Increase in group cohesion (groups tend to pull themselves together)
iii. Suppression of dissenting voices in order to strengthen the group.

As long as the social system is stable and group values still hold, external conflict will
strengthen group ties. Suppressed internal conflict may build up hostilities and resentments,
but they will not hinder concerted action against what everyone perceives as a common threat.
In contrast, unstable social systems that lack consensus are likely to disintegrate in the face of
attack from outside.

18
ACTIVITY
1. What is social conflict?
2. Explain Karl Marx’s theory of social conflict.
3. How does social conflict bring about change of the system and changes within the
system?
4. What function does social conflict play in a society?

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 UNIT 3: THE SPECIAL CASE OF REVOLUTION

3.0 Introduction

This unit introduces you to a special case of revolution. Revolutions are a special form of
violent conflict which lead to fundamental social changes. Revolutions result from the anger
and resentment by citizens against the corrupt leadership in society. The French Revolution,
the Russian Revolution and the Chines revolution are some of the well-known examples of
revolutions in the world history. Specifically, a revolution is a sweeping fundamental change
in political organisations, social structure, economic property control and social order
indicating a major break in the continuity of development. In most cases, revolutions take place
suddenly. Revolutions can bleed terrible violence between the revolutionaries who are forcing
change and the ruling elite who are trying to prevent it.

3.0.1 Learning Outcome

By the end of this unit, you should be able to
 Explain the various theories of revolution
 Demonstrate understand of why revolutions occur

3.1 Theories of Revolutions

Psychological Theories: According the psychological theories, the general mental state of a
society has a great bearing on political stability. It is the dissatisfied state of the mind that
produces the revolution, rather than the tangible provision of adequate or inadequate food,
equality or liberty. When people are used to a continuous process of development, their mind
will not accept a sudden reversal. The experience of hard times when people expect more good
times causes, frustration, anger and burning desire to change the system. When they compare
the past and the present or when they compare themselves with others and discover a
discrepancy people feel deprived, a scenario which modern theorists call relative deprivation.

20
That is why the working class are more likely to revolt than the peasant who are used to low
standards of living without comparing with others. In the same vain, a group of educated young
people are more likely to revolt as compared to the illiterate ones because they are able to see
how much more others have than them and they can read and understand the changes between
the present and the past.

This takes back to Karl Marx’s theory where he asserts that the working class will realise the
dominant nature of the capitalists whose enjoyment is inaccessible to the workers. People may
endure misery and injustice for as long as they appear inevitable, but as soon as things improve,
people expect nothing but further progress.

Revolutions, according to psychological theorists, are also possible when rulers remove some
of the privileges which the subjects enjoy. It is common knowledge that people usually get
more annoyed and can easily become violent if they lose what they already have than if they
lose hope of getting what they do not have.

Political Conflict Theory: According to this theory, revolutions are a result of struggle for
political power by different groups with varying interests. Discontent and anger on their own
cannot bleed a revolution, but the desire to bring a new political and social arrangement.
According to James Rule and Charles Tilly, when two political authorities rise, everyone’s
loyalty is tested forcing violent confrontation between contending groups. The group that wins
may face resistance from the losing faction which may eventually fall apart leaving few
contenders.

As such, strong governments are necessary to contend and suppress conflicts that can lead to
revolutions.

System Dysfunction Theory: This theory relates causes of revolution to causes of social
change. This theory perceives society as a human body with various parts which are
functionally integrated. If one of the parts is diseased, then the whole body fails to operate
normally.

A political system operates through different component such as the legislature, the executive,
the judiciary and the military. If one of these components becomes dysfunctional, the whole
21
system crumbles and becomes dysfunctional leading to a possible uprising and revolution by
members of the social group.

Critics to the System Dysfunction Theory, contend that this theory does not state the extent or
severity of the system imbalance that can lead to a revolution. This is because, nearly every
system has uncorrected structural defects.

ACTIVITY
1. What is a revolution?
2. How does a revolution differ from other forms of social conflict?
3. Describe the three theories of revolution with clear examples.
4. State the point of criticism against the Systems Dysfunction Theory.

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 UNIT 4: SOURCES OF SOCIAL CONFLICT

4.0 Introduction
This unit is about the sources of social conflict. Social conflict is caused by different factors.
Some believe that there are genetic or biological causes of conflict, others say frustrations can
make people engage in violence. Denial of basic needs and unequal distribution of life chances
can as well lead to conflict situations. Under this unit you will appreciate the various scholarly
works regarding the causes or sources of conflict.

4.0.1 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Discuss the various general sources of social conflict
 Explain the specific causes of conflict

4.1 Human Nature and Violence

Psychologists attribute violence to human nature. For example, Sigmund Freud (1961)
explained the role of the unconscious in the manifestation of destructive behaviour. Death
instinct has the potential to generate aggression. The energy of death instinct is displaced into
outward aggression when thwarted by the life instinct.

Some arguments go to an extent of suggesting that violent behaviour in man is genetically

programmed into human nature (animal in man). Like animals, humans are endowed with fixed
patterns of behaviour oriented towards species preservation. All animals have a way of
protecting themselves from danger and they normally react violently when attacked. Theories
on genetic sources of human behaviour attempt to illustrate that aggression is expressed
spontaneously independent of learning.

However, biologically it is observed that animals of the same specie rarely engage in
aggression. Instead they tend to protect each other. For instance, if you happen to attack one
bee, then be ready to face the aggression of the bees. The predatory behaviour of animals is
mostly driven by biological needs for survival rather than intra-species aggression. Predation

23
is an inter-species phenomena and many creatures tend to avoid physical harm to the same
species. Fighting within the same species only results from rivalry over resources such as
breeding space, and it does not necessarily end up in killing, (Harcourt, 1991). Human beings
are one of very few species that kill each other.

4.2 Frustration and Aggression

Sometimes violence is a result of frustration when people are blocked or prevented from
pursuing their goals in life. According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, human beings
naturally become aggravated when they are prevented from achieving what they desire. Human
beings are naturally goal oriented organisms. A natural build-up of blocked energy is released
and normally directed towards the source of frustration. According to Dollard et al. (1939), an
external stimulation releases inherent tendencies of the frustrated agent to attack given that
violence is induced by frustration associated with certain situations. A good example is when
politicians resort to violence because their desire to win power is thwarted or prevented by their
opponents or competitors.

Societal stress and violence can be generated by frustrated expectations related to rapid
urbanisation or economic depression. However, the extent to which frustration generate
aggression is uncertain (Gossip, 1993:55). Human behaviour is affected by a social
environment, and frustrated feelings can be controlled through various adaptation mechanisms.
People can be educated to behave differently. Cultural settings also influence patterns of
behaviour as demonstrated by the experiences of non-aggressive societies. As such, mind set
(attitude) change is necessary in preventing aggression.

