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com

CHAPTER 28

Perspectives
on Invertebrate
Phylogeny

© Cambridge University Library/CC BY-NC 3.0

B
y the time you have gotten to this chapter, you will have “toured” almost
all of the Animal Kingdom, given that invertebrates comprise roughly
96% of all described, living animal species. What an incredible diversity
of form and function you have seen! Isn’t it curious how unevenly these ani-
mals are distributed across the 31 metazoan phyla? Vastly unevenly distrib-
uted—82% of all described animals are arthropods, 5% are molluscs, and only
4% are chordates. The other 28 phyla make up the remaining 9%! Six phyla have
fewer than 100 described species in them, and half of those have fewer than a
dozen known species. What are we to make of this? In fact, only 6 phyla com-
prise more than 1% each of the described animal species on Earth (Arthropoda,
Mollusca, Annelida, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, and Chordata). It would seem
that the world belongs to insects, crustaceans, spiders, molluscs, worms, and
vertebrates. Indeed, these are the only animals most humans ever see in their
lifetimes (unless they happen to go diving on a tropical coral reef, in which case
they are confronted by myriad sponges, cnidarians, and echinoderms). How
fortunate that you have now been introduced to all 31 animal phyla, even the
smallest and least understood groups.
In reading the “animal chapters” of this text, you have learned a good deal
about the evolution of these 31 phyla, how they are related to one another, and
what their internal relationships are. You have learned that phylogenies can
be constructed from a variety of different kinds of data and that most recently
the field of molecular phylogenomics (phylogenetics based on large amounts
of genomic data) has proliferated, giving us new ideas about how Earth’s crea-
tures are related to one another. The idea of phylogenetic trees should now be
quite familiar to you. But let’s take one last look, a “higher view” of animal
phylogeny, before we close the cover on this fourth edition of Invertebrates.
Molecular phylogenetics had only just begun to bear fruit in 2002, when the
second edition of this book went to press. While some tantalizing suggestions of
new and very different kinds of relationships among the animal phyla had been
suggested, these new hypotheses had not yet been broadly tested. Since then,
molecular phylogenetics has exploded onto the scene at a pace never imag-
ined, and it now plays the primary role in reconstructing animal phylogeny. In
just the past 20 years we have come from analyzing a few ribosomal genes to
the point where new genome-level analyses are being published almost daily.
Molecular phylogenetics is now being incorporated into studies of ecology,
oceanography, biogeography, conservation biology, medicine, archeology, and
anthropology. And it is building a new framework for the tree of life.

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 936 Chapter 28

Unraveling the phylogenetic history of the animal the embryonic layering process called gastrulation.
kingdom has been one of biology’s great challenges. Also, unlike coloniality, as seen in many protist groups
The “new phylogeny,” built with molecular data, has (including choanoflagellates), in metazoans the epithe-
many similarities to older trees built on morphological lial cells are in contact with each other through unique
and developmental data, but some big surprises have junction structures and molecules, some of which make
emerged and many uncertainties remain. The biggest transport of nutrients between cells possible (e.g., sep-
challenge lies in the fact that life’s deep lineages arose tate or tight junctions, desmosomes, zonula adherens).
and began to diverge from one another so long ago, Additional metazoan apomorphies include striate
over half a billion years ago for most phyla. So the myofibrils, actin-myosin contractile elements, the pos-
traits of animals, whether anatomical or genetic, that session of animal (type IV) collagen (although collagen,
might be useful in revealing relationships among these or a collagen homologue, also occurs in some fungi),
ancient lineages are often obscured by hundreds of mil- and a basal lamina beneath the epidermis. In addition,
lions of years of evolutionary change. But, despite this, sexual reproduction in animals involves a distinct pat-
many relationships are now well resolved. tern of egg development from one of the four cells of
Early molecular phylogenetic studies relied heav- meiosis, whereas the other three cells degenerate.
ily on the 18S ribosomal RNA gene (also known as Figure 28.1 is a working hypothesis of metazoan
the nuclear small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene, or phylogeny, based primarily upon the most recent
SSU rRNA). However, it quickly became apparent molecular phylogenetic research. Some of these stud-
that understanding deep-level metazoan phylogeny ies have been in agreement that the phylum Porifera,
required analysis of additional genes, particularly the sponges, is the sister group to all remaining ani-
nuclear protein-coding genes, and this led to an era mals and thus could be considered the “oldest” ani-
of multigene trees that continues today as phyloge- mal phylum. However, other molecular phylogenies
neticists add more and more loci (and taxa) to their have suggested Ctenophora might occupy this position
data sets for analysis (reviewed in Chapter 2). Most as the sister group to all other metazoans. The draft
recently phylogenomic studies using large parts of genome of Pleurobrachia bachei, together with other
the genome (sometimes using the transcriptome1 as a ctenophore transcriptomes, suggests that ctenophores
proxy for the whole genome but leaning more towards may be rather distinct from other animal genomes in
whole genomes in the past few years) and analyzing their content of neurogenic, immune, and developmen-
hundreds or even thousands of genes have begun to tal genes. However, a number of putative apomorphies
expand the scope of data available for phylogenetic link Cnidaria and Ctenophora with the Bilateria in a
analysis, and this has added increased stability to the clade that has been called Neuralia. The “basal Cte-
structure of our phylogenetic framework. The advent nophora” hypothesis has been challenged by some
of evo-devo, or evolutionary developmental biology, authors as an artifact of methodological issues, yet
has also begun to significantly impact our understand- others disagree and have found that the artifacts affect
ing of how genes relate to specific morphologies, how the more traditional placement of sponges. In fact, the
they work, and what roles they might have played in placement of Ctenophora is only one area of uncer-
the unfolding of animal radiations. These new tech- tainty near the base of the animal tree. Strong resolu-
niques have provided answers to fundamental ques- tion of the positions of Placozoa and Cnidaria has also
tions, such as the identity of arthropod appendages yet to be achieved (and placozoans seem to be much
and the nature of segmentation in animals. more derived than their simple body plan would first
A large body of evidence, anatomical and molecu- suggest, contradicting the Neuralia hypothesis). This is
lar, has accumulated since the 1960s that supports the why we represent the first node of our tree as a trichot-
view that animals share a common ancestor with the omy between Porifera, Ctenophora, and the remaining
protist group Choanoflagellata. The flagellated collar animals, and the second node as a trichotomy between
cells of sponges and choanoflagellates are nearly iden- Cnidaria, Placozoa, and Bilateria.
tical, and similar cells have also been described in a few The origin of the Bilateria, likely in the Precambrian,
other animal phyla, including some cnidarians, echino- was a transformative event in the evolution of animals.
derms, hemichordates, and ascidians. A few interesting The origination of fundamental bilateral symmetry led
differences between them have been noted, but some to cephalization and the innovation of mesoderm (a
divergence over a half billion years is to be expected. third germ layer), the latter allowing for the evolution
The Metazoa are defined by a number of apomorphies, of a variety of new organs and a new kind of underlying
the most obvious being multicellularity arising through body cavity (the secondary coelom, or eucoelom). The
1
appearance of mesoderm and a true adult coelom in
Whereas a genome is the complete set of genes present in a cell (or
organism) and is sequenced from DNA, a transcriptome is a subset of
animal evolution led to the ability to penetrate the sub-
those genes that are transcribed (or expressed) in a cell at any given strate, which in turn led to three-dimensional ichnofos-
time and is sequenced from RNA. sils such as the ones left by Treptichnus pedum, the first

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 for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: email [email protected]
Perspectives on Invertebrate Phylogeny 937

Porifera
Ctenophora
Placozoa
Cnidaria
Xenacoelomorpha
Ambulacraria Hemichordata
Deuterostomia Echinodermata
Bilateria
Cephalochordata
Chordata
Urochordata
Vertebrata
Kinorhyncha
Priapula
Scalidophora
Loricifera

Ecdysozoa Nematoida Nematoda

Nephrozoa
Nematomorpha
Tardigrada
Panarthropoda
Onychophora
Chelicerata

Arthropoda Crustacea + Hexapoda

Mandibulata Myriapoda
Protostomia
Chaetognatha
Gnathostomulida
Gnathifera Rotifera
Micrognathozoa
Dicyemida
Spiralia
Gastrotricha
Rouphozoa
Platytrochozoa Platyhelminthes
Entoprocta
Cycliophora
Lophotrochozoa Mollusca
Nemertea
Annelida
Lophophorata
Phoronida
Bryozoa
Brachiopoda

FIGURE 28.1 A phylogeny of Metazoa. This tree the branching sequence for Placozoa, Cnidaria, and
reflects a consensus view based primarily on recent Bilateria is not yet resolved, so it is shown as an unresolved
molecular phylogenetic analyses. The 31 animal phyla trichotomy. Similarly, two large polytomies exist among the
are in boldface, whereas subphyla and other clades are Platytrochozoa, and the relationships of the three ecdyso-
in lightface. Spiralian lineages are in red, ecdysozoan zoan clades are still unresolved, as are those of the three
lineages are in green, deuterostome lineages are in tan. scalidophoran phyla. Due to uncertainty, Dicyemida is
Uncertainty still exists in several regions, and these are depicted in an unresolved trichotomy with Gnathifera
depicted as polytomies (“starbursts”). Thus, for example, and Platytrochozoa.

animal to burrow and consequently form the ichnofos- sediment, known as the “agronomic revolution.” One
sil that defines the base of the Cambrian. It is likely that of the earliest living phyla to appear once bilateral-
Brusca
such 4e
anatomical innovation caused a dramatic increase ity was achieved may have been Xenacoelomorpha
Sinauer Associates/OUP
inMorales
the depth and intensity of bioturbation in seafloor
Studio (but acoelomorphs are acoelomate and probably not
BB4e_28.01 3-11-22

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 938 Chapter 28

responsible for the T. pedum burrows). Early in the Relationships among the Ecdysozoa (the molting
evolution of Bilateria the clade split into two great lin- Protostomia) are partly resolved, although those among
eages, Deuterostomia and Protostomia. the three major clades (Scalidophora, Nematoida, Pan-
The position of the phylum Xenacoelomorpha is still arthropoda) remain unclear; thus these three lineages
debated, although a general consensus is emerging that it are depicted as a trichotomy in our tree. Similarly, the
comprises basal bilaterians and does not fall unambigu- clade Scalidophora needs further study to verify its
ously within either Deuterostomia or Protostomia. Some monophyly and the relationships of its three included
molecular research had suggested that Xenoturbellida phyla. The Nematoida and Panarthropoda trees are
(and even Xenoturbellida + Acoelomorpha) were deu- strongly supported, but admittedly, genomic resources
terostomes, but that hypothesis is not well supported. are unevenly distributed among lineages, with lots of
The weight of molecular and morphological evidence genomes for arthropods and nematodes and few to
places Xenacoelomorpha as a clade and sister group to none for tardigrades, onychophorans, and nemato-
all other bilaterians, as shown in our tree. Apomorphies morphs, which makes phylogenomic results tentative.
of Xenacoelomorpha may be their unique pulsatile bod- Relationships within Spiralia also need further
ies, their unique epidermal cilia, and their frontal organ/ refinement, but recent phylogenomic data suggest there
pore. Because xenacoelomorphs lack excretory organs may be two clades—Gnathifera and Platytrochozoa.
and a through gut, and these (in their many forms) are The position of Dicyemida (kidney parasites in cephalo-
present in most other bilaterians, the sister group to pods) remains unclear, and our tree shows this phylum
Xenacoelomorpha has been called Nephrozoa. Nephro- unresolved with respect to the other two main spiralian
zoa are distinguished by the presence of a through (com- clades. Most chaetognath morphological traits have no
plete) gut, discrete excretory organs, and the presence clear homologies in other lineages, but molecularly they
of a Hox3 gene. Nephrozoa divides clearly into the two group with the Gnathifera, and their cerebral ganglia
clades that have been accepted for many decades, Deu- resemble those of the spiralian phyla.
terostomia and Protostomia (although their composition One of the major things we might notice in this view
has been in flux). of phylogenetic relationships is that developmental
These two lineages were introduced to you in Chap- systems are flexible. For example, a trait long thought
ter 8. Because of their great age, untangling the char- to define the Deuterostomia is deuterostomous devel-
acteristics of the first deuterostomes and protostomes opment itself. However, we now know that this mode
has been challenging. Deuterostome apomorphies are of embryogeny also occurs in some phyla belonging
likely the presence of pharyngeal gill slits, a trimeric to the clade Protostomia (e.g., in Nematomorpha, Pri-
coelom, and enterocoelic development, although all apula, Brachiopoda, many Crustacea, perhaps Chaeto-
three of these features have been lost in some modern gnatha). Thus, as noted early on in this book, the clade
forms. Protostomia is even trickier to define by any Deuterostomia cannot be defined by deuterostomy, nor
morphological synapomorphies, since so much ani- can the clade Protostomia be defined by protostomy
mal diversity is encompassed by this clade, although (which also occurs in Cnidaria and Ctenophora). Simi-
the ventral nerve cord and circumesophageal brain larly, radial cleavage is likely plesiomorphic among
are probably good apomorphies (but they are not dis- Bilateria, while spiral cleavage, which is apomorphic
tinct in a few soft-bodied worms). The relationships of for Spiralia, appears to have reverted back to radial or
the Deuterostomia are largely settled with the Ambu- other idiosyncratic modes multiple times. Thus, the
lacraria (Hemichordata + Echinodermata) being the clade Spiralia in our tree has members whose cleavage
sister group to the Chordata (Cephalochordata, Uro- patterns are radial (e.g., the three lophophorate phyla),
chordata, and Vertebrata/Craniata). Ambulacrarian whereas the Gastrotricha seems to have a unique form
apomorphies include a unique heart-kidney system of cleavage. Several phyla of Spiralia have trocho-
and a specific larval form. But the relationships among phore or trochophore-like larvae (e.g., some members
the protostomian phyla still remain to be fully resolved. in the phyla Mollusca, Annelida, Nemertea, and pos-
Deuterostomia is a small radiation composed of just sibly Entoprocta), but these have not consistently been
three phyla, two of which have been very successful— grouped together in the molecular phylogenies.
Echinodermata and Chordata (with 7,300 and 63,000 This brings us back to the question of why animal
named living species, respectively). The protostomes, species diversity is so strongly dominated by arthro-
on the other hand, comprise 23 phyla and over 1.3 mil- pods, molluscs, annelids, and vertebrates. Unfortu-
lion living species. The Protostomia are divided into nately, there is no easy explanation for why these four
two large clades—Spiralia and Ecdysozoa. Ecdysozo- groups have enjoyed such expansive radiations. Could
ans are distinguished by their molting process, whereas it be that this is an artifact of time—perhaps during
spiralians have spiral cleavage, although this distinc- earlier eras, the Mesozoic or Paleozoic, other phyla
tive feature has been lost many times in the course of dominated Earth’s biosphere but simply left us little
spiralian evolution. fossil evidence of their prior dominance, due to their

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Perspectives on Invertebrate Phylogeny 939

fragile bodies? If this were the case, many of those small and molecular analyses. The monophyly of other
phyla could be viewed today as “living relicts” (like groups, such as Scalidophora, is supported more
horseshoe crabs). Did ctenophores, placozoans, acoels, strongly by morphological data than by molecular
gastrotrichs, nemerteans, chaetognaths, entoprocts, data, but this clade is broadly accepted by invertebrate
gnathostomulids, and other phyla that today seem biologists. Many groups have been shuffled around
almost inconsequential once dominate the world? Or the tree, mostly because they were once positioned
perhaps the “big four” taxa have always been dominant based on single character systems (e.g., radial versus
due to something intrinsic in their biology that remains spiral cleavage; acoelomate versus blastocoelomate
to be elucidated. Another possibility is that we simply versus coelomate), and many of these character sys-
haven’t looked hard enough, spent enough effort comb- tems conflict with one other. Molecular phylogenetics
ing through interstitial habitats, deep-sea sediments, has given us a new way to look at the animal tree, and
and the parasitic world—there might well be an enor- robust and stable results have made us rethink certain
mous biological diversity still waiting to be discovered long-held paradigms (e.g., Articulata versus Ecdyso-
in such poorly sampled environments (certainly we zoa; Atelocerata versus Pancrustacea). Morphology can
know this is true for the roundworms, Nematoda). be misleading in some cases, as molecular analyses can
We finish this chapter with a note of caution and also be affected by many kinds of biases or be unable
one of hope. Molecular phylogenies are resolving the to reconstruct the interrelationships of some animal
puzzle of the animal tree of life one piece at a time, groups. Thus, only by combining the information
but morphology still has its role in phylogenetics. derived from the careful study of both disciplines will
Gnathifera, for example, was first recognized by ana- we be able to generate a sound animal phylogeny and
lyzing morphological traits, and it has subsequently be in a position to comprehend what that phylogeny
been consistently recovered by both morphological means in terms of the evolution of animal body plans.

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Illustration Credits

CHAPTER OPENERS Chapter 20 The giant hairy scorpion (Hadrurus arizonensis)

Chapter 1 The Eastern Pacific Spanish shawl nudibranch, fluorescing under UV light. © Rick & Nora Bowers/Alamy
Flabellinopsis iodinea. © Larry Jon Friesen. Stock Photo.
Chapter 2 Two hairy squat lobsters (Lauriea siagiani) on Chapter 21 Xibalbanus tulumensis. Photo by Simon Richards,
a sponge, Cabilao Island, Philippines. © F1online digitale courtesy of J. Yager.
Bildagentur GmbH/Alamy Stock Photo. Chapter 22 Rothschildia cinta. Courtesy of Bruce D. Taubert.
Chapter 3 Astrometis sertulifera. © Larry Jon Friesen. Chapter 23 Rusty millipede (Trigoniulus corallinus), Hawaii.
Chapter 4 A sea urchin (Lytechinus pictus) embryo at the The large, shield-like plate behind the head of this millipede is
16-cell stage. The four large macromeres are behind the four the first trunk ring, the collum, a segment without appendages.
small micromeres, and the eight mesomeres are behind the The close contact between male (above) and female might
macromeres. Remnants of the fertilization envelope can be seen suggest mating, but during sperm transfer the partners actually
attached to some of the cells. Scott Camazine/Science Source. take a different position. This photograph likely shows a
preliminary act (i.e., mechanical stimulation by the male)
Chapter 5 Tethya aurantium, close-up showing oscula and mating will follow if the female accepts the male.
protected by long spicules. © Larry Jon Friesen. © Larry Jon Friesen
Chapter 6 A ctenophore eating a ctenophore: Beroe cucumis Chapter 24 The armored harvestman Phareicranaus manauara
about to engulf Mnemiopsis leidyi. © Larry Jon Friesen. (order Opiliones). Courtesy of G. Giribet.
Chapter 7 A colonial hydrozoan, Velella (“by-the-wind Chapter 25 The acorn worm Glossobalanus sarniensis
sailor”). © Larry Jon Friesen. (Hemichordata: Enteropneusta). © Larry Jon Friesen.
Chapter 8 Xenoturbella bocki. Live specimen, from 80 m depth, Chapter 26 The yellow feather star, Comanthina sp., Komodo
off the west coast of Sweden. Courtesy of G. Rouse. Island, Indonesia. © Wolfgang Pölzer/Alamy Stock Photo.
Chapter 9 It turns on a dime; a live Xenoturbella bocki Chapter 27 Megalodicopia hians. © Larry Jon Friesen.
(or possibly an undescribed species) collected by MBARI
(Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute) from ~600 m Chapter 28 A page from Darwin’s notebook from around
depth near a whalefall in Monterey Submarine Canyon, July 1837 shows an early sketch of a phylogenetic tree.
California. Courtesy of Greg Rouse. © Cambridge University Library/CC BY-NC 3.0.
Chapter 10 The sexual vermiform stage of a dicyemid. CHAPTER 1
© Larry Jon Friesen.
1.2A–E: After R. J. F. Jenkins 1992. Functional and ecological
Chapter 11 Colonial rotifers (Conochilus unicornis) that cling aspects of Ediacaran assemblages. In J. H. Lipps and P. W.
to the mucus mass they secrete. © Wim van Egmond/Science Signor (Eds.), Origin and Early Evolution of the Metazoa,
Photo Library. pp. 131–178. Plenum, New York.
Chapter 12 Two zooids of Pedicellina cernua, each showing its
calyx and stalk. Courtesy of M. Faasse. CHAPTER 2
Chapter 13 The eastern Pacific nudibranch, Melibe leonina. 2.5: After F. Ayala and J. W. Valentine. 1979. Evolving: The Theory
© Larry Jon Friesen. and Processes of Organic Evolution. Macmillan Publishing Co.,
Chapter 14 Micrura verrilli, (order Heteronemertea). Courtesy New York. 2.7: From B. Misof et al. 2014. Phylogenomics resolves
of G. Giribet. the timing and pattern of insect evolution. Science 346: 763–767.
Chapter 15 Phyllodoce medipapillata. Courtesy of G. Rouse. Reprinted with permission from AAAS. Quotes, pp. 27 and 33:
Chapter 16 A subtidal, gelatinous bryozoan from southern C. Darwin. 1859. On the Origin of Species. John Murray, London.
California (Alcyonidium sp., Ctenostomata). © Larry Jon Friesen. Quote, p. 35: R. M. Pirsig. 1974. Zen and the Art of Motorcycle
Maintenance. William Morrow and Company, New York.
Chapter 17 The Persian carpet flatworm, Pseudobiceros
bedfordi. © Hans Gert Broeder/Shutterstock. CHAPTER 3
Chapter 18 Priapulus caudatus a large, widespread, circum- 3.3G: After M. Q. Martindale and J. Q. Henry. 1998. The
Arctic priapulan. © Andreas Altenburger/Alamy Stock Photo. development of radial and biradial symmetry: The evolution
Chapter 19 The free-living soil nematode Caenorhabditis of bilaterality. Amer Zool 38: 672–684. 3.7F and 3.8F,G: After
elegans, a model organism in many fields of biology. © Larry G. J. Brusca and R. C. Brusca. 1978. Naturalist’s Seashore Guide:
Jon Friesen. Common Marine Life Along the Northern California Coast and

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Functional morphology, larval development, comparative three marine Demospongiae. J Morphol 154: 493–502. © Wiley
external anatomy. Mem Conn Acad Arts Sci 15: 1–80. 3.14A: After Periodicals, LLC. 5.3A–D: From F. M. Bayer and H. B. Owre.
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Index

Page numbers in boldface indicate the appearance of key of terms; page numbers followed by f indicate figures,
those followed by t indicate tables, and those followed by n indicate footnotes.