4.3 Psychoanalytic Perspectives

Psychoanalysis deals with the mind. There is a narrow definition of group boundaries and sharp
distinction between friends and enemies. The tendency of creating opposing groups causes
conflict in the sense that one group is perceived as an enemy of the other through an
unconscious psychological process. From the psychoanalytic point of view, the perception of
an enemy is formulated in a way to protect oneself from contamination by the possible

24
boomeranging (return) of psychic content. Another group is perceived as carrying unacceptable
psychic content previously built into unconscious mechanisms (Volkan, 1990:82).
Stereotypical images of our enemy are created by projecting our own unwanted psychic
material on the opposing groups. In group dynamics, the most hated aspects of ourselves and
our own group are transferred to other groups depicted as enemies, (Mack, 1990:122).

The analysis of intergroup hatred may be understood by focussing on a psychological process

of creating group distinctiveness. However, it is a simplistic assumption to hold that in-group
solidarity and out-group hostility are based on fears generated by psychic mechanisms during
our childhood. Our images of the outward world (friend enemy relations) change as we grow
through learning experiences and adult socialisation processes.

4.4 Relative Deprivation

Relative deprivation results from the combined effect of rising expectations and a lack of
progress towards demands for a better life. People generally expect value from their societies
based on the value of their capabilities. Value expectations lead people to believe that they are
rightfully entitled to certain goods and better conditions of life. An intolerable gap between
anticipated reality and the manifest reality of life conditions serves as a precondition for
widespread unrest. According to Davies (1971), it is the dissatisfied state of the mind rather
than the tangible supply of goods or social conditions that produce political instability and
violence. When people do not expect more than they can achieve, they tend to be less discontent
with what they have. Rising expectations increase the intensity of feelings of deprivation.

In general, the expected ability to satisfy basic material and social needs rises
disproportionately to what society is able to and does deliver. Disproportionate allocation of
benefits combined with poor economic performance generates anger and emotional function.
A reference to what other groups are enjoying brings about more intense level of
dissatisfaction. For example, resentment results from a belief that government suppresses
opportunities to maintain legitimate gains. Violent uprising are likely to take place when
people’s desire and wants grow further away from what they actually obtain.

25
4.5 Basic Needs Perspective

The satisfaction of basic needs is a requirement for human development as well as for social
and physical survival. Needs, and not nature, provide factual, objective and rational criteria for
analysing and evaluating an emergent social situation that may contain the potential for
generating conflict. The lack of biological needs causes an imbalance in the individual’s life
supporting systems and can cause death. Food and shelter are important for physical survival.
Biological and physical needs are intertwined with the mental requirements in the satisfaction
of other needs. Basic needs contain more than just physiological dimensions. They include
such primary emotions such as fear, anger, depression and happiness. Psychological needs are
linked to socially produced wants, desires or preferences. As such, people can suffer from
damage to self-esteem as much as from a lack of food or shelter. Fear, violence, unemployment
and marginalisation generate conditions for human misery.

The struggle to satisfy basic needs is a key motivational factor behind human behaviour and
social interaction. When basic needs are fully satisfied, people tend to be peaceful and live in
harmony with each other and with the environment. Otherwise emotions are affected with the
dissatisfaction of basic needs leading to possible aggression and conflict.

The legitimacy of an authority can be established by the creation of institutions that serve the
needs of everyone. Power, economic inequality and social injustice need to be reduced to
overcome obstacles to basic needs. Leftist insurgents in El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico and
Peru were facilitated by the denial of opportunities for decent economic and social life. Many
other violent conflicts in the 20th Century can be attributed to insufficient provision and
suppression of human needs.

4.6 Identity Formation

Group identity formation and is explained by primordialism and social constructivism. In

primordial theories, a group is turned into a natural community by common bonds shared by
group members. Individuals belong to groups through primordial ties of blood, language and
customs. Belonging to a group gives an individual a sense of identity and a feeling of safety

26
and protection. The common bonds tend to unite people of the same group and conversely
makes them view other groups as opponents or competitors.

On the other hand, constructivists regard identity as manufactured rather than given. Identity
emerges from a dialectical social interaction. Because identity is produced and reproduced
through social processes, constructivists do not consider ethnic identity fixed as suggested by
primordialists. Communal identity is an outcome of social interaction.

In their struggle for power, competitors tend to identify themselves with some social grouping
(ethnic or religious). They then use that identity, instrumentally, to obtain power. When they
successfully obtain that power, officials manipulate social groups to maintain the power of a
dominant social group and justify discrimination against other groups. The instrumentalist idea
is not exclusive from or incompatible with primordialism in the sense that primordial elements
such as race, kinship, religion, language and regionalism can be used as manipulative
instruments by the ruling elites, (Gashaw, 1993). It is the discriminatory treatment along with
repressive state control that generate group grievances.

4.7 Dynamics in Divided Societies

Inequality in political and economic power between different groups as well as the existence
incompatible religious and ideological convictions is deep rooted in conflict. These differences
create conditions for polarisation and violence. The security of communal identity is affected
by antagonistic perceptions and interactions. Intractable conflict entail disagreement over
values and perception of threat to collective identity. Conflict evolving around identity is
always more protracted and contentious than those over resources.

Group conflict erupt with the mobilization of people against another, mostly, by politicians,
(Ronen, 1998:13). Mobilisation by one group activates responsive counter mobilisation by
other groups in an attempt to defend their interests. One group may perceive that their identity
is threatened by the demand of the other group for recognition of cultural rights and political
status. Group competition is more intense especially during an economic decline that weakens
social fabric. As such, the threat to the expectations or interests of one community can be felt
more sharply following uneven economic development.

27
Insurgent movements may arise when a government which is identified with a particular ethnic
or religious group attempts to impose its own values. For instance, the decision to enforce
Islamic law on non-Islamic areas contributed to the civil war in Sudan. The efforts of the
Ethiopian government to impose its dominant national identity and language on Eritrea
provoked armed resistance that eventually led to the creation of a separate state.

The struggle to control state institutions can also be a source of violent conflict between
opposing groups with significant organisational capabilities. The Nigerian Civil War was
brought about by the exclusion of the Ibos following the capture of the government by a
coalition of parties from the North and West. The feelings of exclusion and inadequate share
of resources made the inhabitants Barotseland in Zambia to start pushing for a secession from
the rest of the country.

The increase in ethno-political conflicts is related to resurgence of ethnic identity accompanied

by political instability as seen in Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia during and after the breakup
of the Soviet Union. Especially when a society is undergoing rapid changes, uncertainties grow
and demands for self-realisation becomes very vocal. In multi-ethnic or multi-cultural societies,
conflict is sustained by discrimination against culturally distinctive groups.

To prevent unrestrained violence against innocent victims, members of different communities

need assistance in recognising shared interests in survival and long term prosperity for the
whole community. Solutions to conflict would eventually have to be grounded in structural or
administrative arrangements that respect cultural and political diversity and autonomy of
different members of society. Unity in diversity is only possible through sustained tolerance.

4.8 Specific Causes of Social Conflict

History: Research has revealed that historical reasons have contributed to emergency of
conflicts in many parts of the world. The conflicts between Christian and Moslems in many
parts of the Middle East have something to do with long standing animosities and mistrust
dating back to the first millennium AD. It is also true that the interpretation of history may
initiate a conflict between people as is the case in Rwanda and Burundi in the Lake Region of

28
East Africa. The reasons for the unresolved conflict between the Lunda and Luvale in Zambia
have something to do with their histories and how they are interpreted today.