A acidification of oceans, 6, 15, 17, 212 actinula larva of Hydrozoa, 238f–239f, 239,
acidophiles, 9, 9n 240
Abarenicola pacifica, 419f Acmaeidae, 332 Actinulida, 188, 194, 240
abdA gene, 636 Acoela, 250, 251, 252–261, 271, 522 Aculifera, 323, 393f
AbdB gene, 636 body plan of, 255–261 Adamsia, 222
abdomen body wall and external appearance of, adanal sensory structures of Mollusca, 382
of Crustacea, 663f, 699 253f, 255–256 adductor muscles, 54, 55–56
of Hexapoda, 739, 752, 753f, 757–758 coloration of, 252, 253f, 254f, 255 adelphophagy of Mollusca, 390
Abdopus horridus, 343f musculature, support, and movement of, Adenogonogastropoda, 323n
abductor muscles, 54 256, 257f, 258f Adenophorea, 582, 583
aboral canal of Ctenophora, 178 nervous system and sense organs of, adhesion, cellular, in evolution of
aboral region of Echinodermata, 877, 887, 255f, 258–259, 259f multicellularity, 92, 93
899f number of species, 251, 252 adhesive papillae of Urochordata, 927
Abra cadabra, 40n nutrition, excretion, and gas exchange adhesive sac of Bryozoa, 507f, 508, 508f
abyssal plain, 18, 18f of, 257–258 adhesive tubes of Gastrotricha, 557, 558
Abyssocladia carcharias, 142f phylogeny of, 24, 271f, 939 Adiaphanida, 524, 555f, 556
Acaenoplax hayae, 393 pulsatile bodies of, 250, 255 adoral ciliary zone, 117
Acalepha, 169 reproduction and development of, Adula, 360
Acalephae (akalephe), 190 259–261, 260f, 261f, 867 aedeagus of Hexapoda, 758, 776, 776f
Acanthaster, 64f, 889 symbiotic relationships of, 252, 254f, 255 Aedes, 737
planci, 874f acoelomate body plan, 48, 48f, 69, 400 aegypti, 737
acanthella of Acanthocephala, 294, 295f Acoelomorpha, 116, 250, 251, 252–267, 271, albopictus, 737
Acanthobdella peledina, 476, 477f, 478 522 Aegidae, 664
Acanthobdellida, 425, 476, 477, 477f, 478 Acoela, 251, 252–261 Aegina, 177
Acanthobothrium, 533 Nemertodermatida, 251, 261–267 citrea, 178f
Acanthocardia tuberculata, 325f phylogeny of, 271f, 554, 937, 938 Aegiretidae, 336
Acanthocephala, 281, 286, 309 Acoetidae, 421 Aeolidiidae, 337
body plan of, 293f, 293–295 acontia of Cnidaria, 201, 218–219 Aequipecten opercularis, 383f
characteristics of, 292 Acraspeda, 242f Aequorea, 231, 237f
lacunar system of, 293f, 294 acraspedote Cnidaria, 209 macrodactyla, 236, 237f
lemniscus of, 293f, 294 Acrididae, 745 victoria, 208f
life cycle of, 294–295, 295f Acrobeloides nanus, 597 aequorin, 231
phylogeny of, 281–282 Acrocirridae, 422 aesthetascs of Crustacea, 721, 723f
Acanthocephalus, 293f Acromegalomma, 449f aesthetes of Mollusca, 351, 382, 382f
Acanthochitona, 378f Acromyrmex echinatior, 771 aestivation, 22, 771
Acanthocyclops vernalis, 537 acron of Arthropoda, 631, 632, 666n afferent nerves, 75, 76f
Acanthomacrostomum, 521f Acropora, 534 African relapsing fever, 809
Acanthopleura, 382f palmata, 186f agamete cells of Dicyemida, 277
Acanthopriapulus, 568 acrorhagi of Cnidaria, 220–221, 221f Agariciidae, 219
acanthor larva of Acanthocephala, 294, 295f Acrothoracica, 665, 691 Agassiz, L., 885
Acari, 804f–805f, 808–809 Acteonidae, 337 Agelas, 121f
Acariformes, 804f, 805f, 807, 808–809, 854f Actinia, 206f Agelasida, 126
Acentrosomata, 524, 555, 556 Actiniaria, 188, 191, 197f, 206f, 213, 224f Agelenidae, 806, 820f, 825, 827, 832f
Acercaria, 738, 745, 746f, 781f, 782 Actiniidae, 191 Aglajidae, 337
acetabulum of Platyhelminthes, 528f, 532, Actinoposthia beklemischevi, 255f Aglaophenia, 85f
533 Actinopyga, 896 Agnatha, 932f, 933
Acetes, 677 actinospore larvae of Cnidaria, 221, 223f Agnathiella, 284
Achaearanea, 828f Actinostola, 213 Agra, 40n
Achelata, 660f, 664, 681f, 682 Actinotrocha, 489 eponine, 40n
Achelia echinata, 847f, 850 Actinotrocha brachiata, 489 ichabod, 40n
aciculae of Annelida, 429, 429f actinotroch larva of Phoronida, 489, 496 vation, 40n
Aciculata, 419, 428, 434 Agroeca brunnea, 845f

31_Brusca4e_Index.indd 1 3/15/22 2:33 PM

 I-2 Index

agronomic revolution, 12, 15, 937 Amphiglena, 448 Annelida, 241, 321, 322, 415–485, 530,
Aguinaldo, A. M., 31n, 629, 652 Amphilepidida, 879 632, 935
Aha ha, 40n Amphilinidea, 525, 529, 533, 551 body forms of, 426–428
Ahlrichs, W. H., 282 Amphilochidea, 665 body organization of, 427f–428f
Aiptasia, 218 Amphimedon queenslandica, 149 body plan of, 426–457
Akentrogonida, 711, 714 Amphineura, 323 body wall and coelom of, 428–429, 460,
Akera, 379f Amphinomida, 417, 418f, 426, 428, 446, 485 465, 477
Alatinidae, 193 Amphionidacea, 676 characteristics of, 415, 416
Alaurina, 542f Amphionides reynaudii, 676 circulation and gas exchange of, 441–444,
Alciopini, 422, 431, 449f Amphipoda, 661f, 665, 686f, 687f, 460–461, 469, 474, 479–480, 485
Alcyonacea, 188, 191, 206f, 207f, 210 689–690, 734 excretion and osmoregulation of,
Alcyonidium, 497f, 507 circulation and gas exchange of, 717 444–446, 462–463, 469, 474, 480
Alcyoniina, 188, 191 feeding and digestion of, 710 feeding and digestion of, 432–441, 462,
Alcyonium, 206f, 233 “houses” of, 689, 707, 707f 465–468, 474, 478–479
Aleyrodidae, 746 internal anatomy of, 716f fossil record of, 483
Alicella gigantea, 682, 689 locomotion of, 703, 707 Hirudinea, 476–482
Alienaxiopsis clypeata, 660f nervous system and sense organs of, mesoderm of, 104
Alipes grandidieri, 786f 720f, 724 nervous system and sense organs of,
Alitta succinea, 97 reproduction and development of, 446–450, 463, 469, 474, 480–481
alkaliphiles, 9, 9n 725, 727 number of species, 3t, 415
Allantonema, 580f silk production of, 644 Orthonectida, 482–483
allelochemicals, 155 Amphiporus, 400, 403, 406f, 407f phylogeny of, 25, 36, 394, 416, 426, 483,
Allogastropoda, 336 bimaculatus, 404f 484f, 652, 937f, 938
Alloioplana californica, 521f Amphiroa, 156 reproduction and development of,
Allomalorhagida, 566f, 567 Amphitrite, 435 428, 450–457, 463–465, 469, 474–476,
Allonautilus, 352, 394 kerguelensis, 419f 481–482, 485, 867
allosperm of Nemertodermatida, Amphiura, 880f segmentation of, 415, 426, 564
265, 265f, 266 Amplexidiscus, 219 Siboglinidae, 470–476
Allotriocarida, 663, 665–666, 694–699, fenestrafer, 219f Sipuncula, 457–465
731, 734 Amplimatricata, 523, 555 support and locomotion of, 429–432,
Alma emini, 444 ampullae 461–462, 465, 477
Almidae, 425 of Cnidaria, 212, 212f symbiotic relationships of, 438f, 438–439,
alphaproteobacteria, 1, 652, 926 of Urochordata, 931 441, 474, 485
Alpheidae, 63, 678f, 710, 724 Ampullariidae, 335 taxonomic history and classification of,
Alpheus, 678, 678f, 710 Ampullinidae, 335 29n, 416–426, 473
Altocrustacea, 663, 664–666, 673–699, 730 anabiosis of Tardigrada, 610–611, 657 Thalassematidae, 465–469
Allotriocarida, 694–699 Anakinetica cumingi, 511 tube-dwelling, 432, 433f, 435, 470
Multicrustacea, 673–694 Analges, 804f annelid cross, 98f, 99
phylogeny of, 731 anal pores of Ctenophora, 172, 178 annules of Nematoda, 587, 587f
Alvinella, 439 anal somite of Crustacea, 701 Annulonemertes, 400, 405
pompejana, 438f, 439 anal vesicles of Thalassematidae, 468f, 469 Anodonta, 372f
Alvinellidae, 419f, 424, 438f anamorphic development, 652, 728, anogenital tagmata of Hexapoda, 757
Amaurobiidae, 820f, 838f 729–730, 739, 798 Anomalocaris, 14, 14f, 632
Amaurobius similis, 820f, 836f, 838f Anaphe, 644 Anomalodesmata, 325f, 326, 340, 369, 369f
Amblypygi, 805, 811–812, 855 Anapidae, 806, 812, 830 Anomiidae, 339, 360
book lungs of, 817, 834 Anaplectus, 589f Anomma wilverthi, 736
phylogeny of, 818, 854f Anaspidacea, 664, 675, 675f, 676, 710 Anomura, 660f, 664, 680–681, 681f
reproduction and development of, Anaspides, 675 circulation and gas exchange of, 719
842, 846 Anatoma, 376f feeding of, 708
Amblypygida, 810f Anatomidae, 334, 374 life cycle of, 714f
ambulacra of Echinodermata, 881 ancestrula of Bryozoa, 496, 500f, 506f, 507f, locomotion of, 706, 708
Ambulacraria, 83, 251, 858, 859, 871, 877 508, 508f reproduction and development of,
phylogeny of, 24, 246f, 937f, 938 Anchistropus, 698 725, 730
ameboid locomotion, 49, 50, 50f, 129 Ancylocaris brevicarpalis, 225 sense organs of, 723f
ametabolous development of Hexapoda, Ancylostoma ano-pedal flexure of Mollusca, 353, 394
777, 778f, 783 caninum, 589f Anopheles, 831
amino acids, and nitrogenous waste duodenale, 597 Anopla, 399, 412
products, 66, 66f, 79 Ancylostomatidae, 584–585 Anoplocotyloides papillata, 532f
Amiskwia, 14f, 283 Andrade, S., 416, 483, 484f Anoplodactylus
sagittiformis, 283 Androctonus, 817f eroticus, 848f
sinica, 283 australis, 826, 827f evansi, 847f
ammonia, 66, 66f androgonochorism of Crustacea, 724 Anostraca, 665, 694–695, 696f
ammonotelic animals, 66, 647 anecdysis of Arthropoda, 640, 730 circulation and gas exchange of, 717
Ammotheidae, 804, 847f, 853f Anelassorhynchus porcellus, 466f feeding and digestion of, 710
Ammothella longipes, 853f Anelosimus, 823 locomotion of, 638, 638f, 703, 705f
Ampharetidae, 424, 441 eximius, 823, 828f nervous system and sense organs of,
Amphibia, 629, 913 Anguillicoloidea, 584 720f, 721
amphiblastula larva, 149, 150f, 151, 151n, Anguinella, 497f reproduction and development of,
152f, 153, 162 Anheteromeyenia argyrosperma, 145f 725, 727, 730
Amphibolidae, 337 anhydrobiosis of Tardigrada, 610–612 anoxic regions of marine habitat, 17, 17n
Amphidinium carterae, 255 Animalia, 3, 8, 9, 10–11 antagonistic muscles, 54, 55, 55f
Amphidiscophora, 125, 161 animal pole, 95, 96, 96f, 103 Antedon, 888f, 890f, 902, 902f
amphidisc spicules of Porifera, 145, 145f animal–vegetal axis, 95, 96, 96f antennae of Arthropoda, 647
amphids of Nematoda, 593f, 593–594 anisomyarian condition of Mollusca, 360 in Crustacea, 663f, 700, 701t
Amphiesmenoptera, 738, 739, 751 Ankalodous sericus, 301 in Hexapoda, 754, 755f, 773, 773f, 782

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Antennipatus ontceauensis, 620f Aplousobranchia, 912 archaeocytes of Porifera, 120, 129, 134–135,
antennules of Crustacea, 663f, 700, 701t Aplysia, 324f, 380, 386f 136f, 140, 144, 145, 145f, 159
Anthoathecata, 194, 214 Aplysiidae, 337, 353, 356, 365, 370 Archaeognatha, 655, 738, 739, 740, 741f
Anthocerotophyta, 5n Aplysina, 157 evolution and phylogeny of, 37f, 781f,
Antho karykina, 156 archeri, 121f 782
Anthomedusae, 188, 194, 208f Apocrita, 747 thorax of, 756
Anthopleura, 220, 221f, 226, 231, 232 apodemes of Arthropoda, 632 Archaeopteryx, 15
elegantissima, 220, 221f, 226, 231f Apodida, 879–880, 887 archaeotroch, 116, 117, 117f
xanthogrammica, 226 Apolemiidae, 196 Archaeplastida, 8
Anthothoe, 218 apomorphy, 32, 32n, 35 archenteric pouching, 103f, 104, 105f
Anthozoa, 12f, 186f–187f, 188, 190–192, Aponomma ecinctum, 809 archenteron, 102, 102f, 103, 104, 247
224f, 422 apopyle, 129, 132f pouching of, 103f, 104, 105f
body wall of, 197 Apostichopus parvimensis, 891 Archeterokrohnia, 301
cnidae of, 216, 217f Apotardigrada, 612, 613, 615 Archiacanthocephala, 293, 294
feeding and digestion of, 218 appendage hypothesis on insect flight, Archiannelida, 420
life cycle of, 231f, 232 761, 762 archicoely, 487
mitochondrial DNA of, 167 Appendicularia, 911, 912, 919, 923f, 924–925 Archiheterodonta, 326, 340, 390
movement of, 212, 213 body wall, support, and locomotion of, Archimonocelididae, 524
nervous system and sense organs of, 925 Archisymplectes rhothon, 411
227, 228f circulation, gas exchange, and excretion Architaenioglossa, 326, 335
phylogeny of, 241, 242, 242f, 243 of, 927 Architectonicidae, 336
polypoid stage of, 198, 199, 200, 200f, feeding and digestion of, 920, 926 Architeuthidae, 344
201, 204, 205, 207f phylogeny of, 932, 932f Architeuthis, 344
radial symmetry of, 197f reproduction and development of, dux, 9, 342f
reproduction and development of, 927, 929 architomy of Enteropneusta, 867
231f, 231–233 Appendiculata, 629 Archoophora, 523
support of, 210 appositional eyes of Arthropoda, 649f, 650 archoöphorans, 542, 544, 555
tissue layer homologies of, 189f apterous gene, 762 Archosauria, 38f
Anthropocene, 6 apterous insects, 757, 759 Archypolypoda, 799
Anthuridea, 685f aquiferous system of Porifera, 126, 127–132, Arcida, 339
Anthuroidea, 664 138–140, 142, 143, 146, 159 Arcidae, 339
Antigonaria arenaria, 260f Arachnida, 607, 609f, 801, 803, 808–818 Arcitalitrus sylvaticus, 689
Antillesomatidae, 459, 459f circulation and gas exchange of, Arcovestia ivanovi, 417f
Antipatharia, 188, 192 645, 646, 646f Arctiidae, 751
antizoea larvae, 729f, 730 classification of, 805–807 Arctonoe, 438, 438f
Antliophora, 738, 739, 749–751 excretion and osmoregulation of, pulchra, 891
ANTP genes, 160 646, 647, 834 vittata, 890–891
Anurida granaria, 740f feeding and digestion of, 827, 831 Arenicola, 430f, 431, 474
Anuropidae, 664 locomotion of, 638, 639, 823 excretion and osmoregulation of, 445
Aphanolaimus, 589f nervous system and sense organs of, feeding and digestion of, 435, 436f, 441
Aphasmidia, 582 648, 835, 837 Arenicolidae, 419f, 424, 429f, 449
Aphelenchus, 591f phylogeny of, 854–855 circulation and gas exchange of, 442f
Aphididae, 746 reproduction and development of, feeding and digestion of, 435, 436f
aphotic zone, 18f, 20 839, 842, 844, 846 parapodia and chaetae of, 429f, 431
Aphragmophora, 302 taxonomic history and classification of, support and locomotion of, 431
Aphrocallistes vastus, 132f 629 Areolaimida, 589f
Aphrodita, 440f Arachnocampa luminosa, 766 areoles of Nematomorpha, 602f, 603
Aphroditidae, 421 Arachnopulmonata, 854f, 855 Areopaguristes pilosus, 709f
Aphroditiformia, 417f, 421 Araeolaimida, 583 Argasidae, 809
apical cells of Dicyemida, 278, 279 aragonite, 136, 136n, 138 Argas persicus, 809
apical ciliary tufts of Micrognathozoa, Araneae, 805, 812–815, 817, 818, 842, Argiope, 821, 823f
296, 297f 854f, 855 Argonauta, 352f, 389
apical organ, 83 Araneidae, 806, 814f, 820f Argonautidae, 342
of Ctenophora, 172, 175, 179, 180, 180f, 183 feeding and digestion of, 828, 830 Argulidae, 664
of Echinodermata, 903 locomotion of, 825f Argulus, 672
of Lophophorata, 505, 508 reproduction of, 840f, 842, 843f foliaceus, 671f
apical system of Echinodermata, 887 silk and webs of, 821, 823f Argyroneta, 826, 826f
Apidae, 747 Araneoidea, 822 aquatica, 826
Apis, 737n Araneomorphae, 806, 812–813, 815, 832, 833 Argyrotheca, 515
dorsata, 737n reproduction of, 840, 841 Arhynchobdellida, 426, 477
mellifera, 737, 769f silk and webs of, 819, 821 circulation and gas exchange of, 480, 480f
Aplacophora, 323, 326, 345–346, 395 Araneus, 819, 820f, 822, 825f, 836f, 840f feeding and digestion of, 478, 479f
body wall of, 349 diadematus, 843f reproduction and development of, 481
development of, 390f Arbacia, 895f arid habitats, 19f, 22
excretion and osmoregulation of, 377 punctulata, 57 Ariolimax, 72f–73f
feeding of, 362 Arbacioida, 879 Arionidae, 337
general anatomy of, 327f–328f Archaea, 2, 5, 7, 8–9, 123, 125 Arion lusitanicus, 376f
locomotion of, 356 classification of, 3, 8 Aristotle, 110, 190, 322
mantle cavity of, 347 habitat of, 8–9, 20 Aristotle’s lantern, 879, 887, 893, 894f, 895f,
nervous system of, 378 hemerythrins in, 75 896, 899, 907f, 908
phylogeny of, 393, 393f number of species, 9 Armadillidium vulgare, 644
reproduction of, 385 Archaebacteria, 7, 8 Arminidae, 336
sense organs of, 380 Archaeidae, 806, 830f Armorloricus elegans, 575f
Aplanulata, 188, 195 Archaeocyatha, 160, 161f arolium of Hexapoda, 756, 758f
Aplidium, 918f–919f, 921f, 922 arteries, 71