Ethnicity: Deep feelings against a group of people that do not belong to your own ethnic
group can ignite deep frustration that can initiate conflicts between two ethnic groups.
Normally, this happens where large groups are excluded from political and economic life on
regional, ethnic or social reasons. Examples of these conflicts, illustrated by successional
conflicts, come from Nigeria where between 1967 – 1970 Biafra, a province dominated by the
Ibo ethnic group temporarily broke off from the country. They accused the Federal Government
of Nigeria for excluding and discriminating against the Ibo people. Katanga (Shaba Province)
region temporarily broke off from the Congo (DRC) immediately after political independence
in 1960 for the same ethnic reasons.

Imbalance of natural resource: In the last 40 years population has increased very fast in
many parts of the world. The increased population has put too much pressure on natural
resources. It has threatened the economic survival of many local people. Such a situation has
created opportunities for conflicts as local people fight for the scarce resources available.
Burundi and Rwanda are good examples of countries where imbalance in the natural resources
has created violent conflicts.

Immigration: In a region where there is high population against few resources, massive
foreign immigration breeds resentments by the host people. In most cases, such a situation
leads to political violence. Examples are found in Central and Western Cote d’voire (Ivory
Coast) where an influx of immigrants has initiated serious xenophobic conflicts.

Economic and export resources: Conflicts are often aimed at controlling or completely
taking over economic and export resources especially in border regions. Boarder states
sometimes fight over a piece of land that is suspected to have (or has confirmed) rich deposits
of minerals. Such interstate conflicts have been recorded in many parts of Africa. For example:
Chad-Libya conflict over the Aouzou Strip in 1973 – 94; Cameroon – Nigeria conflict over the
Bakassi Island until 2004; Mali – Burkina conflict in 1986 and the Ethiopia – Eritrea conflict
in 2001.

29
 Mismanagement of Economic Resources: Conflicts are also started by groups of people
in countries where there is poor governance, corruption and widespread poverty. In such
countries people know that national resources are mismanaged and such realization triggers
serious resentment and political instability leading to conflicts. This is worse where a small
minority controls the state.

Refugees: As a result of many conflicts in Africa, the population of refugees is also

increasing. Large numbers of refugees increase pressure on local resources of host
communities. Sometimes, refugees use these areas as springboards for attacking their
government forces. This result into the invasion of foreign troops into the host communities
and, in so doing, initiating border incidents and fighting. For example, the border incidents that
were experienced between Zambia and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) and between Angola (especially
during the period of UNITA) and Zambia.

Poverty, illiteracy and unemployment: In many Third World Countries poverty and
inequality in accessing goods and services increase tensions that lead to conflicts in urban areas.
It is in the urban areas where there are thousands or millions of the unemployed poor people,
also known as the Lumpen Proletariat (in Zambia commonly called Kaponya) who are
usually easy targets for war recruiters and political extremists.

Injustice: Wherever there is injustice peace will never prevail. This is because injustice,
which manifests itself in many ways, is the source of anger, frustration and resentment to the
existing government. Wars of independence were fought in many parts of the world against the
governments that did not practice justice. Civil wars are civil conflicts that are caused by unjust
practice of the existing governments.

ACTIVITY
1. Briefly discuss the various theoretical underpinnings regarding the causes of conflict.
2. Itemise and explain the specific causes of conflict.

30
 UNIT 5: THEORIES OF SOCIAL CONFLICT

5.0 Introduction
In this unit you will learn that various scholars have attempted to provide a framework for
understanding conflict in terms of causes, conditions under which conflict occur as well as how
conflict can be resolved. Depending on the school of thought which they represent, theoretical
explanations tend to place emphasis on one particular or a set of related theories, while
diminishing the importance or explanatory relevancy of other competing theories. These
theories are not without shortcomings, however, they offer some useful perspectives to the
understanding of conflict as you will observe in the course of studying this unit.

5.0.1 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Describe the various theories of conflict

 Explain how conflict theories apply to conflicts in various parts of the world

5.1 Structural Conflict Theory

This theory is two tiered with two sub-orientation. The first is the Radical Structural Theory
represented by the Marxist dialectical school with exponents like Marx and Engels as well as
Lenin among others. The second is the Liberal Structuralism represented by Ross (1993),
Scarborough (1998) and Galtung (1990).

The main argument of the structural conflict theory is that conflict is built into the particular
ways societies are structured and organised. The theory looks at the social problems like
political and economic exclusion, injustice, poverty, disease, exploitation, inequality and many
others as sources of conflict. Structuralists maintain that conflicts occur because of the
exploitative and unjust nature of human societies, such as domination of one class by another.
Radicals such as Friedrich Engel, Karl Marx, Joseph Lenin and Mao Tse Tung, blame
capitalism for being an exploitative system based on its relations of production and the division

31
of society into proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The exploitation of the proletariat and lower
classes under capitalism creates conflict.

According to Marxists, conflicts will be resolved through a revolution where the bourgeoisie
will be overthrown in a socialist revolution led by the working class. Furthermore, there will
be capitalist internationalism, a situation where workers all over the world unite, and will not
be limited by state boundaries, since the state itself is an artificial creation of the bourgeoisie
to dominate others.

Neo-Marxists such as Andre Gunder Frunk, Walter Rodney, Samir Amin, as well as Emmanuel
Waller Stein, from the school of underdevelopment and dependency, expounded the “World
System Theory”. They seek to explain the reasons for development and underdevelopment,
and why the Third World is not developing. These scholars accuse the world system as being
exploitative thereby retarding development in the Third Word. Colonialism is the reason for
underdevelopment of Africa.

Liberal structuralists like Johan Galtung propounded the theory of negative peace and positive
peace to explain how structural conflicts occur in society. The solution to this conflict is that
contradictions will end in revolution, civil war or some form of violence leading to overthrow
of the exploitative system. Liberal Structuralists call for elimination of structural defects with
policy reforms.

5.2 Realist Theories

Realism is a theory which highlights the inherency and traces the root of conflict to a flaw
(defect or weakness) in human nature which is seen to be selfish and engaging in the pursuit of
personalised self-interest defined as power. The starting point in discussing the realist theory
is the individual level because it borders on the weakness and individualism inherent in human
nature.

Naturally, human beings hold varying competitive interests expressed in conflict when they
engage in pursuit of achieving those interests. The theory of realism has three component parts:
Descriptive Realism sees the world as an arena of conflict; Explanatory Realism seeks to show
that there are genetic defects which push humankind into behaving negatively (Koestler, 1967)

32
and that wars become inevitable because there is no mechanism to stop them from occurring,
(Walt, 1959,232); and Prescriptive Realism which builds on arguments of descriptive and
Explanatory Realisms to say that decision makers have a moral justification to defend their
basic interests and ensure self-preservation using any means necessary.