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 I-4 Index

arthrobranchs of Decapoda, 676 Ascidiacea, 911, 912, 917, 918f–922f, 921, 922 asymmetry hypothesis of gastropod
arthrodial membranes of Arthropoda, 636 body plan of, 922, 924 torsion, 353
arthrodization, 629 body wall, support, and locomotion of, Atelocerata, 655, 798, 939
Arthropleura, 799 925 Athecata, 188, 194, 224f
Arthropleurida, 799 circulation, gas exchange, and excretion athecate Cnidaria, 201, 204
Arthropoda, 247, 607, 608, 609f, 616, of, 927 Athous haemorrhoidalis, 759
628–799, 935 colonial, 917, 920f, 922, 926, 927, 928, atokous annelids, 452
appendages of, 630, 631t, 634n, 634–636, 928f, 934 Atolla, 229f, 234
638, 638f compound, 919f–921f, 922, 927–928 Atracidae, 805
body plan of, 608, 628, 630–652 feeding and digestion of, 924, 925, 926 Atrax robustus, 830
body wall of, 632f, 632–634 general anatomy of, 921f–922f atrial siphon of Urochordata, 920, 921, 921f,
characteristics of, 608t, 628 invasive species, 917, 926 922, 922f, 924, 925
Chelicerata, 607, 628, 801–855 nervous system and sense organs of, 927 Atrina, 358f
circulation and gas exchange of, phylogeny of, 919, 932, 932f, 936 atriopore of Cephalochordata, 914f, 915
630, 644–646, 645f, 646f reproduction and development of, 924, atrium
compared to Tardigrada and 927–928, 928f, 929–931, 930f of Cephalochordata, 914f, 915, 916, 917
Onychophora, 608, 608t, 619 social, 920f, 922, 928 of Entoprocta, 312, 313, 314, 317
Crustacea, 607, 628, 659–734 asconoid sponges, 128f, 129, 130f, 131, 133f, of Mollusca, 355, 373
digestive system of, 642–644, 643f 140, 151 of Porifera, 129
diversity of, 735 Ascoparia neglecta, 266 Atubaria, 862
evolution of, 628, 634, 634n, 635–636, Ascopariidae, 262f Atypidae, 805, 827, 829f
644, 645, 652–657 ascophoran frontal wall of Bryozoa, 502, 502f Atypus, 827
excretion and osmoregulation of, Ascorhynchidae, 804, 849, 853f auditory receptors, 78, 78f
646–647, 647f Ascorhynchus, 851f Augier, A., 3
fossil records of, 13n, 14, 27n, 628, 629, ramipes, 853f Aulacoctena, 177f, 179
634, 652–655, 657 Ascothoracida, 665, 691, 692f Aulactinia incubans, 233
gape gene expression in, 608 Ascothorax ophiocentenis, 692f Aulodonta, 879
growth of, 630–631, 639–642, 640f, ascus of Bryozoa, 502, 502f Aurelia, 220, 229f, 233, 234f
641f, 642f Asellota, 664, 685f aurita, 209, 215f
Hexapoda, 607, 628, 735–783 asexual reproduction, 84–86, 87, 88, 89 life cycle of, 235f
homologies of anterior/head Asilidae, 750 movement of, 215, 215f
appendages, 631t Aslia lefevrei, 897f auricles
introduction to, 628–630 Aspidochirotida, 528f, 880 of Ctenophora, 175
joints of, 636–637, 637f, 639 Aspidodiadematoida, 879 of Platyhelminthes, 527f, 539, 540f
musculature of, 632f, 634, 636–637, Aspidogastrea, 524, 532 auricular groove of Ctenophora, 175, 176
637f, 638, 639 Aspidogastrida, 524–525 Austeruseus faeroensis, 618f
Myriapoda, 607, 628, 785–799 Aspidosiphon Australeremus cooki, 709f
nervous system and sense organs of, cristatus, 458f Australiteuthidae, 344
82, 647n, 647–651, 656, 656n, 657, 666n parvulus, 465 Austrochilidae, 806
number of species, 3t, 16, 26, 274, 607, Aspidosiphonidae, 459f.460 Austrodecidae, 804, 853f
608, 608t, 628, 652, 657 Asplanchna, 287, 291, 292 Austrodecus
in phylogenetic trees, 655f, 937f Assimineidae, 335 glaciale, 853f
phylogeny of, 25, 32, 35, 607, 610, 619, Astacidea, 663f, 664, 681–682 palauense, 849
628, 629, 652–657, 938 Astacopsis gouldi, 659 Austrognatharia kirsteueri, 283f
reproduction and development of, 651f, Astacus, 645f Autobranchia, 326, 339
651–652 Astartidae, 340 circulation and gas exchange of, 376
segmentation of, 630, 631t, 631–632, 634 Asterias, 891f, 899f development of, 389
support and locomotion of, 630, 636–639, rubens, 900 digestion of, 373f
638f, 639f Asterina gibbosa, 902 feeding of, 366, 367, 369
symbiotic relationships of, 644, 652, 711, Asteroidea, 439, 874f, 878, 909 nervous system of, 379f
765, 809 body wall of, 883, 884f reproduction of, 387–388
taxonomic history and classification of, circulation and gas exchange of, auto-evisceration of Holothuroidea, 896
29n, 629–630 898, 898f, 899, 899f Autolamellibranchiata, 339
terrestrial habitat of, 22 excretion and osmoregulation of, autosperm of Nemertodermatida, 265, 265f
arthropodization, 629, 630, 657 899, 900 autotrophy, 9n, 57
Arthrotardigrada, 611f, 612, 615, 616, 617 external anatomy of, 876f and chemoautotrophy, 7, 21, 65
articles of Arthropoda, 634, 634n feeding and digestion of, 62, 889–891, autozooids, 204, 206f, 500, 502, 503, 508
articulamentum of Mollusca, 351 891f Aves, 629
articular membranes of Arthropoda, internal antomy of, 891f avicularia of Bryozoa, 500, 500f, 501f
636, 637, 637f nervous system and sense organs of, 900 Ax, P., 283, 522, 554, 554f
Articulata, 29n, 629, 632, 666n, 939 pedicellariae of, 884f, 885 axial cells of Dicyemida, 276, 277, 278, 279
Articulata hypothesis, 666n phylogeny of, 907f, 908 axial gland of Echinodermata, 898, 898f
Asaphiscus, 14f reproduction and development of, axial region of Echinodermata, 881, 882f, 883
Asaphus, 654f 901, 901f, 902, 903, 903f, 904f axial rods of Cnidaria, 210
Asbestopluma support and locomotion of, 887 axial sinus of Echinodermata, 886
agglutinans, 142f water vascular system of, 880f, 886 Axiidae, 660f
desmophora, 142f Asteronyx, 876f Axiidea, 664, 682, 709
Ascalaphidae, 749 Asterozoa, 878–879 Axiothella rubrocincta, 433f
Ascandra contorta, 151f Astigmata, 807 axoblasts of Dicyemida, 276, 277, 278, 279
Ascarida, 583, 584, 591f Astomonema, 588 axocoel of Echinodermata, 904, 904f, 905,
Ascaridida, 583 Astropecten, 888, 890 905t
Ascaris, 586f, 588, 591f, 595f Astrophyton, 893 axoneme, 50
lumbricoides, 590 Astrotoma, 893 Aysheaia, 14f
suum, 592 asulcal side of Cnidaria, 199 pedunculata, 619, 620f
Aschelminthes, 281 asymmetrical body plan, 44, 44f, 89 prolata, 619

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B Berlese organ, 776

Beroe, 168f, 179
Bivalvia, 322, 323, 326, 337–339, 345f, 346,
395
Bacteria, 2, 5, 7 forskalii, 180f boring process, 360
chemoautotrophic, 65 general anatomy of, 170f, 172 circulation and gas exchange of, 374,
classification of, 3, 8 locomotion of, 176 375f, 376
hemerythrins in, 75 ovata, 168f, 178 development of, 345, 389, 390, 391f
in hydrothermal vent communities, 20 Beroida, 169, 172, 180 digestion of, 372, 373f
number of species, 5, 9 general anatomy of, 170f, 172, 175 evolution of, 366
bacteria, symbiotic, 62, 63, 89 phylogeny of, 183 excretion and osmoregulation of, 377, 378
of Annelida, 439, 441, 474 reproduction and development of, 181 feeding of, 362, 366–367, 367f, 368f, 369,
of Arthropoda, 644, 652, 765 Biemnida, 126 369f
of Bryozoa, 501 bilateral symmetry, 46f, 46–47, 89 general anatomy of, 338f
evolution of, 1, 2 cephalization in, 47, 89, 249 locomotion of, 358f–359f, 358–360
of Mollusca, 370, 376 nervous system in, 82f, 82–83 mantle and mantle cavity of, 347, 348f,
mutualism in, 23 origin of, 115 351, 376
of Nematoda, 588, 599f, 600 Bilateria, 47, 245–247, 249–250 morphological diversity of, 325f
of Nemertodermatida, 262–263, 263f classification of, 274 nervous system of, 378, 379f, 380
of Olenidae, 629 Deuterostomia. See Deuterostomia phylogeny of, 393f, 394
of Porifera, 123, 125, 142, 153, 154, fossil record of, 2, 11, 12 reproduction of, 387–388
156–157, 157f legacy names in, 25 sense organs of, 382, 383f
of Tardigrada, 611f, 613f, 616 nervous system of, 83, 179 shell of, 349, 349f, 350f, 351, 358, 358f,
of Urochordata, 925, 926 origin of, 249–250 359, 360
of Xenoturbellida, 270 phylogeny of, 24, 26, 160, 245, 246f, 271f, symbiotic relationships of, 370
Baffinicythere, 668f 554, 936, 937f, 938 Bivalvulida, 188, 192
Ba humbugi, 40n Protostomia. See Protostomia bivium of Echinodermata, 883
Baikalobia, 522 bilaterogastrea theory, 115f Biwadrilidae, 425
balancers of Ctenophora, 179 bilharzia, 521, 550f Black Sea, 17, 17n
Balanoglossus, 865 Biliphyta, 5n Ctenophora in, 178
clavigerus, 861f Billingsella, 14f salinity of, 900
misakiensis, 868f binomen, 38, 39 Blaniulus guttulatus, 792
Balanophyllia elegans, 217f, 233 binomial nomenclature, 38 blastea in colonial theory, 112, 113, 114f
Balanus galeatus, 724 binominal nomenclature, 39 blastema of Bryozoa, 508
Bankia, 360 biodiversity blastocoel, 101, 102f
Bankivia, 366 loss of, 6 blastocoelom, 49, 103, 245, 570
barbs, 403 in marine habitat, 17, 18–20 blastocoelomate body plan, 48, 48f
Barentsia, 313f, 314, 315f bioerosion from Porifera, 157–159 circulatory system in, 70, 70f
Barentsiidae, 314 biogenetic law, 91, 110–111 excretion and osmoregulation in, 69
Barnea, 360 biological classification, 3–5, 34, 35–36, 41 blastoderm of Hexapoda, 777, 777f
Barnes, R. S. K., 652 construction of, 35 blastomere anarchy in Platyhelminthes,
barophiles, 9, 9n fully ranked, 36 545, 556
baroreceptors, 78 functions of, 35 blastomeres, 95, 96
Barybrotidae, 664 hierarchy in, 35 in radial cleavage, 96–97
basal body, 50 nomenclature in, 5, 38–40 in spiral cleavage, 97, 98
basal foot of Xenoturbellida, 268 paraphyletic groups in, 34 subequal, 96
basal plate of Cnidaria, 211, 211f and phylogenetic trees, 34, 36, 36f, 38f blastopore, 102, 102f, 247, 273, 279
basement membrane of Cnidaria, 196 unranked, 36, 38f trochaea theory on, 117, 117f
Baseodiscus, 398f, 400, 407 biological nomenclature, 5, 38–40 blastostyle of Cnidaria, 202, 205f
punnetti, 397 binomial, 38 Blastozoa, 908
Basipodella, 693f binominal, 39 blastozooids of Urochordata, 928
atlantica, 693f clever names in, 40n blastula, 101, 101f
basopinacocytes of Porifera, 134 international codes of, 39 of Hexapoda, 777, 777f
Batesian mimicry, 787 legacy names in, 25, 36 of Porifera, 146, 148, 148n, 150f, 152, 153
Bateson, W., 860, 871 principles of, 39 Blattodea, 738, 742–743, 743f
Bathybelos, 302, 304 synonyms in, 39 general body anatomy of, 753f
Bathynella, 675f biological species definition, 39–40 phylogeny of, 37f, 781f
Bathynellacea, 664, 675, 675f, 676 bioluminescence, 81 Blaxter, M. L., 583
Bathynomus, 689 of Cnidaria, 231 bleaching events, 157, 226–227
giganteus, 682 of Crustacea, 669, 724, 725 Bleidorn, C., 422
Bathysciadiidae, 334 of Ctenophora, 169, 174, 176 Blepharipoda, 708
Bathyteuthidae, 344 of Hexapoda, 766, 774 occidentalis, 709f
Batillipes, 615f kleptoprotein, 669 blepharoplast, 50
noerrevangi, 613f, 616f of Mollusca, 384 blind gut, 57
bauplan concept, 43 of Myriapoda, 787 blindness, evolution of, 81
Bdelloidea, 282, 285f, 286, 287f, 288f, 290 of Urochordata, 919, 924 blood, 70–71
feeding and digestion of, 288, 289 biotoxins. See toxins carbon dioxide carrying capacity of, 75
reproduction and development of, 291 Bipalium, 520f pressure and flow velocity, 71
Bdellonemertea, 399, 412, 413 kewense, 520f respiratory pigments in, 74–75, 75t,
Bdelloura, 530, 534 bipectinate condition of Mollusca, 374 443–444
candida, 530f biradial symmetry, 44–46, 45f bmp and BMP, 100f, 933
Belostomatidae, 746 of Cnidaria, 197f Bobmarleya, 40n
benthic boundary layer, 19 of Ctenophora, 174 Boccardia proboscidea, 417f
benthic organisms, 18–20 biramous limbs of Arthropoda, 635, 635f, Bochusacea, 664, 688
trochaea theory on, 117f 636 Bock, S., 267
Benthimermithida, 586 Birgus, 719 body cavities, 48–49, 103–104
Beorn leggi, 610 latro, 9, 659, 660f primary (blastocoelom), 49, 103, 245, 570
Berghia, 370 Bittacidae, 750 secondary. See coelom

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body complexity, grades of, 47 coelom of, 513, 515 Brisingida, 878
body plans, 43–89 feeding and digestion of, 513–514 Brissus latecarinatus, 876f
asymmetry in, 44, 44f fossil record of, 14, 511, 694 bristles of Tardigrada, 616, 616f
cell fates in, 99–101 lophophore of, 509, 510f, 513–514, 517 broadcast spawning, 87, 107, 232
circulation and gas exchange in, 48, nervous system and sense organs of, broom organ of Nemertodermatida,
69–75 514f, 515 262f, 265, 265f
excretion and osmoregulation in, 65–69 number of species, 3t, 488, 511 brown bodies of Bryozoa, 504–505
feeding and digestion in, 56–65 phylogeny of, 24, 25, 392–393, 496, 937f, Brownell, P., 826
founder regions in, 99–100 938 Brumeister, C., 323
hormones and pheromones in, 84 reproduction and development of, 488, Bryophyta, 5n
nervous system and sense organs in, 515–517 Bryozoa, 246, 247, 321, 322, 487, 489, 490,
75–84 taxonomic history of, 489 496–509, 517
reproduction in, 84–88 Brachiozoa, 392, 394 body plan of, 499–509
size of body in, 47–48 brachypterous insects, 757 body wall, muscles, and movement of,
support and locomotion in, 49–56 Brachyura, 659, 660f, 664, 679–680 501–502, 502f
symmetry in, 44–47 anatomy of, 679f–680f, 717f characteristics of, 496
trimeric, 488 circulation and gas exchange of, 718f, 719 circulation, gas exchange, and excretion
body size, 47–48 feeding and digestion of, 711 of, 504–505
and gas exchange, 72 locomotion of, 706, 708 classification of, 499, 857
and osmoregulation, 67–68 nervous system and sense organs of, 720f coelom of, 501–502, 503, 504
and Reynolds numbers, 49–50 number of species, 679 colony forms of, 496, 499, 500, 501,
and surface-to-volume dilemma. reproduction and development of, 725, 502–503, 508–509
See surface-to-volume dilemma 726f, 728f, 730 diversity of, 497f
Boedaspis ensifer, 654f brachyury (bra) gene, 93, 100f, 101, 252, 273 feeding and digestion of, 503–504, 504f,
Bolboleaus hiaticollis, 777 Braconidae, 747 505f
Bolbosoma, 293f brain, 82 morphology of, 498f
Bolinopsis, 181f Branchellion, 476 nervous system and sense organs of,
infundibulum, 176–177 parkeri, 477f 495, 505–506
Bolinus brandaris, 322n branchial chamber number of species, 3t, 488
Boloceroides, 213 of Cephalochordata, 915 phylogeny of, 24, 25, 311, 313, 394, 488,
Boloceroididae, 232 of Urochordata, 922f, 925 496, 937f
Bombus, 737n branchial pump of Cephalochordata, 915 reproduction and development of, 488,
Bombyliidae, 750 branchial siphon of Urochordata, 920, 921f 506f, 506–509, 507f, 508f, 509f
Bombyx, 644 branchial theory on insect flight, 762 symbiotic relationships of, 501, 850
mori, 780f Branchinecta, 696f taxonomic history of, 488–489
Bonellia, 465, 469 gigas, 694 zooid interconnections, 502–503
viridis, 466f, 468f, 469 raptor, 694 Bubarida, 126
bonellin, 465, 466f Branchiobdellida, 425–426, 476, 477, 477f, buccal cirri of Cephalochordata, 914f, 915
book gills of Chelicerata, 819, 831 478 buccal field of Rotifera, 287, 287f, 288
book lungs, 72, 645, 646f, 832, 833, 833f, 834 Branchiocaris, 14f Buccinidae, 336
Bopyridae, 689 Branchiopoda, 660f, 665, 694, 755f Buccinum, 363f, 375f
Boreidae, 750 anatomy and diversity of, 696f–697f Buddenbrockia, 198
boring ability of Mollusca, 360, 363f, 364, appendages of, 635, 636, 704f plumatellae, 190
366 body plan of, 701 budding, 84, 85, 85f
boring gland of Mollusca, 363f, 364 circulation and gas exchange of, 717 of Annelida, 483
Borlase, W., 399 distinguishing features of, 700t–701t of Cnidaria, 187f, 201, 204, 231, 232, 233,
bothria of Platyhelminthes, 533 excretion and osmoregulation of, 720 234, 236, 238f
bothridia of Platyhelminthes, 533, 533f feeding and digestion of, 708 colony formation in, 85
Bothriocephalidea, 526, 533 fossil record of, 732f of Cycliophora, 319
Bothrioneodermata, 524 locomotion of, 703, 704f of Entoprocta, 316
Bothrioplana, 540f nervous system and sense organs of, 650, of Lophophorata, 495, 496, 505, 507,
Bothrioplanata, 524 721, 724 508–509
Bothrioplanida, 524, 555f, 556 phylogeny of, 653, 731, 732 pallial, 928
Bothriuroidea, 807 reproduction and development of, of Placozoza, 167
Botrylloides, 928 702t–703t, 724, 730 of Porifera, 144, 144f
diegensis, 920f Branchiostoma, 94f, 588, 914f of Pterobranchia, 870, 870f
Botryllus, 85f, 920f, 922, 922f, 929 floridae, 933 of Urochordata, 928, 928f
schlosseri, 920f, 928, 931f lanceolatum, 94f, 913, 915 vascular, 928
Botryocrinus, 876f Branchipus schaefferi, 696f of Xenacoelomorpha, 259
Bougainvilliidae, 195 Branchiura, 664, 669, 671f, 672 Bugula, 501f, 507
Bowen, I. D., 536 distinguishing features of, 700t–701t neritina, 503, 507f
Bowerbankia, 498f, 500, 503, 507, 508 feeding and digestion of, 711 Bulimulidae, 337
Brachininae, 775 locomotion of, 703 Bullidae, 337
Brachinus, 752f nervous system and sense organs of, 724 buoyancy of Ctenophora, 175
brachioles of Echinodermata, 908 number of species, 672 Buprestidae, 749
Brachionus phylogeny of, 730 Burgessia, 14f
calyciflorus, 288f reproduction and development of, Burgessochaeta, 483
plicatilis, 285 702t–703t, 725, 727 Burgess Shale deposits, 14, 14f, 653
Brachiopoda, 247, 321, 322, 323, 487, 489, Branchiura, 443 Cephalochordata in, 933
490, 509–517, 858 Brechites, 325f Gnathifera in, 283, 301
body plan of, 512–517 Bredocaris, 732f Hemichordata in, 871
body wall and support of, 512–513 admirabilis, 701 Onychophora in, 619, 620f, 621f
characteristics of, 509 Brentidae, 749 bursae of Echinodermata, 898
circulation, gas exchange, and excretion Breviolum, 192n, 225 bursal nozzle of Acoela, 260, 261f
of, 514–515 Briareum, 233 Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, 600
classification of, 511–512, 857 Brinckmannia hexactinellidophila, 222 Bursovaginoidea, 284