Realism is a departure from idealism, a theory which believes in a moral and rational political
order based on universally valid abstract principles. Idealism believes that human nature is
malleable and good. To the structural realist, however, the imperfection in the world, namely
conflict, has its roots in forces that are inherent in human nature; human nature is selfish,
individualistic and naturally conflictive. States will always pursue their national interests
defined as power, and such interests will come into conflict with the interests of others leading
to the inevitability of conflict.

Since conflict is inevitable, people should prepare to deal with the outcomes and consequences
rather than wishing that there was no conflict. It is the theory of realism that justifies the
militarisation of international relations and the arms race. The theory is accused of elevating
power and the state to the status of an ideology. However, realism has had tremendous impact
on conflict at international level.

5.3 Biological Theories

The view that humankind is evil by nature has a long tradition. The thinking is that since our
ancestors were instinctively violent, and since we evolved from them, we too must bear
destructive impulses in our genetic makeup. Classical theorists, like Thomas Hobbes, St
Augustine, Multhus and Freud, in their assessment of human nature, expressed the belief that
human beings are driven by a natural instinct to self-preservation. That is why Hobbes
described life in a state of nature as “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.”

According to biological theories, conflict is innate in all social interaction and among all
animals including human beings. This theory is broad in coverage because it incorporates
scholars with biological backgrounds like human physiology, ethnology, socio-biology and
psychology. It argues that human beings are animals, albeit higher species of animals, and
would naturally fight over the things they cherish.

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Even theologians and religious people subscribe to the innate theory because they see inner
weaknesses in humankind by way of sin that brings forth bitterness, violence and conflict. The
whole purpose of religion is to regulate this sinful nature in the relationship between men on
one hand and between men and God on the other hand.

5.4 The Frustration-Aggression Theory

This theory suggests that violent behaviour stems from inability to fulfil human needs. In an
attempt to explain aggression, scholars point to the difference between what people feel they
want or deserve to what they actually get (the want-get relations) and the difference between
the satisfaction of expected need and satisfaction of actual needs, (Davies, 1962:6). When
people’s expectations are not met, they tend to confront those they hold responsible for
frustrating their ambitions. “The greater the discrepancy between what is sought and what is
seem attainable, the greater the chances that anger and violence will result,” (Gurr, 1970:24).

The main explanation that this theory provides is that aggression is not just undertaken as a
natural reaction or instinct as postulated by realists and biological theorists, but that it is the
outcome of frustration and that in a situation where the legitimate desires of an individual is
denied either directly or indirectly, the feeling of disappointment may lead such a person to
express anger through violence that will be directed to those he holds responsible or those who
are directly or indirectly related to them.

In situations where feelings of frustration become widespread among the population and the
feeling is that people are getting less than they deserve, the most advisable thing for political
leaders can do is to find out what the expectations of the people are and to seek ways of
negotiating with them. Most times, however, those in positions of authority believe that giving
in to public demands or entering into negotiations is a sign of weakness. This should not be the
case and sometimes, the fact that an official of the state or community leader is showing some
concern is enough to make people believe that something is being done.

A good example of frustration-aggression relation can be seen in the crises in the Niger Delta
in Nigeria. After waiting and peacefully agitating for what the people of the region considered
a fair share of the oil wealth that is exploited from their land, youths now take the law into their

34
own hands by vandalising oil pipelines, kidnapping oil workers for ransoms and are generally
creating problems for those they believe are responsible for their predicaments.

5.5 Physiological Theories

According to psychological theorists, even though human beings have the capability to be
aggressive, their aggression is only possible if stimulated by necessity or encouraged by
success. Human nature and environment play a major role in aggressive behaviour. Scott
(1958), noted that the expression of aggression has a lot to do with learning. In any real
situation, behaviour will be the result of factors from all levels.

Psychologists seek to understand how the human brain react when people are under stress and
threat. It is psychologically possible for any person to experience conflict between what he or
she is thinking and what he or she is feeling. When violence occurs, the possibility is that it is
being manipulated by a combination of factors within and outside the control of an individual.

5.6 Economic Theories

The economic argument is that, people in conflict are always assumed to be fighting over
something that is material. Greed is at the centre of most conflicts as every person wants to get
something and not the other. According to Collier (2003:4), some people (conflict
entrepreneurs) actually benefit from chaos, while the majority are affected by the negative
impacts of conflict. The leaders of armed formation love to take pecuniary advantage to make
profit from conflict.

Economists argue that, though issues in conflict result from ideological, racial or religious
differences, these represent at the most basic level, a contest for control over economic assets,
resources or systems. Economic theories suggest that exploitative relationships between and
among individuals have the potential of igniting conflict.

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5.7 Psycho-Cultural Conflict Theory

Deep rooted cultural identities have the potential of causing conflict in society. This is because
people learn various ethnic values and attitudes which make them so attached to their culture
to an extent of expressing stereotype towards other cultures.

Avoiding discrimination of other ethnic groups is the best option to avoid ethnic conflict.
Tolerance is key. As much as cultural identities should be preserved and protected, they should
not be a source of aggression.

5.8 Human Needs Theory

This theory makes similar assumption to those made by the Frustration-Aggression and
Relative Deprivation Theories. The main assumption of the Human Needs Theory is that all
humans have basic human needs which they seek to fulfil, and that denial and frustration of
these needs by other groups or individuals could affect them immediately or later, thereby
leading to conflict (Rosati et al. 1990). Basic needs comprise physical, psychological, social
and spiritual needs. To provide access to one need and deny or hinder access to the other will
amount to denial and could make people resort to violence in an effort to protect these needs.

Abraham Maslow, in his 1943 paper, “A Theory of Human Motivation” identified identified
physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love, self-esteem and self-actualisation.
Other scholars also grouped these needs in various other categories. The frustration of these
needs hampers the actualisation of the potentials of groups and individuals, subsequently
leading to conflict. To resolve any conflict situation or prevent it from occurring, these needs
must be met.

5.9 Systemic Theories

The position of systemic theories is that the reasons for any social conflict lie in the social
context within which it occurs. This paradigm turns our attention to social factors and the
effects of changes in social, political and economic processes that guard against instability.

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Systemic factors that lead to changes in material comfort of people include environmental
degradation, uncontrolled population growth, resource scarcity and the negative effects of
colonial and cold war legacies. Breakdown of cherished values and traditions that play crucial
social control functions, widespread poverty, the domination and marginalisation of minority
groups are all examples of systemic causes of conflict.

5.10 Relational Theories

Relational theories provide explanation for violent conflicts between groups by exploring
sociological, political, economic and historical relationships between such groups. The belief
here is that cultural and value differences as well as group interests all influence relationships
between individuals groups in different ways. At the sociological level, differences between
cultural values is a challenge to individual or group identity formation processes and create the
tendency to see others as intruders who have to be prevented from encroaching upon
established cultural boundaries.

Political economy identifies power and the advantages that it confers as a key source of tension
between deferent interest groups within a political system. In situations where multiple groups
share a common resource that is fixed in nature, the chances that each will attempt to eliminate,
neutralise or injure the other or monopolise such a resource is as high as the tendency to enter
into a negative relationship.