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Buss, L., 166–167 Calycophora, 204 Carditidae, 340

Buthida, 807 Calycophorae, 196, 202, 237 Caridea, 660f, 664, 676, 678, 678f
Buthoidea, 807 Calyphora, 204 feeding of, 709f
Buthus, 826, 841f Calyptoblastea, 188, 194 reproduction and development of, 730
martensi, 817f calyptopis, 730 sensilla of, 723f
Bütschli, O., 113–114 Calyptraeidae, 335, 366 thoracic appendages of, 704f
byssal threads of Mollusca, 359, 359f, 360 calyx caridoid escape reaction, 705f, 706
byssus gland of Mollusca, 360 of Echinodermata, 887 Carinaria, 333f
Bythotrephes, 699 of Entoprocta, 312, 313, 314 Carinariidae, 335
Camallanida, 584 Carinina, 400, 407f, 410f
C Camallanus, 592f Carinoma, 400, 405f
cadherins, 160 Camallonoidea, 584 tremaphoros, 411
Caecosagitta macrocephala, 301 Camarodonta, 879 carnivores, 57, 62–63
Caenogastropoda, 323n, 326, 335, 348f Cambrian Period, 10, 11–15, 112 Chelicerata as, 827, 850
circulation and gas exchange of, 374–375 Arthropoda in, 653 Cnidaria as, 218
development of, 390, 391f explosion of life during, 10, 12, 13–15, Mollusca as, 361, 362, 364, 366
digestion of, 371f 49, 572 Nematoda as, 588
excretion and osmoregulation of, 377 marine habitat in, 17 Onychophora as, 624
feeding of, 362, 363f, 364, 364f, 365, 366 Cambropachycope clarksoni, 732f Platyhelminthes as, 533–534
general anatomy of, 332f–334f Cambropycnogon klausmuelleri, 849 Porifera as, 123, 140, 141f–142f, 142
locomotion of, 356, 360 cameral fluid of Mollusca, 361 Tardigrada as, 616
nervous system of, 379f campaniform sensilla of Arthropoda, 648 Urochordata as, 917
reproduction of, 385, 386, 387f, 388f Campanilidae, 335 carotenoids, 75
sense organs of, 380, 382f, 383f Canadaspis, 14f carrier cells of Porifera, 146
shell of, 350f, 353 Canadia, 14f, 483 Carukiidae, 193
torsion of, 355 canals of Porifera, 129, 130 caruncle of Annelida, 449
Caenorhabditis elegans, 88, 580f, 581, 591f, Cancellaria cooperi, 365 Carybdea, 229f
592, 594, 596, 597, 605, 724 Cancellariidae, 336 branchi, 215
Caerostris, 814f Cancer, 679f marsupialis, 187f
Calabozoidea, 664 Cancridae, 679f rastonii, 219
calamistrum of Chelicerata, 819, 821, 836 Candona, 668f Carybdeida, 188, 193
Calamyzinae, 421 cannibalism, 63, 842 Carybdeidae, 193
Calanoida, 665, 670f, 690, 706, 715f Cannon, H. G., 708 Caryophyllidea, 526
Calanus, 645f Cantharidae, 749 Cassididae, 335
Calcarea, 121f, 124–125 capillaries, 71 Cassiduloida, 879, 894
body complexity of, 128f, 129–131 Capilloventridae, 425 Cassiopea, 226, 230
cell types of, 132, 134 Capinatator praetermissus, 301 Catalogue of Life, 6
distribution and ecology of, 154 Capitata, 188, 194–195, 204 β-catenin, 100f, 160
evolution and phylogeny of, 160, 162, 162f Capitella, 418f Catenula lemnae, 520f
growth rate of, 155 teleta, 104 Catenulida, 522, 523
reproduction and development of, Capitellidae, 418f, 424, 425, 443, 444, 449f, body wall of, 529
143, 146, 148n, 149, 151, 151f 465 feeding and digestion of, 534
support of, 123, 137, 138 Capitelliformia, 424 nervous system and sense organs of, 539
Calcaronea, 125, 126, 146 capitulum of Chelicerata, 808, 809 phylogeny of, 555, 555f
development of, 149, 151, 153 Caprella, 687f reproduction and development of,
fossil record of, 161f Caprellidea, 686f, 687f, 689–690 541, 543f, 544
phylogeny of, 162 Capsalidea, 525 Catenulidea, 520f, 523, 531, 554
Calcaxonia, 188, 191 captacula of Mollusca, 341f, 345f, 370, 382 Cateria, 566
calciblastula larva, 125, 149, 150f, 151f Capulidae, 335 caudal appendage of Priapulua, 569, 569f,
calciferous glands of Annelida, 439, 441f Carabidae, 23, 749, 752f, 759 570, 572
Calcinea, 125 carapace of Crustacea, 72f–73f, 663f, 700, caudal (cdx) gene, 273
development of, 149, 151f 700t caudal organ of Gastrotricha, 560
fossil record of, 161f carbon, in dissolved organic matter, 63, 65 caudal rami of Crustacea, 701
phylogeny of, 162 carbon dioxide Caudofoveata, 322, 323, 345–346
Calcispongia, 162 atmospheric, 6, 7, 10, 15, 17 circulation and gas exchange of, 374, 377
calcite, 136, 136n, 138 in body fluids, 75 development of, 389
calcium carbonate, 136, 136n and chemoautotrophy, 65 general anatomy of, 326, 327f
Caldwell, O., 489 in marine habitat, 17 locomotion of, 356
Caligus, 671f as waste product of respiration, 65, 71, mantle and mantle cavity of, 347
Calliactis, 218, 224 72f, 74, 75 phylogeny of, 393f
Callianassa, 681f, 709 carbonic acid, 75 reproduction of, 385
Callinectes sapidus, 640, 728f, 730 carbonic anhydrase, 75 shell of, 347, 349, 351
Calliostoma, 357f Carboniferous Period, 15 Caullery, M., 473
Calliostomatidae, 334, 357f carcinoecium, 222, 224f Cavanaugh, C., 474
Callipallene brevirostris, 850 Carcinonemertes, 400, 403, 408 Cavoliniidae, 337
Callipallenidae, 804, 849, 853f errans, 403 cdx (caudal) gene, 273
Calliphoridae, 750, 766 Carcinoscorpius, 807, 808 cecal portal vein of Cephalochordata,
Callipodida, 792 rotundicauda, 808 914f, 916
Callochitonida, 329 Carcinus, 692f cecum, 643, 643f, 714
Calloplax vivipara, 385 maenas, 693n of Cephalochordata, 915, 916
Calloria inconspicua, 514f, 515f cardiac stomach of Echinodermata, 890, 891f of Euchelicerata, 831, 832f
Callyspongia aculeata, 893 cardia of Bryozoa, 503, 504, 505f of Platyhelminthes, 537
Callyspongiidae, 138f Cardiida, 325f, 340 of Pycnogonida, 852
Calman, W. T., 656n, 673 Cardiidae, 344, 360 cell adhesion, in evolution of
calthrops, 126 cardinal veins of Cephalochordata, 914f, 916 multicellularity, 92, 93
Calviriidae, 524 Carditida, 340 cell differentiation, 92, 93

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cell fates, 99–101 feeding and digestion of, 366, 370, 373 Chaetoderma
cell rosettes, 98f, 99, 179, 179f fossil record of, 352, 394 loveni, 327f
cell signaling pathways, 92, 99 locomotion of, 347, 356, 360–361, 361f productum, 327f
cells of insect wings, 757 mantle and mantle cavity of, 347, 348f, Chaetodermomorpha, 322, 323, 326
Cellularia, 131, 162 361 Chaetognatha, 246, 273, 281, 301–309
cellulose, 11n, 23, 54, 62 nervous system and sense organs of, 80, body plan of, 304–307
cement glands of Platyhelminthes, 542, 543f 80f, 378, 380, 381f, 383–384, 388 body wall, support, and movement of,
Cenozoic Era, 11, 16 phylogeny of, 393f, 394 304–306
as age of insects, 653 reproduction and development of, 348f, characteristics of, 304
central cells of Dicyemida, 278 388f, 388–389, 391–392, 392f circulation, gas exchange, and excretion
central nervous system, 82–83 shell of, 341, 349, 352, 352f, 389 of, 306
Centrocypris, 668f cephalothorax of Crustacea, 663f, 700 classification of, 302–304, 857
Centroderes, 566f Cephalothrix, 400, 406f feeding and digestion of, 306
centrolecithal ova, 95, 95f, 96, 101 Ceractinomorpha, 124, 125 fossil record of, 283, 301
Centruroides exilicauda, 826 Cerambycidae, 749, 780f head muscles of, 303f, 305, 306
Cephalaspidea, 337, 370, 380 Cerastidae, 337 jaw structures of, 283
Cephalaspidomorphi, 913 cerata of Mollusca, 333f, 365, 371f, 375 nervous system and sense organs of,
cephalic probolae of Nematoda, 590 cercaria of Platyhelminthes, 548, 550f, 551 303f, 306–307
cephalic shield Cercomeromorpha, 525, 555f number of species, 3t, 301
of Crustacea, 700, 700t Cercopidae, 746 phylogeny of, 24, 282–283, 937f, 938, 939
of Pterobranchia, 861f, 862f, 868 Cercopoidea, 752f reproduction and development of, 88,
cephalic slits of Nemertea, 408, 409f, 412 cerebral canal of Nemertea, 408, 409f 303f, 307–309, 308f, 309f
cephalization, 245 cerebral ganglion, 82f, 83, 647, 647n, 648f, Chaetonotida, 556–557, 557f
and bilateral symmetry, 47, 89, 115, 249 656, 835, 835f body plan of, 558, 559f
and gas transport, 74 of Acanthocephala, 293f, 294 reproduction and development of, 560
and sense organs, 62, 83 of Annelida, 446, 447f–448f, 448, 463, 480 Chaetonotus, 557f
Cephalobaena tetrapoda, 672f of Chaetognatha, 303f, 307 Chaetopteridae, 417, 417f, 485
Cephalobothrium, 533 of Euchelicerata, 835, 835f circulation and gas exchange of, 443
Cephalocarida, 660f, 665, 694 of Hexapoda, 771 feeding and digestion of, 435, 437f, 438
anatomy of, 695f of Mollusca, 378, 378f nervous system and sense organs of,
appendages of, 635, 704f of Nemertera, 400, 408, 412 446, 449f
body plan of, 700, 701 of Platyhelminthes, 539, 540f, 541, 541f phylogeny of, 426
circulation and gas exchange of, 717 of Pycnogonida, 851f, 852 reproduction and development of,
distinguishing features of, 700t–701t of Rotifera, 290, 290f 450, 451f
excretion and osmoregulation of, 720 of Urochordata, 927 Chaetopterus, 467
feeding and digestion of, 708 cerebral organs of Nemertea, 408, 409f, 410 feeding and digestion of, 58, 60f, 437f, 438
locomotion of, 638, 703, 704f cerebral vesicle of Cephalochordata, reproduction and development of, 450
nervous system and sense organs of, 916, 932 respiratory pigments of, 444
721, 724 Cerebratulus, 398f, 400, 402, 406 Chaetostephanidae, 570
phylogeny of, 731 lacteus, 411 Chagas’ disease, 737, 746, 765
reproduction and development of, leucopsis, 398f Chalcidoidea, 747
702t–703t, 724, 730 Ceriantharia, 188, 190, 192, 206f Chalinula, 146
Cephalochordata, 857, 859, 911, 912, movement of, 213 Chaos
913–917, 934 phylogeny of, 242, 242f chaos, 40n
body plan of, 913–917 ptychocysts of, 216 redvivum, 581
body wall, support, and locomotion of, reproduction and development of, 233 chaotic cleavage of Porifera, 149, 153
913, 914f Cerionidae, 337 characters, 28, 29, 30f, 30–31, 33
circulation, gas exchange, and excretion Cerithideoposis californica, 548, 550f convergent, 32
of, 914f, 915–916 Cerithiidae, 335 homologous, 30, 32, 33
feeding and digestion of, 914f, 915 Cerithiimorpha, 326, 335 parallel, 32–33
fossil record of, 933 Cerithiopsidae, 335 in phylogenetic matrix, 31
general anatomy of, 914f Cervidellus, 589f character states, 29–30, 33
Hox genes of, 933 Cestida, 168f, 172 apomorphic, 32
nervous system and sense organs of, feeding and digestion of, 176 in molecular phylogenetics, 31
83, 916, 932 general anatomy of, 170f–171f, 175 plesiomorphic, 32
number of species, 3t locomotion of, 176 primitive, 32
phylogeny of, 24, 912, 931, 932f, 933, Cestoda, 520, 521f, 522, 525 Charnia, 12f
937f, 938 body plan of, 528, 529, 529f Charniodiscus, 12f
reproduction and development of, body wall of, 531, 531f Charonia tritonis, 889
916–917, 917f excretion and osmoregulation of, Charophyta, 5n
Cephalodiscidae, 862 538, 538f Chasmataspidida, 855
Cephalodiscus, 860, 860f, 862, 869 feeding and digestion of, 537 Cheilostomata, 497f, 499
external anatomy of, 862f nervous system of, 541, 541f body wall, muscles, and movement of,
internal anatomy of, 869f phylogeny of, 554, 555f, 556 501, 502
reproduction and development of, reproduction and development of, reproduction and development of,
870, 870f 551, 551f, 552, 553f 506–507
cephalon of Crustacea, 699 support, locomotion, and attachment of, zoecium of, 500, 500f
Cephalopoda, 322, 324f–325f, 326, 340, 345f, 532–533, 533f zooid interactions, 503
346, 395 Cestum, 170f–171f, 172 chelicerae of Chelicerata, 803, 808, 809, 819,
anatomy of, 341, 341f, 342f, 343f Chabertiidae, 585 849, 855
circulation and gas exchange of, 373, Chactoidea, 807 in Araneae, 812, 815
374f, 377 Chaeriloidea, 807 in feeding, 828, 829, 830, 830f
coloration and ink of, 343f, 384–385, 388 chaetae in Opiliones, 815
Dicyemida as symbiont of, 275, 276, 277, of Annelida, 427, 428f, 429, 431, 432, 448, in Pseudoscorpiones, 816
279, 280 457, 465, 476, 513 in reproduction, 842
excretion and osmoregulation of, 378 of Brachiopoda, 427, 513 in Ricinulei, 816

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in Scorpiones, 817, 817f chitin, 11, 11n, 54, 54n cilia, 50–52, 51f, 89
in Solifugae, 818 in Cnidaria, 210 of Ctenophora, 51f, 174, 176, 180, 180f, 181
in Uropygi, 818 in Gnathifera, 282, 306 xenacoelomorph, 251
Chelicerata, 607, 609f, 628, 657, 801–855 in Nematoda, 587 ciliary eyes, 80
acron/ocular segment of, 632 in Porifera, 159 ciliary fence of Chaetognatha, 307
appendages of, 631t, 635, 636 chitin synthase, 11n, 159 ciliary-mucous suspension feeding, 58–59,
body regions of, 801, 802f, 803, 803f Chitonida, 329, 366 60f
body wall of, 632 Chitonidae, 382 ciliary receptors of Chaetognatha, 304, 306,
characteristics of, 608t, 630, 801, 802 Chlamydopleon dissimile, 683f 307
classification of, 629, 804–807 chloragogen cells of Annelida, 439 ciliary rootlets, 252
Euchelicerata, 805–846 chloragogenous tissue of Annelida, 441 of Acoela, 256
fossil record of, 801, 855 Chlorella, 167 of Nemertodermatida, 263
homologies of anterior/head chlorocruorin, 74, 75t, 444 of Xenoturbellida, 267, 268, 269, 269f
appendages, 631t Chlorophyta, 5n ciliary tufts of Chaetognatha, 307
nervous system and sense organs of, 647, choanoblasts, 129, 131 ciliated furrows or grooves of Ctenophora,
648f, 649, 650 choanocyte chambers, 127f, 129–130, 132f, 179, 180, 180f
number of species, 3t, 608t, 630, 801 133f, 140 Ciliocincta sabellariae, 483
parental care by, 815, 845f, 846 choanocytes, 120, 126, 127, 128–129, 133f, ciliophores of Micrognathozoa, 296, 297f
phylogeny of, 37f, 652, 653, 654, 655f, 134, 159 Cimex
799, 853f, 854f, 854–855, 937f functions of, 134, 140, 143 hemipterus, 765
Pycnogonida, 804, 846–854 migratory, 146 lectularius, 765
silk production of, 644 pumping activity of, 143 Cimicidae, 746, 765, 776
social behavior of, 823 in reproduction, 143, 147f cinclides, 219
taxonomic history of, 629 in syconoid condition, 129 cinctoblastula larva, 149, 150f, 151f, 153–154
Xiphosura, 803 choanoderm, 127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133f, cingulum of Rotifera, 287f, 288
cheliceres, 849 145, 162 Ciona, 921f, 922
Chelifer cancroides, 810f, 816 Choanoflagellata, 2, 114 intestinalis, 918f, 928, 929, 930f, 932
chelifores of Pycnogonida, 803, 848f, 849, phylogeny of, 159, 936 circulatory system, 48, 69–75, 89
850, 852, 853f, 854 structural organization of, 92–93 closed, 70f, 70–71
Cheliplana, 520f, 535f Choanoflagellatea, 241 open, 70f, 71
Chelonibia, 691 choanosome of Hexactinellida, 131 pumping mechanisms in, 71
chemoautotrophy, 7, 21, 65 Chondrichthyes, 913 circumapical field of Rotifera, 287, 287f
chemolithotrophs, 9n Chondrocladia lyra, 140, 142, 142f circumoral ring of Urochordata, 927
chemoreceptors, 78–79 Chondrosia, 137 Cirolanidae, 664, 689
of Annelida, 448–449, 463 Chonopeltis, 672 Cirrata, 342
of Arthropoda, 648, 721, 723f, 725, 773, Chordata, 9, 247, 273, 487, 857, 858, Cirratulida, 422–423, 431, 474
773f 911–934, 935 Cirratulidae, 419f, 423, 432, 450, 451f
of carnivores, 62 Cephalochordata, 911, 912, 913–917 cirri
of Echinodermata, 900 characteristics of, 912 of Cephalochordata, 914f, 915
of Enteropneusta, 866 classification of, 912–913 of Crustacea, 691, 692f, 708
of Euchelicerata, 835, 836f, 837, 842 fossil record of, 912 of Mollusca, 369
of Mollusca, 380, 382 gene expression in, 93, 100f of Tardigrada, 613f, 614f, 617, 617f
of Nematoda, 594 mesoderm of, 104 Cirriformia, 419f
of Nemertea, 408, 410 nervous system of, 83 Cirripedia, 629, 665, 691
of Platyhelminthes, 539, 540f, 541 number of species, 3n, 3t, 16, 26, 247, 938 circulation and gas exchange of, 717, 719
of Tardigrada, 611f phylogeny of, 24, 38f, 246f, 395, 859, 871, feeding and digestion of, 710
Chen, J.-Y., 2 911–912, 931–934, 937f, 938 locomotion of, 703
Chengjiang deposits, 13–14, 653 Urochordata, 911, 912, 917–931 nervous system and sense organs of, 724
Crustacea in, 733 Vertebrata, 911, 912–913 reproduction and development of, 712f,
Deuterostomia in, 859 Chordeuma, 797 713f, 724, 727, 728f, 730
Onychophora in, 619, 620f Chordeumatida, 792, 797 Cirroteuthidae, 342
Tardigrada in, 610 chordin (chrd) gene, 100f cirrus sac of Platyhelminthes, 546, 547f,
Chibchea mapuche, 845f chordoid larva of Cycliophora, 319 551f, 552
Chicxulub Crater, 16 Chordonia, 83 cirumcapitular furrow of Chelicerata, 808
Chilinidae, 337 Chordotes, 602f clades, 5
Chilognatha, 788 chordotonal organs of Hexapoda, 773 cladistics, 34
Chilopoda, 785, 788 chrd (chordin) gene, 100f Cladocera, 666, 694, 696f, 698–699
body plan of, 789 Chromadorea, 583–585, 594, 597 circulation and gas exchange of, 717, 719
circulation and gas exchange of, 793, Chromadorida, 583 feeding and digestion of, 710
794f chromatophores of Cephalopoda, 384 locomotion of, 706, 707
excretion and osmoregulation of, 794 Chromodorididae, 336 reproduction and development of,
feeding and digestion of, 791–792, 793f Chromodoris, 72f–73f 88, 725, 727
locomotion of, 791, 792f Chronogaster, 587f Cladoceromorpha, 666, 698
nervous system and sense organs of, 795, Chrysaora, 220, 234 Cladocopium, 192n
795f, 796f Chrysomelidae, 749 cladogenesis, 34
phylogeny of, 799 Chrysopetalidae, 418f, 421, 438f, 439, 455f Cladorhiza methanophila, 142
reproduction and development of, Chrysopetalum, 418f Cladorhizidae, 123, 140, 141f–142f, 142, 146
795–796, 796f, 797f Chrysopidae, 749 Clark, R. B., 115, 116, 118, 313
Chimaericolidea, 525 Chydoridae, 699 classification. See biological classification
Chimerarachne, 819 cibarium of Hexapoda, 764, 764f Clathria prolifera, 127f, 135
yingi, 823 Cicadellidae, 746 Clathrina, 129
Chirodropida, 188, 193 Cicadidae, 746 clathrus, 121f
Chironex, 218, 219 Cicindelinae, 759 claustrum of Cnidaria, 200
fleckeri, 219 Cidaris, 894f clavae of Tardigrada, 611f, 613f, 614f,
Chironomidae, 750 Cidaroida, 879 617, 617f
Chiroteuthidae, 344 Cidaroidea, 879 Clavagellidae, 340

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Clavelina, 922, 924, 928 feeding and digestion of, 435, 439, 440f cocoons
lepadiformis, 918f nervous system and sense organs of, of Annelida, 481f, 482
Clavella adunca, 671f 448, 448f of Clitellata, 452, 453f, 454, 457
clavoscalids of Loricifera, 573–574, 574f phylogeny of, 484f of Euchelicerata, 844, 845f, 846
claw glands of Tardigrada, 614, 614f reproduction and development of, of Hexapoda, 778, 780f
cleavage patterns, 95–99 450, 452, 453f, 454, 457 Codonophilus, 685f
of Acoela, 260–261 support and locomotion of, 432 Codonophora, 188, 195, 196, 204, 230, 237
of Annelida, 454, 457, 464, 469, 476 clitellum of Annelida, 452, 453f, 454 Coe, W., 399
of Arthropoda, 651, 651f in Hirudinea, 476, 482 Coelenterata, 124, 169, 183, 190
blastula types in, 101, 101f cloaca coelenteron of Cnidaria, 199, 199f, 200,
cell fates in, 99–101 of Tardigrada, 614f, 617 200f, 201, 207, 218, 227
of Cephalochordata, 916 of Urochordata, 920, 921f, 924, 925, 926 coeloblastula, 101, 101f
of Chaetognatha, 307 Clonorchis sinensis, 528f, 548, 551 of Cephalochordata, 916, 917f
of Cnidaria, 237, 238f, 241 closed circulatory system, 70f, 70–71 delamination of, 102f, 103
coding of, 97–99, 98f, 544 Cloudina, 11 ingression of, 102f, 103
of Crustacea, 727, 728f Clubionidae, 806, 842 invagination of, 102, 102f
of Ctenophora, 181, 182f, 183 Clymenella, 433f of Nemertea, 411
of Cycliophora, 319 Clypeaster, 45f of Porifera, 125, 152f, 153
determinate, 99, 100 Clypeasteroida, 879, 889 coelogastrula, 102, 102f, 103
of Deuterostomia, 858, 867, 870 clypeolabrum of Hexapoda, 755 Coelogynoporidae, 524
of Echinodermata, 903 Cnemidocarpa, 918f coelom, 49, 103, 104f, 245
of Entoprocta, 317 Cnidae (knide), 190 of Annelida, 104, 427f, 428, 460
equal and unequal, 96, 96f cnidae of Cnidaria, 185, 196, 215–218 of Brachiopoda, 513, 515
of Euchelicerata, 839, 846 discharged, 216f, 217f, 218 of Bryozoa, 501–502, 503, 504
of Gastrotricha, 560 as sensory cells, 230 of Echinodermata, 885, 896, 904, 904f,
of Gnathostomulida, 284 specialized nomenclature of, 217f 905, 905t
of Hexapoda, 777 Cnidaria, 120, 185–243 evolution of, 115–116, 936
holoblastic, 95, 96f, 103 bioluminescence of, 231 formation of, 104, 104f, 105f, 247
indeterminate, 99, 100 body plan of, 196–240, 241 and hydrostatic skeleton, 53
latitudinal, 96, 96f body wall of, 113, 197–209 of Onychophora, 623
longitudinal, 96, 96f cell and tissue types of, 198f of Phoronida, 490, 493
of Lophophorata, 488, 507, 517 characteristics of, 189 of Tardigrada, 615
meroblastic, 96, 96f circulation, gas exchange, excretion, and coelomate body plan, 48, 48f
of Mollusca, 344, 389, 392 osmoregulation of, 69, 70f, 227 circulation and gas exchange in, 70
of Myriapoda, 798 classification of, 188, 190–196 excretion and osmoregulation in, 69
of Nematoda, 596f, 596–597, 605 cnidae of, 185, 196, 215–218 coelomic channels of Annelida, 460
of Nematomorpha, 604 compared to Ctenophora, 165, 169, 179, coelomocytes of Tardigrada, 616
of Nemertea, 399, 411, 412 183, 197 coelomoducts, 69
of Nemertodermatida, 260, 262, 266f, defense mechanisms of, 201, 202, 213, Coeloplana, 170f–171f, 179f, 181, 183
266–267 220–221, 221f, 222 Coelosphaera hatchi, 127f
of Onychophora, 626–627, 627f evolutionary history of, 2, 225, 240–243 coenecia of Pterobranchia, 860, 862f, 869
of Phoronida, 496 feeding and digestion of, 218–220, 219f, coenenchyme, 186n
planes of, 96, 96f 534 Coenobita, 719
of Platyhelminthes, 544–545, 547, 555, 556 fossil record of, 2, 10, 11, 12f, 14, 240–241 coenosarc of Cnidaria, 199f, 201
of Porifera, 120, 124, 146, 148–149, 150f, gastrulation and gene expression in, 100f coenosteum of Cnidaria, 212
152, 153 germ layers of, 48, 103 coevolution, 15, 15n
of Priapula, 572 medusoid form of, 185, 196, 205–209 of parasites and hosts, 32n
radial, 96–97, 97f, 100 movement of, 212–215 of plants and insects, 737, 751, 783
of Rotifera, 292 mutualism of, 222 Coleoida, 324f, 326, 341
spiral. See spiral cleavage nervous system and sense organs of, Coleopetrida, 738
subequal blastomeres in, 96 82, 83, 227–231 Coleoptera, 738, 747–749, 748f, 783
of Tardigrada, 617 number of species, 3t, 185 defense mechanisms of, 752f
transverse, 96 phylogeny of, 24, 25, 26, 160, 241–243, development of, 780f
of Urochordata, 929 246f, 936, 937f, 938 feeding of, 766
Cleidothaeridae, 340 Placozoa as sister group to, 165, 167 locomotion of, 759, 761
Clément, P., 290 polypoid form of, 185, 196, 198–205 nervous system and sense organs of, 774
ClEvx gene in Acoela, 252 radial symmetry of, 196, 197f, 198, 227 number of species, 736, 747
Clibanarius, 224 reproduction and development of, phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, 782
climate change, global, 6–7, 15, 16, 154 221–222, 223f, 231–240 Coleopterida, 738, 747–749
Snowball Earth events in, 10 support of, 209–212 colinearity, 160
Clinocardium, 358f symbiotic relationships of, 221, 224–226, collagen, 53, 136–137
Clio, 333f 241 type IV, 134, 134n, 137, 159
Cliona, 157, 158, 158f taxonomic history of, 190 collar
californiana, 158, 158f tissue layer homologies in, 189f, 197 of Annelida, 432
delitrix, 157 cnidoblasts, 215 of Cnidaria, 212
vermifera, 146 cnidocil, 216, 216f, 218, 241 of Enteropneusta, 861f, 863, 865, 865f
Clionaida, 126 cnidocytes, 197, 215, 216, 216f, 228f of Porifera, 129, 131, 134, 159
Clionaidae, 158 cnidoglandular band of Cnidaria, 218 collar ganglion of Pterobranchia, 870
Clionidae, 337 cnidomes, 216 collar neurochord of Enteropneusta, 866
Clitellata, 416, 417f, 422, 424, 425, 485 cnidosacs of Mollusca, 365, 371f collar receptor of Micrognathozoa, 296
body forms of, 426, 428 coastal wetlands habitat, 21 Collembola, 655, 735, 738, 739–740, 740f, 783
circulation and gas exchange of, 442, 443, Coccinellidae, 749 circulation and gas exchange of, 768
443f, 444, 445f, 446 Coccoidea, 746 evolution and phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, 782
excretion and osmoregulation of, Cocculinidae, 334 general morphology of, 751
444–445, 445f Cochliomyia americana, 766 locomotion of, 759
thorax of, 756

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collenchyma, 186n contractile hypothesis on cnidae exocytosis, Corumbella werneri, 241

collenchyme, 186n 218 Corymorpha, 204
collencytes of Porifera, 134 contractile vacuoles, 68 Corynactis californica, 217f, 228f
Collin, R., 356 contractile vessels, 71 Corynida, 195
Collinsium ciliosum, 621f contraction Corynosoma, 293f
colloblasts of Ctenophora, 81, 172, 174, 176, of muscles, 55f, 55–56 Coscinoderma mathewsi, 144
177f of pumping mechanisms, 71 Cossidae, 751
collum of Myriapoda, 789, 790f, 797f Conus, 64f, 324f, 365, 365f Costellariidae, 336
Colobocentrotus atratus, 874f convergent characters, 32 Cotylaspis, 528f
Colobognatha, 789, 796 convergent evolution, 29, 29n, 32, 33f, 93, Cotyledion tylodes, 314
Colomastigidea, 665 572, 644 courtship behavior
colonial theory, 112–114, 114f Convoluta of Crustacea, 725
colonies, 85f, 85–86 convoluta, 257 of Euchelicerata, 842–844, 843f, 844f
lophopodid, 501 henseni, 257f of Hexapoda, 776
plumatellid, 501 thela, 258f of Mollusca, 387, 388–389
of Urochordata, 917, 920f, 922, 926, Convolutidae, 252, 253f, 255, 260, 261f of Tardigrada, 617
927–928, 928f, 929, 931, 934 Convolutriloba, 258 coxa, of Arthropoda, 634, 635f
colony collapse disorder, 24 longifissura, 254f, 256f in Hexapoda, 753f, 756, 758f
color receptors, 79 Copepoda, 662f, 665, 670f, 671f, 690–693 coxal glands of Euchelicerata, 834
Colossendeidae, 804, 847f, 853f circulation and gas exchange of, 645f, coxopodite of Hexapoda, 756
Colossendeis, 849, 850, 851f, 853f 717, 718 Crambe crambe, 146
angusta, 853f distinguishing features of, 700t–701t Craniata, 24, 857, 912–913, 932f, 933–934, 938
australis, 848f feeding and digestion of, 708, 710, 711 Craniiformea, 510f, 511, 512
colossea, 850 internal anatomy of, 715f feeding and digestion of, 514, 514f
scotti, 848f locomotion of, 703, 706, 707 reproduction and development of, 517
colulus of Euchelicerata, 819 nervous system and sense organs of, Cranioidea, 512
Columbellidae, 336, 364 722f, 724 Craspedacusta sowerbii, 208f, 220
columella of Cnidaria, 211, 211f phylogeny of, 731 Crassatellidae, 340
Comaster, 889 reproduction and development of, 651, Crassiclitellata, 417f, 425, 440f, 453f
Comatulida, 878 702t–703t, 725, 727, 728f, 730 reproduction and development of, 453f,
comb plates of Ctenophora, 172, 174, 179 copepodite, 730 454
comb rows of Ctenophora, 168f, 172, 173f, copper, 75 support and locomotion of, 432
175, 176, 179, 180, 182f, 183, 184 coprophagy, 60 Crassostrea virginica, 369
comet of Echinodermata, 901, 901f Copula sivickisi, 234 Cratenemertea, 412, 413f
commensalism, 24 copulatory bursa Craterostigmomorpha, 794, 796
comparative biology, 26 of Hexapoda, 775, 776f Crenobia, 540f
compass of Echinodermata, 893, 894f of Mollusca, 385 Crepidula, 366, 387f
compensation sacs of Sipuncula, 460, 461f, coracidium of Platyhelminthes, 552, 553f fornicata, 40n, 386, 388f
462 coral Cretaceous period, 15, 16
competent larvae, 107–108 bleaching of, 226–227 Cretoperipatus burmiticus, 621f
complete gut, 57, 246, 246f reef ecosystems, 20, 192n cribellum of Euchelicerata, 819, 820f, 821
of Annelida, 454f corallae, 211 Cribrilaria, 500f
of Brachiopoda, 514f Corallanidae, 664, 685f cribrimorphs of Bryozoa, 502, 502f
of Mollusca, 370 coralla of Cnidaria, 212 Criconema, 587f
of Xenacoelomorpha, 249 Corallimorpharia, 188, 192, 217f, 219, 228f Crinoidea, 874f, 877–878, 909
complete mesentery of Cnidaria, 200, 200f coralline sponges, 124 body wall of, 883
complex eyes, 79 Coralliochama, 359f circulation and gas exchange of, 898
compound cirri of Mollusca, 369 Coralliophilinae, 336 excretion and osmoregulation of, 900
compound eyes, 79–80, 80f, 648–651, 656, corallite, 211 external anatomy of, 876f
656n Corallium, 210 feeding and digestion of, 889, 890f
of Annelida, 448, 449f corallum, 211, 212, 224f internal anatomy of, 890f
of Crustacea, 649–650, 650n, 656, 663f, Corbulidae, 340 nervous system and sense organs of, 900
701t, 721, 722f, 722–724 Corella, 931f phylogeny of, 907f, 908
definition of, 79, 649 inflata, 931f reproduction and development of, 901,
of Hexapoda, 649–650, 656, 771–772, willmeriana, 931f 902, 902f, 903f
772f, 775, 782 cor frontale of Crustacea, 718 support and locomotion of, 887, 888f
of Myriapoda, 795 Corinnidae, 814f water vascular system of, 886–887
conchin, 349 Corixidae, 746 Crinozoa, 877–878
Conchoderma, 692f cormidia, 203f, 204, 236 Crisia, 497f, 498f
conduction of nerve impulses, 75–76, 76f, cornea, of Arthropoda, 649, 649f Cristatella, 497f, 498f, 501, 509f
83–84 corneagen cells of Arthropoda, 649, 649f, 656 crop of Mollusca, 372
condyles of Arthropoda, 637, 637f Cornirostridae, 336 crural gland of Onychophora, 626
cone cells, crystalline, 649, 649f, 650, 650n, Cornu, 371f, 383f, 386f, 387 Crussolum crusserratum, 799
656 aspersum, 62f, 324f, 387f Crustacea, 26, 607, 609f, 628, 657, 659–734
in Hexapoda, 772, 772f Cornulariidae, 191 Altocrustacea, 663, 664–666, 694–699
congery, 152 Corolla, 333f appendages of, 631t, 634, 635, 635f, 636,
Conidae, 336 corona, of Rotifera, 285f, 286, 287, 287f, 288, 701t, 704f
Conocyema, 278f 289 body plan of, 699–730, 734
Conocyemidae, 275 corona ciliata of Chaetognatha, 304, 307 body wall of, 632
contact suspension feeding, 58 coronal muscles of Cnidaria, 214 characteristics of, 608t, 630, 662, 666
continental edge, 18, 18f, 19 Coronatae, 188, 193, 210f circulation and gas exchange of, 645,
continental shelf, 18, 18f coronate larvae of Bryozoa, 508 645f, 646, 646f, 717–719, 718f
continental slopes, 18, 18f Coronula, 691 classification of, 5, 629, 663–699
Continenticola, 524 corpora allata of Hexapoda, 771, 772f cuticle of, 633f, 634
contractile cells in Porifera, 134, 143 corpora cardiaca of Hexapoda, 771, 772f distinguishing features of, 700t–701t
Corticium candelabrum, 137 escape reaction of, 705f, 706

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excretion and osmoregulation of, circulation, excretion, gas exchange, and cuticular teeth of Chaetognatha, 304
647, 647f, 719–720, 734 osmoregulation of, 179 cuticulin layer of Arthropoda, 633, 633f,
external anatomy of, 663f compared to Cnidaria, 165, 169, 179, 183, 634, 641f
feeding and digestion of, 705f, 708–717, 197 Cutler, E., 459
709f, 715f–716f, 734 cydippid larva of, 83n, 169, 181, 181f, 183 Cuvier, G., 124, 169, 323, 399, 459, 522, 629
fossil record of, 653, 673, 700, 700n, 701, feeding and digestion of, 176–179, 178f Cuvierian tubules of Echinodermata,
732f–733f, 732–734 fossil record of, 183–184, 184f 896, 897f, 900
homologies of anterior/head appendages, general anatomy of, 170f–171f Cyamidae, 686f, 690
631t germ layers of, 48 Cyamus
“houses” of, 706, 707, 707f nervous system and sense organs of, erraticus, 686f
internal anatomy of, 715f–716f 81, 179–181 monodontis, 686f
invasive species, 662 number of species, 3t, 167 scammoni, 661f
joints of, 637f phylogeny of, 24, 26, 120, 160, 183–184, Cyanea, 220, 234
locomotion of, 637, 638, 638f, 639, 246f, 936, 937f, 938, 939 capillata, 187f
703–708, 704f, 705f, 734 reproduction and development of, 169, Cyanobacteria, 2, 7, 10, 156–157, 160, 926
migratory behavior of, 706, 707–708 172, 181–183, 182f Cyclestheria, 697f, 698
molting of, 640, 641f, 642, 643f, 730 support and locomotion of, 175–176 hislopi, 698
morphological diversity of, 659, symmetry of, 45f, 46, 172, 174 Cyclestherida, 666, 697f, 698
660f–662f, 734 taxonomic history and classification of, Cycliophora, 9, 311, 314, 317–320, 322, 489
nervous system and sense organs of, 165, 169–172, 190 acoelomate body plan of, 48
647, 648, 649–650, 651, 656, 656n, Ctenoplana, 170f, 183 characteristics of, 317
720–724, 734 Ctenostomata, 497f, 499, 500 circulation and gas exchange of, 319
number of species, 3t, 5, 608t, 630, 659, body wall, muscles, and movement of, feeding of, 318, 319
734 501–502 life cycle of, 317–318
Oligostraca, 663–664, 666–694 circulation, gas exchange, and excretion number of species, 3t, 274
as paraphyletic group, 34, 37f of, 505 phylogeny of, 488, 937f
phylogeny of, 37f, 652, 653, 655, 656, reproduction and development of, cyclomorphosis
730–734, 781f, 798–799, 937f, 938 506–507 of Arthropoda, 697f, 699
reproduction and development of, cubomedusae, 210f of Tardigrada, 611f, 612, 612f
88, 651, 702t–703t, 724–730, 726f, feeding and digestion of, 219 Cyclophoridae, 335
728f–729f, 734 movement of, 214, 215 Cyclophyllidea, 526, 529f, 533, 541f, 552,
segmentation of, 632 nervous system and sense organs of, 230 553f
silk production of, 644 phylogeny of, 242 Cyclopoida, 665, 670f, 671f, 690
symbiotic relationships of, 711 toxins of, 218 Cyclorhagida, 566f, 566–567
tagmosis of, 631 Cubozoa, 167, 188, 193, 209 Cyclosa, 821
taxonomic history of, 629 feeding and digestion of, 218 Cyclostomata, 497f
threatened species, 662 medusoid stage of. See cubomedusae body wall, muscles, and movement of,
cryptobiosis of Tardigrada, 610, 612, 612f, 657 movement of, 214 502
Cryptocellus, 816, 846f nervous system and sense organs of, feeding and digestion of, 503
Cryptocercus, 742 227, 229f, 230 reproduction and development of,
Cryptochiridae, 711 phylogeny of, 241, 242f 506, 508, 509
Cryptochiton stelleri, 72f–73f, 350f, 351 polypoid stage of, 198 zoecium of, 500, 500f
cryptochromes, 79, 232 reproduction and development of, zooid interactions, 503
cryptocyst of Bryozoa, 502, 502f 231, 234 Cydippida, 168f, 172
Cryptodonta, 339 toxins of, 218 apical sense organ of, 180, 180f
Cryptolithodes, 681f Cucullanus, 586f body plan of, 173f
Cryptomonas, 167 cucullus of Chelicerata, 816 feeding and digestion of, 176, 177, 178,
Cryptophialida, 665 Cucumaria, 896, 897f 178f
Cryptops, 792f, 793f, 797f crocea, 902f general anatomy of, 170f
Cryptosula, 505f planci, 876f phylogeny of, 183
crystalline cone cells of Arthropoda, Culcita, 889, 890 reproduction and development of,
649, 649f, 650, 650n, 656 novaeguineae, 874f 181, 183
in Hexapoda, 772, 772f Culex, 737 support and locomotion of, 175, 175f
crystalline style of Mollusca, 372–373, 373f Culicidae, 750, 765, 780f cydippid larva of Ctenophora, 83n, 169,
ctenes of Ctenophora, 172, 174, 175, 176, Cumacea, 661f, 664, 683f, 687–688 181, 181f, 183
179, 180, 180f, 181 circulation and gas exchange of, 719 Cylista, 218
Ctenidae, 806, 813f, 830 excretion and osmoregulation of, 720 troglodytes, 233
ctenidia of Mollusca, 344, 345f, 347, 348f, feeding and digestion of, 710 cymbium of Chelicerata, 840, 841, 841f
355, 356, 395 nervous system and sense organs of, 721 Cymothoa exigua, 714
in circulation and gas exchange, 373, 374, Cupiennius, 835, 836f Cymothoida, 664
374f, 375, 375f, 376, 377 coccineus, 814f Cymothoidae, 664, 685f, 689, 714
evolution of, 394 Cupuladria, 500 Cymothooidea, 664, 685f
in feeding, 366, 367, 367f, 368f, 369 Curculionidae, 736, 749 cyphonautes larva, 507, 508f
Ctenizidae, 805 Cuspidaria, 369f Cyphophthalmi, 806, 815, 837, 842
Ctenocephalides rostrata, 369f cyphopods of Diplopoda, 788
canis, 750 Cuspidariidae, 340 Cypraeidae, 335
felis, 750 cuticle, 54 cyprid, 691
Ctenocheilocaris, 669 of Arthropoda, 631, 632f, 632–634, 633f, Cyprideis, 668f
Ctenodiscus, 876f 636, 637, 640, 641f, 770–771 Cypridinacea, 724
Ctenodrilus, 450, 451f of Cycliophora, 318 Cypridinidae, 669
Ctenophora, 120, 165, 167–184 of Entoprocta, 314 Cyprinotus, 668f
bioluminescence of, 169, 174, 176 of Nematoda, 587, 587f, 588, 592, 605 cypris larvae, 691, 692f, 728f, 730
body plan of, 47, 167, 169, 170f–171f, of Nematomorpha, 601, 602f, 603 Cyrenidae, 340
172–175, 173f of Onychophora, 622 Cyrtocrinida, 878
characteristics of, 169 of Tardigrada, 612f, 613, 614, 616f Cyrtograpsus angulatus, 680f
cilia of, 51f, 174, 176, 180, 180f, 181 cuticular plaques of Siboglinidae, 473 Cyrtophora, 822