A number of conflict grow out of a past history of conflict between groups that has led to the
development of negative stereotypes, racial intolerances and discrimination. Such a history of
negative exchange between groups may make it difficult for efforts to integrate different ethnic
and religious groups within the society to succeed because their past interactions make it
difficult for them to trust one another.

ACTIVITY
1. Itemise and explain the various conflict theories.

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 UNIT 6: CONFLICT ANALYSIS

6.0 Introduction
This unit outlines conflict analysis processes. The unit begins by looking at the meaning of
conflict analysis. It also looks at the reasons for analysing conflict, the components of conflict
analysis and some of the methods of conflict analysis. Conflict analysis seeks to create
frameworks and paradigms for explaining the causes of conflict and a range of methods
available for conflict management, resolution and transformation. Conflict management is not
possible without an effective conflict analysis.

6.0.1 Learning Outcome

After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Express understanding of what conflict analysis is all about
 Describe the various methods of analysing conflicts
 State and explain the components of conflict analysis

6.1 Understanding Conflict Analysis

Analysis is the detailed study of any situation using specific frameworks, paradigms and
methods; or the study of a problem with an aim of bringing about a patterned and systemic
understanding of certain issues under focus. Simon Fisher et al. (2000) describe conflict
analyses as those activities that are undertaken by any persons, directly or indirectly, in order
to know what is going on in a given conflict situation. An analysis is key to opening up the
problem being studied, and should help towards providing more clarity about what is
happening in a particular conflict. Without proper understanding of the conflict, it would be
difficult to provide any solution to it. As such conflict management would be in jeopardy.

Conflict analysis helps to identify the various components in a conflict. These may include the
background (historical context), time lines, parties involved, perspectives of the parties, the
positions, interests and needs of the parties, the causes and possible alternatives to conflict
management.

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6.2 Methods of Conflict Analysis
There are different tools for conflict analysis. These tools are graphical presentation of a
conflict situation in a way that brings out the parties, the causes and the nature of relationship
between parties. These tools include case studies, Fact finding or analysis meetings.

Case Studies: A case study is a specific research subjected to rigour, methodology and
procedure aimed at bringing out different peculiar properties to a problem under study. The
logic of case studies is that without properly grasping and analysing a conflict situation,
intervention and other attempts aimed at peace building and conflict transformation would not
yield required results.

Fact Finding: as a method of analysing conflict, fact finding is less thorough than case studies
and could be done over a shorter period of time. Fact findings are meant to give quick
information for intervention, clarity of doubtful areas and to help create understanding about
what is going on in the conflict. Using fact findings, it is easy to understand the parties to the
conflict and who should be dealt with in a bid to de-escalate and transform conflict.

Analysis Meetings: These meetings include workshops aimed at analysing conflict before
intervention. Often, analysis workshops are used to validate case study researches and conflict
fact finding reports and to also decide on the need for intervention. Analysis meetings are used
to select the parties to work with, assess potential dangers and stimulate future attempts to
transform conflicts.

Mapping: This involves the use of particular conventions that describe what is happening in a
given conflict. They range from both primary and secondary parties and their relative spheres
of influence and power, that is, whether some parties are more influential than others or if they
are of equal strength and whether the parties are connected and have alliances or not. Mapping
highlights the topic and the issue in the conflict, as well as things other than people that make
an impact on the conflict. It includes the nature of the relationship between parties, such as
whether relations are close, fairly close, intermittent, cordial, discordant and conflictive, etc.

The Onion/Doughnut Method: this method is used to show that conflict has many layers and
what happens on the surface is only a small element of the conflict. Most conflicts, like an

39
onion, have many layers, and the conflict analyst is expected to unravel these layers to get to
the innermost part of the conflict where the needs and fears of the parties lie.

The onion method illustrates the positions of parties in the outer part of the onion, the interests
in the middle layer and the needs and fears at the centre of the onion. The needs include identity,
security, access to political processes and recognition among others.

The Attitude, Behaviour and Context (ABC) Method: This methods illustrates conflict as
having three inter-related component which include the situation (context), behaviour and
attitude. This is illustrated in the form of a triangle with context at the top while behaviour and
attitude lie on the bottom left and right respectively. Negative attitude due to frustration leads
to possible negative behaviour which can easily cause competition and conflict.

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Conflict behaviour is specific actions of the parties directed against other parties to stop them
from achieving their goals. The ABC method could also be used by conflict analysts to describe
the attitudes, behaviour and causes of conflict. In this case, the attitudes of conflict parties
translate into their behaviour, and these cause the conflict. If these attitudes are negative, the
accompanying behaviour will be negative, leading to a possible confrontational conflict
situation. These three reinforce each other and cause conflict. The strand of ABC analysis is
helpful for conflict transformation and resolution, where the concern should be focused on
removing the underlying causes of conflict, which will in turn lead to more positive attitudes
and behaviours from conflict parties.

The Conflict Tree: This method is used to analyse intra-group conflicts in particular. The
conflict tree is a graphic tool that uses the images of a tree to present key conflict issues and
analyses conflict through identification of the root causes, the core problem, the effects and
consequences of the conflict. The sources of the conflict are found at the root of the tree, while
the manifestation are at the leaves and the branches.

The Pyramid/Island Method: This method of conflict analysis is used to separate underlying
causes of conflict, usually not visible, from the positions and interests of parties. It uses the
image of two islands protruding from the sea, in form of a pyramid. The islands are united
under the sea, but as they project above the sea level, they look separate and the separation
expands further as they get higher. At the top of the islands is what may be termed as the
positions of the parties which are normally parallel to each other. Below are the interests of the
parties which get closer, but are still apart. Beneath the sea are the needs and fears of the parties
and it is at this point that the common grounds may be found, since the parties have much in
common that unites them at that point.

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6.3 The Components of Conflict Analysis
Every conflict situation has a number of contexts and properties. The three closely related
properties of conflict analysis include the context of the conflict, the stages of the conflict and
the timelines.

Background and Context of the Conflict

Conflict analysis begins by creating and describing the background to any conflict situation.
This is based on the assumption that every conflict has specific context, history and
background. The parties and the issues emerge from certain historical, political and social
contexts. It is critical to understand this background. People define who they are based on the
history as well as shared culture and values. It is these values that sometimes come into
conflicts with those of others.

The context of any conflict is better understood by taking into consideration the three related
dimensions: the distant past, the immediate past and the current events. This is because the
historical background of events is important in understanding the current events in conflict.

The Stages of the Conflict

Each conflict has dynamics, characterised by different stages and phases of change and
transformation. This is because conflict is not a static phenomenon but it is expressive, dynamic
and dialectical (Lederach 1997:65). Simon Fisher et al (2000) identify five stages of conflict
1. The Pre-Conflict Stage: This is a period when goals between conflicting parties are
incompatible. At this stage, the conflict is not well known because parties try to hide it
from the public view, but communication is undermined between them.
2. The Confrontation Stage: This is the stage at which conflict manifests (becomes
open). It is characterised by occasional fighting, low level violence, search for allies,
mobilisation of resources, strained relations and polarisation.
3. The Crisis Stage: This stage represents the peak of the conflict. In violent conflict, this
is the stage of war and intense fighting.
4. The Outcome Stage: This is a stage at which one party wins the battle or a ceasefire is
declared. This stage is reached when a third party is introduced to intervene to stop the
fight or when one party surrenders. The critical issue at this stage is that the violence is
decreased, which allows room for discussions to commence or alternative means of
settling the conflict are identified.
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 5. The Post-Conflict Stage: At this stage, violence has either ended or significantly
reduced and the parties have gone past the crisis stage. This is the stage to address the
underlying causes of the conflict and those incompatible goals which created the
conflict. If they are not tackled at this stage, the conflict cycle may be re-enacted and a
return to pre-conflict stage, with consequent re-eruption of violence is a possibility.