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cystacanth of Acanthocephala, 295, 295f de Jussieu, B., 489 Deuterostomia, 246–247, 273–274, 473, 487,
cysticercus, 552, 553f delamination of coeloblastula, 102f, 103 488, 857–909
cystid of Bryozoa, 499, 500, 501, 502, 505 de Laubenfels, M. W., 135–136, 162 Chordata, 857, 871
Cystisoma, 661f, 682 deltaic regions, 21 coelom of, 116, 247, 274, 858–859, 863
Cystonecta, 188, 196, 204 demersal organisms, 18 Echinodermata, 857, 871, 873–909
Cystonectae, 196 Demodex, 804f evolution of, 247, 871
Cytherelloidea, 668f brevis, 809 fossil record of, 859
canis, 809 gastrulation and gene expression in, 100f
D folliculorum, 809 and Gnathifera, 282
Dactylogyridea, 525 Demodicidae, 809 Hemichordata, 857, 859–871
Dactylogyrus vastator, 549f Demospongiae, 121f, 124, 125–126 as legacy name, 25, 247–248, 274, 858
dactylopores of Cnidaria, 212, 212f activity and sensitivity of, 143 nervous system of, 83
dactylostyles of Cnidaria, 212, 212f asymmetry of, 44f Nielsen theory on, 116, 117
dactylozooids, 202, 202f, 203f, 204f, 212, body forms of, 127f number of species, 273, 938
212f, 220 cell types of, 133f, 134, 135f origin of, 934
Dahlella caldariensis, 674 distribution and ecology of, 154 Pax6 gene of, 93
Dajidae, 661f evolution and phylogeny of, 160–161, phylogeny of, 24, 245, 246f, 857–859,
Dakuidae, 253f 161f, 162, 162f, 163 858f, 871, 934, 938
Daku riegeri, 253f feeding of, 140, 142 synapomorphy of, 858–859
Dalytyphloplanida, 524, 530, 534 fossil record of, 161f deuterostomy, 273, 938
Danaus plexippus, 775, 780f growth rate of, 155 deutocerebrum, 647, 648f, 855
dances of bees, 774–775, 775n reproduction and development of, 143, of Crustacea, 721
Daphnia, 696f–697f, 698 144f, 146, 147f, 148, 149, 151f, 152–153 of Euchelicerata, 835
Daphniidae, 699 skeleton of, 123, 124, 125, 137, 138, of Hexapoda, 771
Darwin, C., 3, 14, 27, 31n, 33, 500 138f–139f of Myriapoda, 791, 794, 795f
Darwinula, 668f symbiotic relationships of, 156 of Pycnogonida, 852
Dasydytidae, 558 Dendraster, 876f, 895f, 896, 903f developmental biology, evolutionary, 91–95
dauer stage of Nematoda, 597 excentricus, 889, 896 developmental polymorphism, 109
Davis, G. E., 663 Dendrobranchiata, 659n, 664, 676, 677, 678f of Rotifera, 292
Dawydoff, C., 860 phylogeny of, 731 developmental system drift (DSD), 93
dead zones in marine habitat, 17 reproduction and development of, 725, developmental tool kits, 92–93
DeBary, H. A., 22 727, 728f, 730 Devonian Period, 11n, 15
de Blainville, H. M., 323, 459, 489 dendrobranchiate gills, 676–677, 718f Devonobius delta, 799
Decabrachia, 326, 342, 380 Dendroceratida, 125, 163 dextrotropic direction, 97, 98
Decapoda, 342, 664, 676–682 Dendrochirotida, 880–881 Diadematoida, 879
anatomy of, 678f, 679f–680f, 681f Dendrocystites, 906f Diadumene, 213, 218, 231
circulation and gas exchange of, 718f, 719 Dendrodorididae, 336 diapause, 22, 145, 771
excretion and osmoregulation of, 647f Dendrogastrida, 665 Diastylis, 683f
feeding and digestion of, 710, 711, 714 Dendrogramma enigmatica, 187f Diaulula, 333f
gill nomenclature of, 676 Dendronotidae, 337 Diazona, 921f
nervous system and sense organs of, Dendrophylliina, 243 Dibranchiata, 341
721, 724 Dendrothereua homa, 786f Dickinsonia, 10, 11, 12f, 167, 241
number of species, 676 Dendy, A., 124 Diclybothriidea, 525
phylogeny of, 731 dengue, 737 Dicondylia, 738, 740–741, 781f, 782
reproduction and development of, Dentaliida, 340 Dicranophoridae, 288f
702t–703t, 703, 724, 725 Dentaliidae, 340 Dicrotendipes thanatogratus, 40n
shrimps, 659n Dentalium, 391f Dictynidae, 826
thoracic appendages of, 704f Deoterthron, 662f Dictyoceratida, 125, 163
Deccan Traps, 16 deposit feeding, 57, 59–61, 61f, 89 Dictyodendrillidae, 125
Decolopoda, 850 critical ecological role of, 61 Dictyoptera, 743
australis, 847f selective, 60 Dictyota, 707f
defense mechanisms de Quatrefages, J. L. A., 459 Dicyema, 276f
of Annelida, 456 Dermacentor, 804f japonicum, 279
of Chaetognatha, 304 andersoni, 809 Dicyemennea gracile, 275
of Chelicerata, 815 dermal membrane of Hexactinellida, 131 Dicyemida, 112, 247, 275–280, 321, 482
of Cnidaria, 201, 202, 213, 220–221, 221f, dermal pores or ostia of Porifera, anatomy and biology of, 275–277, 276f, 280
222 128, 129, 143 number of species, 3t
of Crustacea, 701, 724 Dermaptera, 37f, 738, 743f, 744, 757, 781f phylogeny of, 246f, 937f, 938
of Echinodermata, 885, 888, 896, 903 Dermasterias, 891 reproduction of, 277–279, 279f
of Enteropneusta, 863 imbricata, 888f Didemnidae, 924, 926
of Hexapoda, 751, 752f, 775 Dero, 443 Didemnum, 926
of Holothuroidea, 896 Derocheilocarididae, 664 vexillum, 926
of Lophophorata, 501, 502 Derocheilocaris, 669, 670f diffusion, 71–72
of Mollusca, 353, 355, 365–366, 382, 384 ingens, 669 and surface-to-volume dilemma, 47
of Myriapoda, 786–787 Deshayes gland, 370 Digenea, 521f, 525
of Placozoa, 166–167 Desidae, 826 excretion and osmoregulation of, 538
of Platyhelminthes, 531 Desis bobmarleyi, 826 feeding and digestion of, 537
of Porifera, 154 Desmodorida, 580f, 583, 584, 589f, 591f phylogeny of, 555f
of Xenacoelomorpha, 270 Desmoscolecida, 580f, 583–584 reproduction and development of,
definitive hosts of parasites, 23, 110 desmosomes of Placozoa, 167 546, 548, 550f
deforestation, 6 Desmoxytes purpurosea, 786f support, locomotion, and attachment
Deinopidae, 806, 822, 828, 845f Desor’s larva, 411, 413 of, 532
Deinopis, 828, 838f, 845f determinate cleavage, 99, 100 digestion, 56–57
Deinopoidea, 822 determinate growth of Crustacea, 730 digestive cecum, 643, 643f, 714
Deiopea, 170f–171f detorted gastropods, 355 of Cephalochordata, 915, 916
kaloktenota, 173f detritivores, 57 of Euchelicerata, 831, 832f
of Pycnogonida, 852

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 I-14 Index

digestive glands discoblastula, 101, 101f Dromiidae, 680f

of Crustacea, 714 involution of, 102f, 103 Drosophila, 719, 773f, 774
of Kinorhyncha, 567 Discodorididae, 336 Hox genes in, 94f
of Urochordata, 921f, 926 Discophorae, 169 melanogaster, 94f, 652
Dignatha, 799 disjugal furrow of Chelicerata, 808 sensory organs of, 650
dimyarian condition of Mollusca, 359 disphaerula larva, 149, 150f, 151f, 153 Drosophilidae, 750
Dinoflagellata, 370 disphotic zone, 20 Drulia, 122f
Dinomischus, 14f Disporella, 511f duet cleavage, 271
Dinophilidae, 426 dissociation curves of respiratory in Aceola, 260
Dinophiliformia, 426 pigments, 74 in Nemertodermatida, 260, 262, 266f,
Dioctophymatida, 585 dissogeny of Ctenophora, 181 266–267
dioecious individuals, 87 dissolved organic matter, as nutrition, Dugesia, 539, 541
Dioecocestidae, 526 57, 63–65, 89 tigrina, 520f
Diopatra, 435 of Annelida, 462, 474 Dunaliella salina, 9n
cuprea, 418f of Mollusca, 370 duo-gland adhesion, 560
Diopisthoporidae, 253f of Porifera, 140 of Gastrotricha, 556, 558, 559f
Diopisthoporus lofolitis, 253f Dissotrocha aculeata, 288f of Platyhelminthes, 530
Diphyllidea, 526 Distal-less (Dll) gene, 30, 636, 732, 755, 755f, Durusdinium, 192n
Diphyllobothrid, 552, 553f 756 Dynamics in Metazoan Evolution (Clark), 115
Diphyllobothriidea, 526, 533 Distaplia occidentalis, 930f dynein arms, 50, 51f
Diphyllobothrium, 533 Distromatonemertea, 412, 413f Dysderidae, 806
latum, 552, 553f Ditrupa arietina, 433f Dysideidae, 125
Diplasterias, 902f Diurodrilidae, 426, 428, 483 Dyspnoi, 806, 815
diploblastic metazoans, 47, 48 Diurodrilus, 296, 298 Dytiscidae, 695, 749
Cnidaria as, 185 divergence, 33f
Trichoplax as, 167 Dll (Distal-less) gene, 30, 636, 732, 755, 755f, E
Diplogaster, 591f 756 ecdysiotropin, 642, 643f
Diplommatinidae, 335 DNA, 2, 5, 27, 28 ecdysis, 631, 640
Diplopoda, 785, 788 ancient samples, 31n ecdysone of Arthropoda, 587, 640, 642
anatomy of, 790f environmental samples, 31n in Hexapoda, 779
body plan of, 789 long branch attraction, 31n Ecdysozoa, 247, 273, 274, 275, 280, 321, 579
circulation and gas exchange of, 793 in molecular phylogenetics, 31, 31n in Cambrian Period, 13
excretion and osmoregulation of, 794 docoglossate radula, 362, 364f molecular phylogenetic analysis of, 24,
feeding and digestion of, 792 Dodecaceria, 450 25, 31n, 564, 577, 629, 652, 939
head and mouth appendages of, 791 Dodecolopoda, 850 molting of. See molting of Ecdysozoa
locomotion of, 791, 792f Doliolida, 912, 924, 925, 926, 928, 929 Nematoida, 563, 579–605
nervous system and sense organs of, Doliolum, 923f Panarthropoda, 563, 607–657
794, 795 Dolomedes, 826 Pax6 gene of, 93
phylogeny of, 799 Dolops, 672 in phylogenetic tree, 246f, 937f
reproduction and development of, Domeciidae, 711 Scalidophora, 563–578
795, 796–798, 797f dome of Ctenophora, 179 taxonomic history and classification of,
Diploscapter coronatus, 597 Donacidae, 340 629
diplosegments of Myriapoda, 785 Dorididae, 336 Echinacea, 879
Diplosoma, 926 dorsal aorta of Cephalochordata, 914f, 916 Echinarachnius parma, 884f, 895f
Diplostomida, 525, 528f, 531, 548, 550f dorsal jaws of Micrognathozoa, 298, 300f Echinaster graminicolus, 898
Diplostraca, 609f, 665, 695, 698–699, 706 dorsal lamina of Urochordata, 921f, 925 Echiniscoidea, 612
Diplura, 735, 738, 739, 740, 740f, 767, 783 dorsal neural tube of Chordata, 912 Echiniscoides, 612
evolution and phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, dorsal sac of Echinodermata, 898 sigismundi, 611f
782 dorsal storage organ of Cephalochordata, Echiniscus, 613f, 615f
general morphology of, 751 913, 914f Echinocardium, 889, 899f
thorax of, 756 dorsal vessels cordatum, 895f
Dipluridae, 805, 823f, 825 of Enteropneusta, 864f, 866 Echinococcus, 529f
Diptera, 738, 739, 747, 748f, 749, 750–751, of Pterobranchia, 870 granulosus, 529f
783 dorsoventral axis inversion of Chordata, multilocularis, 554
development of, 780f 933, 934 Echinocyamus, 896
feeding of, 757f, 764, 766 Dorvillea, 417f Echinoderes, 567f
mouthparts of, 755, 757f Dorvilleidae, 417f, 420, 434f Echinodermata, 169, 247, 251, 273, 487, 857,
nervous system and sense organs of, Dorylaimia, 583, 589f, 597 873–909
771, 772f, 773f, 774 Dorylaimida, 585, 591f axial and extraxial body regions of,
number of species, 736 Dorylaimus, 589f, 591f 881–883, 882f
phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, 782 Doryteuthis, 389 body plan of, 875, 881–905, 908
wings and flight of, 760, 761 Dotilla, 719 body wall of, 881, 882f, 883–885, 884f
Dipteropeltis, 672 Dotillidae, 719 characteristics of, 875
Dipylidium, 533 Doushantuo Formation, 2 circulation and gas exchange of, 896–899,
direct development, 106, 106f, 108 Bilateria in, 11 898f, 899f
of Acoela, 252, 260, 261 Ctenophora in, 184f coelom of, 885
of Chaetognatha, 307 Spiralia in, 275 endoskeleton of, 54f
of Crustacea, 727, 728 DoxC gene, 275 evolution of, 881, 883, 905
of Enteropneusta, 867f, 867–868 dpp gene, 100f excretion and osmoregulation of,
of Gnathostomulida, 284 Draconema, 580f, 589f 899–900
of Mollusca, 390 Draculoides bramstokeri, 40n external anatomy of, 876f
of Nemertodermatida, 262 Dracunculus medinensis, 581 feeding and digestion of, 881, 889–896,
of Porifera, 149, 150f Dreissena, 360 897f, 908
of Rotifera, 292 Dreissenidae, 340 fossil record of, 873, 875, 877, 905–908
Discinisca lamellosa, 510f Drepanophorus, 400, 407f gastrulation and gene expression in, 100f
Discinoidea, 512 Driesch, H., 91, 99

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 for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: email [email protected] Index I-15

internal anatomy of, 890f, 891f, 892f, Ediacaran Period, 10–11, 12f, 13, 14, 26, 275 endostyle of Chordata, 931, 933
895f, 897f Edmonds, S., 459 in Cephalochordata, 914f, 915
mesoderm of, 104 Edwardsia, 232 in Urochordata, 915, 921, 921f, 924, 925,
mutable collagenous tissues of, 885, 887 edwardsia stage, 232 928
nervous system and sense organs of, Edwardsiella lineata, 232 endosymbiosis, 62, 63, 89
880f, 900 effectors, independent, 81 endotokia matricida in Nematoda, 580f,
number of species, 3t, 247, 873, 909, 938 efferent nerves, 75, 76f 596
phylogeny of, 24, 246f, 859, 871, 877, Effrenium, 192n engrailed (en) gene, 631, 652
905–908, 936, 937f, 938 egg nauplius, 727 Enopla, 399
ray homologies of, 883 eggs. See ova Enoplia, 583, 585, 592, 594
reproduction and development of, egg sac of Chelicerata, 844, 845f, 846 Enoplida, 585
900–905, 901f–904f, 905t Ehlers, U., 262, 522, 539, 554 Enoplometopus, 660f
support and locomotion of, 54f, 887–889, Ehrenberg, C. G., 489 enterocoel theory, 115, 116
888f Eichhorn, J. C., 610 enterocoely, 104, 105f, 115, 116
symbiotic relationships of, 439 Eifelocrinus, 906f enteron of Platyhelminthes, 534
taxonomic history and classification of, Eirenidae, 222 Enteropneusta, 860, 860f, 863–868, 871
877–881 Eisenia, 453f circulation, excretion, and gas exchange
water vascular system of, 877, 880f, 881, fetida, 440f of, 864f, 866
882f, 885–887, 899, 899f, 905, 908, 909 Elasipodida, 881 classification of, 862
Echinofabricia alata, 455f Elateridae, 749, 759 coelomic cavities of, 863
Echinoidea, 874f, 879, 909 Electra, 498f, 504f, 507 external anatomy of, 861f, 863
Aristotle’s lantern in, 893, 894f, 895f, 896 Eledone, 64f, 372f feeding and digestion of, 864f, 865f,
body wall of, 883, 884f elephantiasis, 597, 605, 737 865–866
circulation and gas exchange of, 899f Eleutheria, 214f, 215 fossil record of, 870–871
excretion and osmoregulation of, 899 Eleutherozoa, 907f, 908 internal anatomy of, 864f
external anatomy of, 876f Ellipura, 782 nervous system of, 866
extraxial region of, 881 Ellobiida, 337 phylogeny of, 871
feeding and digestion of, 893–896, 894f, Ellobioidea, 337 reproduction and development of, 860,
895f elongate plexes of Ctenophora, 179 866–868, 867f–868f
internal anatomy of, 895f Elrathia, 14f support and locomotion of, 863, 864f, 865
nervous system and sense organs of, 900 Elysia crispata, 334f entocodon, 231
pedicellariae of, 884f, 885 elytra, 760 Entognatha, 738, 739–740, 740f, 751–752
phylogeny of, 907f, 908 Embata, 289 entognathous hexapods, 751–752, 781–782
reproduction and development of, 900, Embiidina, 738, 745 Entomostraca, 731
901, 902, 903, 903f Embioptera, 644, 738, 743f, 745 entoneural system of Echinodermata, 900
support and locomotion of, 888f phylogeny of, 37f, 781f Entonomenia tricarinata, 328f
water vascular system of, 887 Embletonia, 371f Entoprocta, 311, 312–317, 320, 322, 489
Echinolampadoida, 879 Embletoniidae, 337 body plan of, 48, 314–317, 488
Echinometra embolus of Euchelicerata, 840, 841, 841f body wall, support, and movement of,
mathaei, 889 embryogenesis, 91 314
vanbrunti, 889 embryophore of Platyhelminthes, 552 characteristics of, 313
Echinoneoida, 879, 894 Emerita, 59f, 681f, 708, 709, 709f circulation, gas exchange, and excretion
Echinosquilla guerinii, 675f analoga, 660f of, 314–315
Echinothurioida, 879 Emplectonema, 400 classification, 314
Echinozoa, 879–881 Enantiopoda, 699 feeding and digestion of, 314
Echinus, 880f Encentrum astridae, 288f nervous system of, 315–316
Echiura, 416, 422, 424–425, 426, 457, 465, Enchytraedidae, 425 number of species, 3t
483, 629 Encyclopedia of Life, 6 phylogeny of, 313, 937f, 938, 939
Echiurus, 466f, 468f, 469 Endangered Species Act, 6 reproduction and development of,
echiurus, 403 Endeavouria septemlineata, 534 316–317
ecosystems, 19f Endeidae, 804, 852, 853f Enypniastes, 875f
coral reef, 20 Endeis spinosa, 853f Eoacanthocephala, 293, 293f, 294
global climate change affecting, 6 endites of Arthropoda, 634, 634n, 635, 635f Eoandromeda, 10, 184
habitat loss, 6 in Chelicerata, 814 octobrachiata, 184f
of hydrothermal vents, 20–21 in Crustacea, 701 Eoarthropleurida, 799
keystone predators in, 6 Endocnidozoa, 185, 188, 192–193, 205 Eobodotria muisca, 688
plastic accumulation affecting, 7 phylogeny of, 241, 242f Eocyathispongia qiania, 2
Ecteinascidia turbinata, 934 taxonomic history and classification of, Eogastropoda, 323, 323n, 331
ectoderm, 47, 48, 101, 245, 275 190 Eognathacantha ercainella, 301
exoskeleton derived from, 53 endocrine hormones, 84 Eolorica deadwoodensis, 572
and gastrulation, 101, 102, 102f, 103 endocuticle ephemeral pools, 22
proctodeal, 103 of Arthropoda, 633, 633f, 641f Ephemeroptera, 738, 741f, 741–742, 767,
stomodeal, 102 use of term, 633n 770f, 778
Ectognatha, 738, 783 endocytosis, 56 abdomen of, 757, 758
ectognathous insects, 754 endoderm, 47, 48, 101, 245 evolution and phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, 782
ectolecithal ova, 523 and gastrulation, 101, 102, 102f, 103 flight of, 761
of Platyhelminthes, 542, 545, 546, 547, endolecithal ova, 523 ephippium of Arthropoda, 697f, 699
552, 555 of Platyhelminthes, 542, 555 Ephydatia
ectomesoderm, 103, 275 endomesoderm, 103, 197, 522 fluviatilis, 140, 147f
ectoneural system of Echinodermata, endoparasites, 23, 109 muelleri, 149
880f, 900 endopinacocytes of Porifera, 129, 134 Ephydridae, 750
ectoparasites, 23, 109 endopinacoderm, 129 Ephyra, 190
ectoplasm, 50, 50f endoplasm, 50, 50f ephyrae, 231, 233, 234f, 235f
Ectoprocta, 3t, 487, 489, 496 endopod of Arthropoda, 635, 635f Epiactis, 45f, 213
ectosome, 129, 130, 137 Endopterygota, 782 prolifera, 219f
Ediacara, 12f endoskeleton, 51, 53, 54f, 55 epiandrous fusules of Chelicerata, 821

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epibenthic animals, 20 Eucestoda, 526, 551 Eunicidae, 421

epiboly, 102f, 103 Euchelicerata, 801, 803, 805–846 reproduction and development of, 451f,
epicardial sacs of Urochordata, 927 appendages of, 807 452, 455f
Epicaridea, 664 body plan of, 807, 818–846 support and locomotion of, 432
epicuticle circulation and gas exchange of, Euopisthobranchia, 324f, 326, 333f, 337
of Arthropoda, 633, 633f, 634, 641f 831–834, 833f nervous system of, 379f
of Nematoda, 586f, 587 classification of, 805–807 reproduction of, 386f
of Tardigrada, 613 excretion and osmoregulation of, 834 Eupentacta, 896
epidemic broadcast spawning, 107 feeding and digestion of, 821, 826–831, Euperipatoides kanangrensis, 627
epidermal plate of Micrognathozoa, 296 832f Euphausiacea, 662, 664, 676, 677f
epifauna, 20 locomotion of, 823–826 circulation and gas exchange of, 719
epigastric furrow of Chelicerata, 813f, 815, nervous system and sense organs of, 826, feeding and digestion of, 708, 710
833, 839, 840f, 841 828–829, 834–837, 835f, 836f, 840–841 and krill densities, 676, 676n
epigynum of Chelicerata, 815, 840f, 841 phylogeny of, 853f, 854f, 854–855 locomotion of, 703, 704f, 706
Epimenia, 389f Pycnogonida compared to, 849 reproduction and development of,
australis, 324f reproduction and development of, 702t–703t, 725, 727, 730
verrucosa, 327f 837–846, 839f–841f thoracic appendages of, 704f
epimorphic development, 652, 728–729, silk and webs of, 819–823, 820f, 822f, 823f Euphausia superba, 662, 676, 677f
740, 796 Euchlora rubra, 178f Euphrosinidae, 417
Epiperipatus eucoelom, 49 Euplectella, 122f, 137–138, 156, 679
biolleyi, 623 eucoelomate body plan, 48, 48f aspergillum, 122f
imthurni, 626 eucone eyes of Hexapoda, 772, 772f Euplokamis, 168f, 176, 179
trinidadensis, 627f Euctenizidae, 805 Eupnoi, 806, 815
epiphyses of Echinodermata, 893, 894f Eudendriidae, 195 Euproöps, 839
epipods of Arthropoda, 634, 635f Eudistylia, 72f–73f euproöps larva of Chelicerata, 839, 839f
in Crustacea, 701 vancouveri, 433f Eupulmonata, 337
episphere, 117 eudoxids, 204 development of, 390
of Annelida, 455f, 456, 469 Euechinoidea, 879 digestion of, 370
of Entoprocta, 317 Eugnatha, 789 excretion and osmoregulation of, 378
epistome of Lophophorata, 487, 488, 489 Eugymnanthea, 222 nervous system and sense organs of, 380
in Brachiopoda, 513 Euheterodonta, 326, 340 reproduction of, 385, 386, 386f, 387
in Bryozoa, 503 Eukaryota, 2, 7 Eurhamphaea, 168f, 176
in Phoronida, 490, 491f, 493 classification of, 3, 8 Eurotifera, 286
epitheliomuscular cells of Cnidaria, database listings of, 6 Euryalida, 878, 885, 886
197, 198f evolution and phylogeny of, 2, 5, 7, 10 Eurycopidae, 706
Epitheliozoa, 162 fossil record of, 2 euryhaline animals, 67
epitokous annelids, 451f, 452 hemerythrins in, 75 Eurylepta californica, 521f
epitoky, 451f, 452 multicellularity of, 92, 119 Eurypterida, 653, 801, 802f, 807, 855
Epitoniidae, 335, 365 number of species, 2, 5, 26 Eurypterus, 802f
Epizoanthus, 222 Eukoenenia remipes, 802f
equal cleavage, 96, 96f draco, 816 Eurystomata, 499, 503
Eratoidae, 335 grassii, 816 circulation, gas exchange, and excretion
Ercaia minuscula, 733, 733f spelaea, 812f of, 504, 505
Eremobates, 811f Eukoeneniidae, 816 nervous sytem and sense organs of, 505
Erenna, 220 Eukrohnia, 307, 308f reproduction and development of, 507,
Eresidae, 806 bathypelagica, 308f 508, 509
Ergasilida, 690 fowleri, 301, 301f, 308f Eusarsiella, 668f
Ergasilus pitalicus, 670f Eukrohniidae, 301f, 302 Eutardigrada, 612, 612f, 613, 615
Eriauchenus, 830f eulamellibranch ctenidia of Mollusca, 367, feeding, digestion, and excretion of, 616
Erinettomorpha, 241 368f, 369 reproduction and development of, 617,
Eriocheir sinensis, 706 Eulepethidae, 421 618f
Eriophyoidea, 809 Eulimidae, 335, 365 Euthyneura, 323, 326, 336–337, 353
Ero furcata, 845f Eulimnadia texana, 724 feeding of, 365
Erpobdella, 481f eulittoral zone, 17, 18f reproduction of, 386–387
errant animals, 20 Eumalacostraca, 664, 673, 674–690 euthyneury of Gastropoda, 355, 380
Errantia, 416, 419, 422, 485 anatomy of, 674f, 675f, 681f, 683f Euzonus, 444
feeding and digestion of, 434 body plan of, 701 Evadne, 698
nervous system and sense organs of, 446 distinguishing features of, 700t–701t Evans, H. E., 736
Erwin, T., 40n, 736 Eucarida, 674, 676–682 Evarcha culicivora, 831
erythrocytes, 74 locomotion of, 706 evisceration of Echinodermata, 896, 900
estuary habitat, 21 Peracarida, 674, 682–690 evo-devo (evolutionary developmental
etching cells, 157 phylogeny of, 731 biology), 91–95, 936
Eteone, 456f reproduction and development of, evolution, 1–4, 9–16, 26
Ethmoliamus, 591f 702t–703t of Arthropoda, 644, 645, 652–657, 841
euanamorphosis, 798 Syncarida, 674, 675–676 of bilateral symmetry, 82, 115–116,
Eubacteria, 7, 8 Eumecynostomum evelinae, 253f 936–937
Eubilateria, 245 Eumedoninae, 711 blindness in, 81
Eubothrium salvelini, 537 Eumetazoa, 162, 240 body size changes in, 47–48
Eucalanus, 722f Eumida, 434f Cambrian Explosion in, 49
Eucarida, 650, 664, 674, 676–682 Eumillipes persephone, 786 of Chordata, 933
anatomy of, 681f Euneoophora, 523, 538f, 542, 555, 555f of Cnidaria, 2, 225, 240–243
Decapoda, 676–682 Eunice, 447f coelom origin in, 115–116
Euphausiacea, 676 aphroditois, 434f, 435 coevolution in, 15, 15n, 32n, 737, 751, 783
reproduction and development of, Eunicella cavolini, 186f colonial theory of, 112–114, 114f
702t–703t, 730 Eunicida, 417f, 419, 420, 429f comparative approach to, 26

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convergent, 29, 29n, 32, 33f, 93, 572 eyes flagellomeres of Hexapoda, 754
developmental system drift in, 93 ciliary, 80 Flagellophora apelti, 262f, 265
divergence in, 33f complex, 79 flagellum of Hexapoda, 754
of exoskeleton, 53 compound, 79–80, 80f. See also flame bulbs, 68
first life forms in, 1n, 1–2, 10 compound eyes of Nemertea, 406–407
of gene regulatory networks, 95 and evolution of blindness, 81 of Platyhelminthes, 537f, 538, 538f
of Hexapoda, 735–738, 755, 761–762, photoreceptors in, 79–81, 80f of Rotifera, 290
780–782, 798–799 rhabdomeric, 80 flexor muscles, 54, 55f
homologous characters in, 30 eyespots, 79 flight of Hexapoda, 759–762, 760f, 761f
hypothetical ancestors in, 112, 114f, 115, 118 of Annelida, 448 origin of, 761–762, 762f
of insect flight, 761–762 of Cephalochordata, 916 Florarctus heimi, 611f
of mesoderm, 48 of Cnidaria, 230 Florida Everglades, 21
of Mollusca, 355–356, 366, 392–395 of Hexapoda, 752f Floscularia, 285f, 287, 287f
of multicellularity, 92, 112, 114–115 of Lophophorata, 516f flosculi of Scalidophora, 564
of nervous system, 82 of Nemertea, 409f in Priapula, 572
of novel gene function, 93 of Tardigrada, 616–617 flukes and tapeworms
origin of Metazoa in, 112–117 eyestalks of Arthropoda, 650–651, 724 body wall of, 531–532
parallel, 32–33, 33f feeding and digestion of, 537, 537f
of Porifera, 160–163 F nervous system and sense organs of,
of prokaryotes, 7 Fabricia, 448 539–541
protist-metazoan intermediates in, Fabriciidae, 423, 455f reproduction and development of,
112, 113f Facelinidae, 337 542, 546–552
radiations in, 33f Facetotecta, 665, 691 support, locomotion, and attachment of,
and recapitulation concept, 91, 110–111 facilitation interactions, 24 532f, 532–533
reversal in, 33 facultative symbionts, 23 Flustrellidra, 504f
of spider silk and webs, 823 mutualism in, 24 food vacuole, 56, 56f
syncytial theory of, 114 Farrea occa, 132f foot
of triploblastic Metazoa, 48 Fasciola hepatica, 521f, 531f, 547f of Mollusca, 344, 345f, 347, 356, 357f, 358,
trochaea theory of, 116–117, 117f Fasciolariidae, 336 358f, 359, 360, 394
evolutionary developmental biology, fasciolosis, 525 of Rotifera, 285f, 287
91–95, 936 fat body in Hexapoda, 767 foramen of Brachiopoda, 511
and developmental tool kits, 92–93 fate maps, 100 force-sensitive organs of Arthropoda, 648
gene regulatory networks in, 93–95 Fecampia, 534 Forcipulatida, 878, 890
novel gene function in, 93 Fecampiida, 524, 555f, 556 forcipules of Myriapoda, 787, 791, 792
evolutionary species concept, 40 Fecampiidae, 534 Formica exsectoides, 736
Evolution of the Metazoan Life Cycle feeding strategies, 57–65, 89 Formicidae, 747
(Jägersten), 111 in carnivory and scavenging, 62–63. founder regions, 99–100
Excorallana, 685f See also carnivores FoxA gene, 462
excretion, 65–69 in chemoautotrophy, 65 fragmentation of Nemertea, 409
nephridia in, 68f, 68–69. See also deposit, 59–61 Franciscideres, 566
nephridia dissolved organic matter in, 57, 63–65. Fredericella, 503, 509f
water expulsion vesicles in, 67–68 See also dissolved organic matter free-living flatworms, 522, 523, 527–528, 529
excretory ducts of Platyhelminthes, in herbivory, 61–62 body wall of, 529–531
538, 538f, 551f suspension, 57–59 feeding and digestion of, 533–537
excurrent canals, 130, 131, 131f, 133f female atrium of Platyhelminthes, 542, 552 nervous system and sense organs of, 539
excurrent chimneys of Bryozoa, 503, 505f female heterogamety, 105 reproduction and development of, 541,
Exd (Extradenticle) gene, 636, 756 femur of Hexapoda, 753f, 756, 758f 542–545, 543f
Exechocentrus lancearius, 829f Fenestrulina, 507 support, locomotion, and attachment
exites of Arthropoda, 634, 634n, 635, 635f malusii, 500f of, 532
in Crustacea, 701 Fermeuse Formation, 2 Frenulata, 470, 471f, 474, 475f, 476
exite theory on insect flight, 762 Ferosagitta hispida, 302f, 307 Frenulina sanguinolenta, 511f
exocuticle of Arthropoda, 633, 633f, 641f fertilization, 86f, 86–87 frenulum
exocytosis, 56, 218 fibularium of Micrognathozoa, 298, 300f of Hexapoda, 757
exopinacocytes of Porifera, 129, 132, 134 Ficidae, 335 of Siboglinidae, 473
exopinacoderm, 129, 162 Field, K., 31n Frenzel, J., 112
exopod of Arthropoda, 635, 635f, 701n Filarioidea, 584 freshwater habitat, 21–22
in Crustacea, 701 Filasterea, 241 gas exchange structures for, 72
exoskeleton, 53, 54, 55, 55f filibranch ctenidia of Mollusca, 367, 368f, life cycle adaptations for, 22, 109
explicit phylogenetic hypotheses, 35 369 osmoregulation in, 66, 67, 67f, 68
extensor muscles, 54, 55f Filibranchia, 339 Frey, H., 877
externa, 691, 711, 712f Filifera, 188, 195 frontal glands of Nemertea, 408–409, 412
extinction Filistatidae, 806 frontal membrane of Bryozoa, 498f, 502, 502f
current rate of, 6, 11n Filospermoidea, 283, 284 frontal organs
in Ediacaran period, 11, 11n Filozoa, 241 of Acoela, 254f, 255, 259
of Hexapoda, 737, 780 filter feeding, 58 of Gastrotricha, 560
in Mesozoic era, 15, 16 Fionidae, 337 frontal plane, 46, 46f
in Paleozoic era, 15 fissiparity of Echinodermata, 901 frontal processes of Crustacea, 721
extracellular digestion, 56 Fissurella, 331f Frontinella, 828f
extracorporeal digestion, 56 Fissurellidae, 331f, 334, 374 Fugacium, 192n
Extradenticle (Exd) gene, 636, 756 Flabelligeridae, 419f, 423, 444 Fulgoridae, 746
extraxial/axial theory, 881 Flabellina, 334f Funch, P., 282, 295
extraxial region of Echinodermata, Flabellinidae, 337 fungi
881, 882f, 883 Flaccisagitta hexaptera, 305f classification of, 3, 5, 8
extremophiles, 8–9 flagella, 50–52, 51f, 89 number of species, 3n
exumbrella, 205 flagellated chambers (choanocyte chambers), symbiotic, of Arthropoda, 644
exuvium of Arthropoda, 640, 642f 127f, 129–130, 132f, 133f, 140 funiculus of Bryozoa, 502–503, 506

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funnel of Mollusca, 347, 361 feeding and digestion of, 558 germ layers, embryonic, 47, 48, 91, 101–103
furcae of Enteropneusta, 863 nervous system and sense organs of, germovitellarium of Platyhelminthes, 542
furcilia, 730 558–560 Gerridae, 746
Fustiaria, 325f number of species, 3t, 561 ghost larva of Loricifera, 575, 576f
fusules, epiandrous, of Chelicerata, 821 phylogeny of, 554, 556, 560, 937f, 938, 939 Gibbifer californicus, 748f
Fuxianhuia protensa, 653 reproduction and development of, 560 Gibbs, P., 459
support and locomotion of, 558 Gieysztoria expedita, 255f
G gastrovascular canals of Ctenophora, 170f, Gigantocypris, 666, 669
Gadilida, 340 178, 179, 179f, 180f Gigantowales chisholmi, 790f
Gadilidae, 340 gastrovascular cavity gill(s), 72, 72f–73f
gait of Arthropoda, 639 of Cnidaria, 185, 199, 199f, 201, 207, 218 of Crustacea, 645, 646f, 676–677, 718f,
Galeodes arabs, 811f of Platyhelminthes, 534 718–719
galls, 766 gastrozooids, 201, 202, 202f, 203f, 204, 204f, of Hexapoda, 770, 770f
gametes, 86–87 212, 212f of Mollusca, 366, 373, 374, 375, 377
gammaproteobacteria, 474, 926 gastrula, 101, 148n gill bars
Gammaridea, 710 gastrulation, 9, 101–103, 119, 273, 936 of Cephalochordata, 933
Gammarus, 537 of Chaetognatha, 308 of Enteropneusta, 863, 864f, 865, 866
Ganeshida, 169 of Ctenophora, 181, 182f gill bar supporting rods of Enteropneusta,
ganglion, 75, 82 forms of, 102f 863
cerebral, 82f, 83. See also cerebral location and pattern of gene expression gill slits, 871
ganglion in, 100f of Cephalochordata, 913, 915, 916, 917, 933
Garstang, W., 91, 111, 355, 456 of Nemertea, 411 of Deuterostomia, 859, 863
Garypus, 816 of Platyhelminthes, 545 of Enteropneusta, 863, 864f, 865, 868, 868f
titanius, 816 of Porifera, 120, 148, 148n, 149, 159 of Pterobranchia, 862f, 869, 870
gas exchange and transport, 48, 69–75, 89 GATA genes, 101 of Urochordata, 920, 921f, 931
in marine habitat, 17, 72 Gaussia, 662f gill theory on insect flight, 762
gastraea, 148n Gebiidea, 664, 681f, 682, 709 Girardia tigrina, 520f
gastrea, 112–113, 114f, 116 Gecarcinidae, 644, 680, 719 girdle of Mollusca, 350f, 351
gastric mill of Hexapoda, 767 Gecarcinus, 719 Giribet, G., 339
gastric pouches, 207, 209f Gecarcoidea natalis, 708 gizzard
gastric shield of Mollusca, 372, 373f Gegenbaur, K., 489, 522 of Hexapoda, 767
gastrodermis Gelanor latus, 829f of Mollusca, 370, 372
of Cnidaria, 197, 198f, 218 Gelatinosa, 162 Glacidorbidae, 337
of Porifera, 149 Gelyelloida, 665 gland cells
gastroneuron, 116, 117 gemmoscleres of Porifera, 144, 145 of Cnidaria, 197, 198f
Gastrophilus, 75 gemmules of Porifera, 144, 145, 145f, 146 of Enteropneusta, 863
Gastropoda, 322, 323, 324f, 345f, 346, 395 gene regulatory networks, 93–95 of Nemertea, 405
circulation and gas exchange of, 373, 374, genes, 5 of Placozoa, 167
375, 376 developmental, 93 of Platyhelminthes, 529–530, 532, 536,
classification of, 323, 323n, 326 and developmental tool kits, 92–93 536f, 537
coiled, 332f duplication of, 93 Glandiceps hacksii, 865
development of, 345, 353–356, 389, 389f, and evolutionary developmental gland of Deshayes, 370
391 biology, 92 Glanduloderma, 534
digestion of, 372, 373 evolution of novel function, 93 glassin, 126, 137, 161
evolution of, 353, 355–356 expression of, 99, 100f Glaucidae, 337
excretion and osmoregulation of, homologous, 30, 33 Glaucilla, 360
377, 378 and molecular phylogenetics, 24–25, 31n Glaucophyta, 5n
feeding of, 362, 363f, 364f, 364–365, 366, orthologous, 30 glaucothoe, 730
369 paralogous, 30 Glaucus, 360
fossil record of, 355 in parthogenesis, 88 global climate change, 6–7, 15, 16, 154
general anatomy of, 331, 331f–334f recruitment phenomenon, 30 Snowball Earth events in, 10, 11
limpetlike, 331f regulatory, 9–10, 25 Globodera, 600
locomotion of, 356–357, 357f in sexual reproduction, 86 glochidia of Mollusca, 390, 392f
mantle and mantle cavity of, 347, 348f, and transcription factors, 92 Glomerida, 798
353–355, 354f, 356 genital wings of Enteropneusta, 861f, 867 Glomeris, 787, 798
mixed development of, 109 genomic analysis, 31n, 92, 93, 936 glomerulus of Enteropneusta, 864f, 866
nervous system of, 355, 379f, 379–380 in phylogenomics, 936 Glossinidae, 750
number of species, 331 genotype, 93 Glossobalanus, 861f
phylogeny of, 323n, 393f, 394 Geodia, 156 Glossoscolecidae, 425
reproduction of, 385–386, 386f, 387f barretti, 157f Glottidia, 516f
sense organs of, 380, 382, 383f hentscheli, 156 Glycera, 314, 434f, 435, 440f
shell of, 349, 351n, 352–353 media, 157 Glyceridae, 421, 429f
symbiotic relationships of, 370 Geometridae, 751 circulation and gas exchange of, 443, 444
torsion of, 346, 353–356, 354f, 374, Geonemertes, 400, 407 jaws of, 434f
379–380, 391, 392f Geophilomorpha, 787, 788, 790f, 791 reproduction and development of, 455f
torted and detorted, 355 excretion and osmoregulation of, 794 support and locomotion of, 431
gastropores of Cnidaria, 212, 212f nervous system and sense organs of, 795 glycocalyx
gastrostyles of Cnidaria, 212, 212f reproduction and development of, 796 of Nematoda, 587
Gastrotricha, 25, 519, 530, 556–560 Geoplana, 530f of Porifera, 129
body forms of, 556, 557f georeceptors, 77f, 77–78 Glycymerididae, 339
body plan of, 48, 558–560 Gephyrea, 29n, 459 Glypheidea, 664, 682
body wall of, 558 Gephyreaster swifti, 214f Gnaphosidae, 806
characteristics of, 557 Gerakladium, 192n Gnathia, 685f
circulation, gas exchange, excretion, and germarium of Platyhelminthes, 542 Gnathifera, 247, 275, 281–309, 311, 321
osmoregulation of, 558 germ cell parasitism of Urochordata, 929–930 Acanthocephala, 281–282, 292–295
classification of, 556–557 germinal disc of Hexapoda, 777, 777f Chaetognatha, 281, 301–309