Conflict Timelines
The stages of conflict can be used along with timelines to analyse conflict. A timeline is a
simple tool that presents a chronology of a conflict situation, tracing events back to their distant
past including major events along the time continuum that affect the conflict. These may
include unsuccessful efforts put in to transform the conflict.

In analysing conflict, the back ground to the conflict, the stages of the conflict and timelines
relate very closely and greatly enhance an understanding of the conflict within appropriate
historical and social contexts.

Perspectives of the Conflict

A conflict perspective is a particular interpretation and understanding of a conflict, usually by

parties involved, but also by independent observers, of what is happening in that conflict.
Perspectives are normally standpoints, beliefs, values and views that the parties to a conflict
and other people hold about conflict. Often, perspectives are competing and conflictive because
they spring from the interest and positions as well as historical background of parties. Some
perspectives may spring from the needs of the parties. Analysts should be able to identify areas
of agreement between the perspectives of the conflicting parties. Such agreements could be
useful common grounds that could assist the process of conflict transformation.

Parties to the Conflict

Any conflict analyst must attempt to identify and ascertain the parties to a conflict. Parties are
individuals, groups or/and entities who take part in the conflict directly or indirectly based on
their interests. Direct parties are those whose interests, positions and needs are being
threatened. Indirect parties are allies and friends who may also have long term secondary
interests in the conflict situation.

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There are two main categories of parties in any given conflict situation. The first are the ones
that may be called the “Primary Parties” which are considered to be the most visible and
commonly known parties in a conflict. The second category of parties is referred to as the
“shadows” which are indirect secondary parties and not very visible in the conflict. Their
involvement is usually by proxy rather than directly and from a distance. Shadows complicate
the conflict situations mostly because it is difficult to identify them and their roles in any given
conflict. In nearly all social conflict, there are shadow parties. It is necessary for conflict
analysis to capture these parties so that plans for conflict transformation will include such
parties. If this is not done, there would be a gap that could derail peace plans.

Positions Interests, Needs and Fears

In most conflicts, the different parties pursue either one or a combination of the above factors
whether consciously or unconsciously. Identifying and highlighting the positions, interests,
needs and fears of the parties is helpful for conflict analysis especially if such analysis is to be
used for intervention in a conflict.

The positions are those tough stands that parties in a conflict take. Parties take different
positions depending on their fears and what they know will protect their interests. Parties
mostly take protective and defensive positions. Beyond the positions, there are interests.
Interests are values pursued by individuals and groups in a conflict. They represent immediate
and distant benefits or gains which accrue to the parties. Parties seldom make known their
interests in a conflict

Beyond positions and interests are needs and fears of the parties. Needs, though being least
visible and least discussed, are what each party must have. They are usually discovered and
identified through careful analysis of conflict and dialogue sessions between parties. Fears are
conditions which make parties anxious and create uncertainty and threats. Normally individuals
and groups become defensive against the things that threaten their values, identity, security and
any privileges they may enjoy.

Lessons from Failures and Successes

Conflict analysis serves as a learning process in the sense that it helps us to learn from past
mistakes. If in the past, efforts aimed at addressing a conflict situation were unsuccessful, it is
easy to identify the mistakes made and thus improve in future engagement.
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Gender
Gender in conflict analysis is about the effect of conflict on both men and women. Many times
we associate gender to women. It is important to understand that men and women are affected
differently by conflict situations and as such it is not right to generalise that what happens to
men also happens to women.

Conflict management strategies must take into account gender perspectives. Men and women
are sometimes targeted in a conflict for different reasons as such analysing the gender
perspective of conflict is essential.

6.4 Conclusion
Conflict analysis occupies a primary place in the interpretation and transformation of conflict.
It is a skill that all conflict workers and civic educators need to acquire. It is a systematic way
of dissecting conflicts in a way that is helpful to the conflict workers and parties. Conflict
analysis, like any other science, is not static. More properties, perspectives and methods are
expected to emerge with the passage of time.

ACTIVITY
1. Explain what you understand by conflict analysis.
2. List and briefly explain the various methods of conflict analysis.
3. Discuss the stages in the conflict analysis process.

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 UNIT 7: METHODS OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND TRANSFORMATION

7.1 Introduction
This unit outlines the various methods of resolving, managing and transforming conflicts. You
must be aware that the management of conflict using peaceful, non-violent methods has been
around for a long time. In nearly all African societies, there is a preference for peaceful
settlement of disputes along the lines prescribed by institutions and values of the community.
You know that violence is normally frowned at. In all civilised societies of the world, there is
growing resort to peaceful settlement of disputes. There is an increase in the amount of peaceful
and non-violent settlement of disputes taking place at various levels and in many communities
all over the world. Hence this unit is devoted to making you understand the various ways of
handling conflict situations.

There is a wide range of non-violent methods of managing conflict. These methods are
available at individual, family, group, community, national and international levels. These
methods exist in two broad categories which include proactive and reactive. The proactive
category entails methods that aim to prevent the occurrence of conflict. Examples include
undocumented community based trust and confidence building measures, communication,
good governance, inter-party collaboration and many others. The reactive category deals with
responses to situations that have already turned conflictive. These include third party
interventions like mediation, brokerage, conciliation, arbitration, and litigation among others.
It is important to note that there are alternatives to violence, aggression and confrontation.

7.0.1 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, students should be able to:

 Define the terms conflict resolution, conflict management, conflict transformation and
conflict suppression
 Describe the various methods of resolving conflicts
 Explain how peace can be promoted in society

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7.1 Definition of Some Basic Terms

Conflict Resolution: According to Miller (2003), conflict resolution means a variety of

approaches aimed at terminating conflicts through the constructive problem solving
mechanisms distinct from management or transformation of conflict. Miall et al (2001:2),
indicates that by conflict resolution, it is expected that the deep rooted sources of conflict are
addressed and resolved, and behaviour is no longer violent, nor are attitudes hostile any longer,
while the structure of the conflict has been changed. Some people may use the term conflict
resolution to refer to a specialised field of study and practice. It is a principle that connotes the
finality or the end of a conflict after the parties are satisfied with the outcome of the settlement
and the conflict is permanently resolved.

Conflict Management: This is a process of reducing the negative and destructive capacity of
conflict through a number of measures and by working with and through the parties involved
in the conflict. The term conflict management is synonymous with conflict regulation. It covers
the entire area of handling conflicts positively at different stages, including those efforts made
to prevent conflict, by being proactive. Conflict management is necessary in containing
conflicts. The term conflict management seems to lead to admission of the reality that conflict
is inevitable and as such should be regulated.

Conflict Transformation: This is a measure which goes beyond conflict resolution to build
longer standing relationship through a process of change in perception and attitudes of the
parties. “The aim of conflict transformation is to change the parties, their relationships and the
conditions that created the conflict,” (Miall et al, 2001). It entails the coming into being of new
situations involving conflict issues, perception, relationships and communication patterns.

Conflict Suppression: This portrays the unwillingness of more powerful parties, or stronger
interveners who have the ability to transform or manage a conflict situation, to take necessary
measures leading to the management or resolution of the conflict. Instead they use instruments
of power or force to push away the issues under the carpet or to impose a solution that is not
sustainable and with which parties are not normally satisfied. Governments and repressive
regimes are usually guilty of this situation by declining to take appropriate decisions.
Sometimes the state uses its coercive apparatus to suppress conflicts though this is normally
unsustainable.

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7.2 Methods of Conflict Resolution

Here are the various methods of resolving conflict in society:

Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)

The idea of Alternative Dispute Resolution is about the search for, and application of non-
conventional peaceful methods of settling disputes and solving conflict situations using the
least expensive methods, and in ways that satisfy the parties, as well as ways that preserve
relationships after a settlement might have been reached. ADR is especially meant to serve as
an alternative to official conventional means of settling disputes, mainly through litigation and
the courts, but with preference for non-violence.

Conflict resolution and transformation consists of voluntary and involuntary processes. The
voluntary processes are those in which parties have some control over the outcome. These
include fact finding, in depth research and case studies, facilitation, negotiation, conciliation,
mediation and brokerage. The involuntary processes on the other hand, are more often than
not, outside control of the parties to the conflict. Even though they may be non-violent, the
third parties who broker the processes may sometimes hand down the outcomes, which the
parties have to accept either in principle or in law. These options include arbitration,
adjudication, and law enforcement (crisis management) using the coercive apparatus of state.

African Traditional Dispute Resolution

African cultural and religious diversity affects the approaches to dispute and conflict resolution
in the traditional setting. Generally, the approach tends to differ from the Western alternative
dispute resolution approaches. Even within Africa, the approach may differ from one culture
to the other. The universal religions of Christianity and Islam have also impacted on the
approaches used in Africa the same way they have impacted on the culture of the people. in
Islamic societies, the religion comprehensively prescribes the way conflicts involving believers
are to be resolved. In that case, pre-Islamic methods of dispute resolution would be
significantly eroded as typified by the situation in the Hausa community of northern Nigeria.

There are various conflict situations in Africa ranging from those involving property, land,
family, marriage, communities, inter and intra religion conflicts. Mostly these conflicts have

48
roots in traditional settings characterised by two categories of social formation. There are those
characterised by centralised authoritarian and state systems.

Authoritarian systems are those headed by the traditional leaders such as the Kings or chiefs.
In such settings, conflict resolution takes the form of judicial arbitration with limited use of
negotiation and mediation. The state system in pre-colonial Africa is the segmented system
also referred to as the “egalitarian” political system. It involved such elements as the use of
neutral ground for conflict resolution, the non-involvement of women in preference of adult
males and the preparatory process.

Christianity, Islam and modernisation have affected the traditional processes. These days,
prayers are offered at every session aimed at discussing conflict matters. The use of
icebreakers, proverbs and introductory sessions are also part of the dispute resolution processes
in Africa.

The Western Alternative Dispute Resolution

In the Western sense, conflict management seeks to promote the use of non-violent approaches
to conflict. These processes for conflict management are however not peculiar to western
culture, but are also shared by other cultures across the globe in form of the collaborative
process based on the concept of shared humanity. The collaborative process involves the
following elements for conflict management.

Grassroots Community Based Activities: Proactive activities help to de-escalate potential

conflict and to keep conflicts from manifesting. Long held traditions and cultures promote the
human spirit, community life, togetherness and clustering of groups thereby downplaying
possible conflicts. For instance village festivals like marriage ceremonies, initiation
ceremonies, community markets and even death rites are community based activities which
hold people together by creating social bonding.

Good Governance: Good governance is at the heart of conflict prevention. It entails the
running of the affairs of government in positive and progressive manners beneficial to the
governed and which delivers public goods. Good governance is a relative term characterised
by democratisation, maintenance of law and order, transparency and accountability,
responsiveness, rule of law, competence, separation and devolution of powers, a free press,

49
free civil society arena and respect for human rights. Good governance helps to diffuse tension
and remove problems as they evolve. Decision makers take right decisions at the right time
thereby gaining citizen support. Many times conflicts are generated by states or governments
as a result of insensitivity and incompetence of the regimes. Dictatorial tendencies among many
regimes are conflict generators.

Communication: This is the process of exchanging information between individuals, groups

and potential conflict parties. It involves interaction and relating with each other. Sharing of
information can help to remove doubt, suspicion and contribute to the process of confidence
building. These are essential ingredients of peace building. All information about a conflict
situation must be accurately shared and talked about. The role of communication in conflict
prevention and crisis management stems from the fact that most conflicts have to do with
perceptions, assumptions, stereotype and attitudes, which may have been developed by conflict
parties.

Collaboration: This process helps parties to work together on their own to resolve problems
through constructive dialogue or other activities like joint projects and sharing community
facilities. Collaboration helps to build trust, confidence and mutual respect as conflict parties
work together. It takes place at various levels, from inter personal to the group, community,
national, regional to the international levels. It is assumed that those who collaborate and work
together, are more likely to build more friendship and mutual respect among themselves. This
approach is one of the best methods of maintaining friendly relations and is least costly.
Cooperation helps to lead to collaborative activities that support peace building. Like
communication, collaboration does not involve third parties and as such, it is within the reach
and control of the participating parties.

Negotiation: This is “a structured process of dialogue between conflicting parties about issues
in which their opinions differ,” (Fisher et al 2000:115). Negotiation is held to help the
conflicting parties seek to settle or resolve their conflicts. It is a direct process of dialogue and
discussion taking place between at least two parties faced with a conflict situation or dispute.
Both parties realise that they have a problem and that there is need to talk to each other in order
to reach a compromised solution. The goal of negotiation, according to Jeong (2000), is to
reach an agreement through point decision making between two parties.

Negotiation can only take place when there is a communication between parties. It mostly
involves a give and take situation in the process. Negotiation takes place during the early stages

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of conflict when communication between is existent or at the de-escalation point when
communication has been restored.

There are two types of negotiation; Positional and Collaborative negotiation. Positional
negotiation is based on the aggressive pursuit of interests by parties, and is typically adversarial
and competitive. Parties make demands that are inconsiderate of the interests and needs of
others making it difficult for these needs to be met. Parties perceive themselves as competitors.
As such, the desire is to win instead of working towards a mutually beneficial outcome. Thus,
the demands of one party can be met only to the detriment of the other. Parties tend to
stubbornly adhere to their positions, and one side seems to dominate the negotiation. Positional
negotiations break down easily. Collaborative negotiation, on the other hand, is a constructive
process where parties try to educate each other about the needs and concerns, and both search
for the best ways to resolve their problems in ways that ensure that the interests and fears of all
parties are met. The process is collaborative in principle and the emphasis is on mutual
understanding and feeling, aimed at building sustainable relationship. However, it is important
to note that not all parties on the negotiation table are interested in mutual outcomes. Self-
interest remains a stubborn hindrance to negotiation.

Negotiation has universal application as a principle of conflict management based on dialogue.

However, some cultural peculiarities may hinder negotiation in some societies. These could
include such factors as age difference, community perceptions, the psychological impact of the
negotiation outcomes, relationships and the subject matter.

Conciliation: This is a third party activity which covers intermediary efforts aimed at
persuading the parties to a conflict to work towards peaceful solutions. It involves facilitation.
Conciliation is regarded as a voluntary referral of a conflict to a neutral external party which
can either suggest a non-binding settlement or conduct explorations to facilitate conflict
resolution.

Mediation: This is a voluntary, informal, non-binding process undertaken by an external party

to foster the settlement of differences or demands between conflicting parties. Mediation
requires that conflicting parties admit that they have a problem which they are both committed
to solving, but in which the mediator manages a negotiation process, but does not impose a
solution on the parties. The objective of mediation is to help the parties to a conflict, within an
environment of controlled communication, to reach a solution to their problem. Mediation
involves dialogue, but is different because of the presence of a third party.

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The mediator helps to create an enabling environment for the parties to carry out dialogue
sessions leading to the resolution of a pending conflict. Generally, the mediator works on
communication between parties. The mediator helps parties to identify and arrive at common
grounds with a view of overcoming their fears and satisfying their real needs. It is also
important to note that the mediator should enjoy the confidence of both parties.

Arbitration: This is also a third party intervention that is a little higher than mediation in the
spectrum of conflict management. By definition, arbitration is the use of a neutral third party
in conflict, who hears the evidence from both parties, and thereafter, renders a decision, usually
called an award, which binding on the parties.

Arbitration is similar to mediation, and close to adjudication, but different from both. It is
different from mediation in the sense that the decision of the arbitrator is binding, while the
mediator refrains from reaching any decision. It is different from litigation (adjudication) in
the sense that arbitration is done outside the court, and its enforcement mechanisms differ from
those of court judgements. Unlike the court judges, the arbitrator (arbiter) is elected by the
parties according to their wish.

Much of the third party interventions are done through arbitration. Arbitrators are chosen based
on their positions in society. These mostly include traditional leaders, former presidents or
religious leaders.

Adjudication: This is another non-violent method of conflict management. It involves the use
of the courts and litigation processes. Parties to a dispute may choose to take the matter to court
of law before a judge of competent jurisdiction. The parties may be represented by legal
counsels. At the end of the process, the courts passes judgement which is legally binding on
both parties. Such judgement can sometimes be enforced by law enforcement agencies of the
state.

Like arbitration, adjudication is expected to be a peaceful means of resolving conflict and

disputes. However, the peace is only relative because litigation tends to destroy trust, love,
respect and other forms of creating confidence between parties. It increases suspicion, and the
bitterness that comes out of a loss of litigation lingers on for a long time after judgement.
Litigation ends in a win-lose outcome, where the winner mostly takes all, while the loser ends
up with nothing. In addition, litigations take a long time to dispose of, and they are expensive.

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Crisis Management: A crisis is a situation when conflict has reached extreme levels where, if
no critical decisions are taken, the conflict escalates to a point of extreme violence. Sometimes,
a crisis is a degenerated state of conflict characterised by threats to human security, intense
violence (fighting, injury and death) and displacements. Once a crisis occurs, it is a
responsibility of government to de-escalate the situation and bring a cessation to violence. This
may be done through various means, including the use of the coercive state apparatus, such as
the Military, where necessary.

Crisis management comes in to resolve the complete breakdown in the law and order due to
conflict. Normally, in such situations, the parties lose control of the situation and the law
enforcement agencies are assigned to contain the situation. This sometimes leads to violation
of human rights as the military and police services display highhandedness, excesses and
unprofessional conduct in these exercises.

7.3 Methods of Promoting Peace

Peace is very central and important to human affairs and development. Without peace,
development suffers. Peace is a basic requirement of development. Many investors wishing to
promote or introduce development require peace as a pre-requisite. Therefore, peace and
development often go together. There are various methods by which peace may be promoted
and brought about. The methods vary depending on the level at which peace should be
promoted. Peace may be among individual persons, married couples, families, small
communities, ethnic groups, nations or regions. Peace is also required at the global level.

The following are some of the methods of promoting peace:

Intermarriages – among people of different ethnic groupings, intermarriages are a good method
for promoting peace. Some chiefs in the past used to ‘send’ some of their subjects or children
to go and marry into a foreign tribe as a means of forging friendship.

Friendship – making friends with people secures peace and there are different degrees of
friendship which could be created among people of different locations or origins. Among some
ethnic groups, a deliberate process of exchanging human blood in a ritual is conducted. This is
called sikwamanyinga in Lozi. This act of friendship making is so strong that peace among
such people is guaranteed for ever.

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Reciprocity – This is a process where two or more different people exchange gifts or favours
in a mutual manner. When one person gets a gift, he/she gives something back in appreciation.

Mutual Aid – This type of creating peace involves exchanging help, assistance or aid in time
of problems. When one person or group of people are experiencing problems, the other people
come in to give help. At some other time, the person or people who gave help may themselves
experience problems, at which time they may be assisted by the person or people who were
assisted last time. In this regard, the assistance is being mutually exchanged or interchanged.

Forgiveness – When somebody has committed an offence and people become kind enough to
forgive such a person, peace can be generated. But often, a pre-requisite to forgiveness is
apology and humility on the part of the offender.

Tolerance – This refers to a way of living with and accepting different or opposing viewpoints.

This process often creates peace because people expressing different viewpoints are assured of
being accepted and not condemned or punished.

Respect – This is very fundamental. It involves respecting other people’s cultures, opinions,
ideas, beliefs, religions, languages and human nature in general. African cultures emphasize
respect.

Justice – This refers to being fair and not being segregative in the manner we relate to other
people. In this way, complaints which could lead to conflicts may be reduced.

ACTIVITY
1. Giving clear examples, explain the following terms:
i. Conflict management
ii. Conflict resolution
iii. Conflict transformation
iv. Conflict suppression
2. Distinguish between the African traditional conflict resolution methods and the
Western conflict resolution methods.
3. Describe Alternative Disputes Resolution.

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 REFERENCES
Best G. S (2004). Introduction to Peace and Conflict Studies. Spectrum Books Limited:
Ibadan.

Coser L. et al (1983). Introduction to sociology. Harcourt Brace J. Inc: New York.

Galtung J. ‘Cultural Violence’, Journal of Peace Research, 27:3 (1990)

Jeong H. (2000). Peace and Conflict Studies: An Introduction. Ashgate Publishing Company:
England.

Miller C. E (2005). A Glossary of Terms and Concepts in Peace and Conflict Studies.
University for Peace Africa Programme: Addis Ababa.

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