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Gnathostomulida, 281–282, 283–284, 309 Grandiderella, 707f Haliclona, 121f, 127f, 146
jaw structures of, 281, 282, 283 Grant, R. E., 124 cratera, 157
Micrognathozoa, 281, 295–301, 309 Grantia, 130 sonorensis, 157
phylogeny of, 246f, 281–283, 309, 556, Grapsidae, 680, 680f, 725 Haliclystus, 215
937f, 938, 939 grasping spines of Chaetognatha, 304, 305f, Halicreatidae, 194
Rotifera, 281–282, 284–295, 309 306 Halicryptus, 568, 569f
Gnathiidae, 664, 685f, 689 gravity, georeceptors responsive to, higginsi, 568
gnathobases of Arthropoda, 634, 635f, 701 77f, 77–78 spinulosus, 569, 570
Gnathophausia, 683f grazers, 57 Halictidae, 747
Gnathorhynchus, 535f carnivores as, 62, 63 Haliotidae, 334, 374
Gnathostomata, 932f great oxidation event, 7 Haliotis, 363f, 392f
Gnathostomatida, 584 Greeffiella, 580f kamtschatkana, 354
Gnathostomula armata, 283f minutum, 9 rufescens, 62f, 324f, 364f
Gnathostomulida, 295, 296, 309, 556 Grell, K., 166, 167 Haliplanella, 231
body plan of, 48, 283f, 284 Grimpoteuthis, 361f Halisarca, 124, 133f, 137, 149, 153
characteristics of, 284 Gryllidae, 745 dujardini, 151f
nervous system of, 284 Grylloblattodea, 738, 743f, 744, 745 harmelini, 156
number of species, 3t, 283, 309 phylogeny of, 37f, 781f Halisarcidae, 149
nutrition, circulation, excretion, and gas Gryllotalpidae, 745 Hallucigenia, 14f, 619, 621f
exchange in, 284 gsc (goosecoid) gene, 100f, 252 sparsa, 620f
phylogeny of, 281–282, 937f, 939 gubernaculum of Nematoda, 594, 595f Halobacterium, 9n
reproduction and development of, 284 Guilding, L., 619 salinarum, 9n
Gnorimosphaeroma oregonense, 724 gut Halobiotus, 616
Gnosonesimida, 523, 555f complete or through, 57. See also crispae, 611f, 612, 612f
Gnosonesimora, 523, 555 complete gut Halocynthia roretzi, 924
Gogia, 14f incomplete or blind, 57 Halocyprida, 663, 668f, 669
Goldschmidt, R., 592 Gwynia capsula, 510f halophiles, 9, 9n
Golfingia, 461f, 463–464, 464f, 465 Gyaltsenglossus senis, 871 halophytes, 21
vulgaris, 461f Gymnoblastea, 188, 194 Halosydna, 438
Golfingiidae, 459, 459f Gymnodoris nigricolor, 365 Halotydeus destructor, 809
Gonactinia, 232 Gymnolaemata, 499, 500, 503, 508 halteres, 760
gonads, 86–87 Gymnoplea, 665 Haminoeidae, 337
gonangia of Cnidaria, 202 Gymnosomata, 337 Hammer, E., 148n
gonapophyses of Diplopoda, 796 Gymnostreptus, 792f hamuli of Hexapoda, 757
Gonatidae, 344 Gyrinidae, 749 Hancock, A., 489
Gondwana, 15, 16 Gyrocotylidea, 525–526, 529, 551 Hanseniella magna, 789
Gonibregmatus plurimipes, 787 Gyrodactylidea, 525 Hansenocaris, 691
Goniobranchus geminus, 334f Gyrodactylus, 528f Hanson, E. D., 114
Goniodorididae, 336 Haootia, 2, 241
Gonionemus, 215, 218 H quadriformis, 2, 241
vertens, 208f Habellia, 14f Hapalomus minutus, 581
gonochory, 87, 105 habitat, 16–24, 26 haplodiploidy, 105
of Crustacea, 702t of Archaea, 8–9 Haplognathia
of Ctenophora, 181 estuaries and coastal wetlands, 21 belizensis, 283
gonocoel theory, 115, 116f freshwater, 21–22, 72. See also freshwater simplex, 283f
gonophores of Cnidaria, 202, 203f, 204, habitat Haplogonaria amarilla, 257f
204f, 234, 236 life cycle adaptations in, 109 Haplopharyngida, 523
gonopods of Diplopoda, 788 loss of, 6, 22 Haplopharynx rostratus, 537
gonopores, 87, 87f of major ecosystems, 19f Haplosclerida, 126
of Acoela, 260, 261f marine, 16–21, 66, 67, 67f. See also marine Haplotrematidae, 337
of Echinodermata, 880f, 895f, 901 habitat Harbison, R., 169
of Hexapoda, 776, 776f and osmoregulation, 17, 66–67, 67f Harmer, S. F., 860
of Myriapoda, 795, 796 terrestrial, 22. See also terrestrial habitat Harmothoe, 417f
of Nemertodermatida, 261, 262f, 263, Hadži, J., 114 Harpacticoida, 665, 670f, 671f, 690, 710
265, 265f Haeckel, E., 4, 91, 116, 629 Harpidae, 336
of Onychophora, 626 on Cephalochordata, 913 Harrimania kupfferi, 159
of Tardigrada, 617, 617f colonial theory of, 112–113, 114f Harrimaniidae, 862, 867, 871
gonotheca of Cnidaria, 199f, 201, 202 on gastrulation, 148n, 151, 151n Hase talpamorphicus, 671f
Gonothyraea, 187f, 240f recapitulation law of, 110–111, 183 Hatschek, B., 83, 169, 190, 245, 313, 489
loveni, 236 tree of life, 3, 4f Hatschek’s pit of Cephalochordata,
gonozooids, 202, 203f, 204f, 503, 508 Haeckelia, 177 914f, 915
goosecoid (gsc) gene, 100f, 252 rubra, 178f, 222 H canal system in Nematoda, 592, 592f
Gordioidea, 601, 602f, 603, 603f, 604 Haeckeliidae, 183 head
Gordius, 603f Haementeria ghilianii, 476 of Crustacea, 699
difficilis, 600 Haemonchidae, 585 of Hexapoda, 739, 752, 753f, 753–755
robustus, 601f hair sensillum of Chelicerata, 835 head shield of Crustacea, 700
Gorgonia, 207f Halacarellus auzendei, 809 heart, 71
gorgonin, 210 Halammohydridae, 194 heart vesicle of Enteropneusta, 864f, 866
Gorgonocephalus, 874f Halechiniscus, 615f hectocotyli of Mollusca, 343f, 388, 389, 389n
Gorgonorhynchus, 404 Halicephalobus mephisto, 581 Hectocotylus, 389n
Goto, R., 465 Halichondria, 155 Hedgehog signaling pathways, 652
Götte’s larva, 544 moorei, 155 Hedgpeth, J. W., 88, 849
Gould, S. J., 110 okadai, 155 Helicidae, 337, 376f
Gradungulidae, 806, 814f, 840 panicea, 140, 156 Helicinidae, 334
Graffilla, 534 poa, 157 Helicoplacus, 906f
Grammostola, 840f halichondrins, 155 Helicotylenchus, 591f

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Heliophanus, 838f Henricia, 890 Heterophrynus batesii, 810f

cupreus, 845f Herberstein, M. E., 837 heteropod, use of term, 335n
Helioporacea, 188, 191 herbivores, 57, 61–62, 62f Heteropora, 497f
Heliopora coerulea, 233 Herdmania momus, 922f Heterorhabditidae, 588
Helioporidae, 191 hermaphroditism, 87n, 87–88, 105 Heterorhabditis, 587f
Helix, 387 of Acoela, 259, 260 bacteriophora, 580f, 595f
aspersa, 62f of Annelida, 428, 450, 452, 474, 481 Heteroscleromorpha, 125–126, 140
Helminthomorpha, 789, 798, 799 of Bryozoa, 506 biochemical agents of, 154, 155
hemal channels of Onychophora, 623f, of Chaetognatha, 307 growth rate of, 155, 156
624f, 624–625 of Cnidaria, 232, 233, 237 Heteroserolis, 685f
hemal plexus of Phoronida, 492f, 494, 495 of Crustacea, 702t, 724 Heterostropha, 336
hemal rings of Echinodermata, 898, 898f of Ctenophora, 169, 181 Heterotardigrada, 612, 616
hemal system of Echinodermata, 901 Heteroteuthis, 384
of Chaetognatha, 306 of Entoprocta, 316 heterotrophs, 9n, 57
of Echinodermata, 898, 898f of Gastrotricha, 560 heterozooids, 500
hemerythrin, 74, 75, 75t, 513, 515 of Gnathostomulida, 283, 284 Hexabranchus sanguineus, 366
hemianamorphosis, 796, 798 of Loricifera, 575 hexacanth larva of Platyhelminthes,
Hemichordata, 247, 251, 273, 487, 488, 857, of Mollusca, 385, 386, 386f, 388, 388f 552, 553f
859–871 of Nematoda, 411, 581, 592, 594, 596 Hexacorallia, 188, 190, 191, 192
body plan of, 862–870 of Nemertea, 409 defense mechanisms of, 221f
characteristics of, 859 of Phoronida, 495 phylogeny of, 242, 242f
classification of, 862 of Platyhelminthes, 542, 546, 551, 561 spirocytes of, 216
Enteropneusta, 860, 862, 863–868 of Porifera, 146 Hexactinellida, 122f, 124, 125, 126–127,
fossil record of, 870–871 protandric, 87 131–132
number of species, 3t, 859, 871 protogynic, 87 activity and sensitivity of, 143
in phylogenetic trees, 246f, 907f, 937f of Tardigrada, 617 collagen in, 137
phylogeny of, 24, 859, 870–871, 877, 931, of Urochordata, 928 development of, 149, 151f, 151–152
932, 933, 936, 938 of Xenoturbellida, 270 distribution of, 154
Pterobranchia, 860, 862, 868–870 hermatypic corals, 225 evolution and phylogeny of, 159, 160,
Hemicytherura, 668f Hermodice carunculata, 418f 161, 161f, 162, 162f, 163
Hemigrapsus sexdentatus, 726f Hesiolyra bergi, 438f, 439 fossil record of, 161, 161f
hemimetabolous development of Hesionidae, 421, 438f, 448 growth rate of, 155
Hexapoda, 777, 778, 778f, 779f, 782, Hesperiidae, 751 internal anatomy of, 132f
783 Hesperonoe adventor, 439 reproduction of, 143, 146
Hemiptera, 738, 745–746, 746f, 768 Hesse, R., 592 skeleton of, 54f, 123, 125, 137, 138
defense mechanisms of, 752f Heterobranchia, 323n, 326, 336, 348f Hexadella, 124, 137
feeding of, 764, 765 characteristics of, 336 Hexamermis, 580f, 595f
leg modifications of, 758f circulation and gas exchange of, Hexaplex trunculus, 322n
locomotion of, 759, 761f 375, 376f Hexapoda, 26, 607, 609f, 628, 657, 663, 666,
mouthparts of, 755 excretion and osmoregulation of, 377 735–783
nervous system and sense organs of, feeding of, 362, 365 abdomen of, 739, 752, 753f, 757–758
650, 773f, 774, 774f general anatomy of, 333f–334f appendages of, 631t, 635, 636, 753, 754f,
phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, 782 locomotion of, 356, 360 755, 757f, 763f, 766
reproduction and development of, lower, 326, 336, 386 body plan of, 735, 751–780, 783
776, 779f reproduction of, 385, 386 body regions of, 753f, 753–758
sound production structure of, 774f sense organs of, 383f characteristics of, 608t, 630, 735, 736, 739
wings and flight of, 761f torsion of, 355, 356 circulation and gas exchange of, 645,
Hemirotifera, 286 Heterochaerus langerhansi, 255 767–770, 768f, 769f
Hemisquilla californiensis, 722f heterochrony, 111 classification of, 5, 37f, 738–751
Hemithiris psittacea, 515 heterocoely of Chaetognatha, 308 diversity of, 735, 737–738, 783
hemocoel, 70f, 71, 630, 630n, 632, 632f Heteroconchia, 326, 339–340 evolution of, 735–738, 755, 761–762,
of Chilicerata, 832, 833, 834 Heterocorallia, 243 780–782, 798–799
in circulation and gas exchange, 644, Heterocyemida, 275 excretion and osmoregulation of,
645f Heterodera, 600 770f, 770–771
of Crustacea, 717, 718f glycines, 580f feeding and digestion of, 751, 755, 757f,
development of, 652 Heterodonta, 325f, 326, 339, 340 762–767, 763f, 766f
in excretion and osmoregulation, development of, 391f fossil record of, 653, 655, 735–736, 739,
646, 647 locomotion of, 359 762, 762f, 780
of Mollusca, 373, 374f shell of, 350f general morphology of, 751–758
hemocoelomate animals, 71 heterogamety, 105 head of, 739, 752, 753f, 753–755
hemocyanin, 74–75, 75t, 767, 834 heterogamy, 105n leg modifications of, 758f
hemocytes, 74 Heterokrohnia, 301 locomotion of, 751, 758–762
hemoglobin, 74, 75, 75t involucrum, 302f molting of, 640
of Annelida, 443, 444, 465, 469, 474, 480 Heterokrohniidae, 302 nervous system and sense organs of, 648,
of Crustacea, 717 Heteronemertea, 398f, 399, 400 649–650, 656, 656n, 771f–774f, 771–775
of Echinodermata, 885, 898, 899 body wall of, 401, 402f number of species, 3t, 608t, 630, 736, 738,
of Enteropneusta, 866 excretion and osmoregulation of, 407 739, 783
of Lophophorata, 495 feeding and digestion of, 403, 405 phylogeny of, 32, 37f, 652, 653, 655–656,
of Mollusca, 373, 376 phylogeny of, 412, 413, 413f 731, 732, 734, 937f
of Nematoida, 590 proboscis apparatus of, 404f, 405f reproduction and development of, 751,
of Nemertea, 406 reproduction and development of, 756, 758, 775–780, 776f–780f, 783
hemolymph, 71 410f, 411 tagmosis of, 631
of Arthropoda, 644–645 heteronomous annelids, 426, 427, 432, 438, thorax of, 735, 739, 752, 753f, 755–757
of Mollusca, 373, 374, 374f 443 Hexasterophora, 125, 161
respiratory pigments in, 74, 75 heteronomy, 426 Hexathelidae, 815
Hennig, W., 34 Heterophlias, 687f Hexibranchidae, 336

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hibernation, 22 support and locomotion of, 889 hull membrane of Platyhelminthes, 545
of Tardigrada, 611f, 612, 612f symbiotic relationships of, 438f Humbert humbertii, 40n
Hickmania troglodytes, 814f, 840 water vascular system of, 887 Hummondasyidae, 560
Higgins larvae of Loricifera, 574, 575, 575f, Holothyrida, 807, 808 Hutchinsoniella macracantha, 695f
576f, 577f Homarus, 648f, 725 Huxley, T. H., 392, 924
Himantarium, 791 americanus, 317, 659, 681 Hyale, 687f
gabrielis, 786f gammarus, 317 Hyalogyrinidae, 336
Himasthla elongata, 551 homeobox genes, 9–10 Hyalophora euryalus, 752f
hindgut irrigation, 72, 72f–73f of Ctenophora, 183 Hyalospongiae, 162
Hippodiplosia, 505f, 506f Hox. See Hox genes hydatid cysts, 529f
Hippolytidae, 678f of Porifera, 120, 149, 159–160 Hydra, 185, 187f, 189f, 224, 698
Hipponicidae, 335 homing behaviors of Mollusca, 357, 362 cnidae of, 215, 217f
Hippoporidra calcarea, 222, 224f homologous characters, 30, 32, 33 movement of, 213
Hippoporidridae, 499 homology, 29–31 nerve net of, 227, 228f
Hippopus, 192n concept of, 30, 32 polypoid stage, 199f
Hippospongia, 137 level of analysis in, 30, 32 reproduction and development of,
Hirsutia, 688 homonomous annelids, 426, 427, 428, 443 85f, 236, 238f
bathyalis, 688 homoplasy, 33 symbiotic relationships of, 225
Hirsutiidae, 664, 688 Homoscleromorpha, 124 Hydractinia, 203f, 224
Hirtopelta, 370 cell types of, 132, 134 Hydractiniidae, 195
hirudin, 479 collagen of, 137 hydranth, 201, 201f
Hirudinea, 416, 425–426, 476–482, distribution of, 154 hydric habitat, 22
477f–481f, 483 evolution and phylogeny of, 161f, 162, Hydrobiidae, 335
body forms of, 426, 427, 476 162f hydrocarbon exposure of Porifera, 154
body plan of, 426, 477–482 fossil record of, 161f hydrocaulus of Cnidaria, 201, 201f, 202
body wall and coelom of, 477, 478f reproduction and development of, Hydrocenidae, 334
circulation and gas exchange of, 143, 146, 148, 149, 151f, 153–154 hydrocoel of Echinodermata, 881, 883, 885,
479–480, 480f skeleton of, 123, 126, 138 904, 904f, 905, 905t
excretion and osmoregulation of, 480 honeybees, 24, 88, 774–775, 777f Hydroidolina, 188, 194, 208f
feeding and digestion of, 478–479, 479f hood of Chaetognatha, 304 hydromedusae, 205, 207, 209, 234–240
nervous system and sense organs of, Hoplocarida, 664, 673, 674, 675f bioluminescence of, 231
480f, 480–481 distinguishing features of, 700t–701t in food web, 220
reproduction and development of, reproduction and development of, movement of, 214f, 215
481f, 481–482 702t–703t nervous system and sense organs of,
support and locomotion of, 477, 478f Hoplonemertea, 399, 400 228f, 229, 230
Hirudinida, 426, 476, 477f, 479f, 480f, 481f body wall of, 401f radial symmetry of, 197f
Hirudinoidea, 416 circulation and gas exchange of, 406f reproduction of, 234–240, 236f, 237f
Hirudo, 479f, 480f, 482 excretion and osmoregulation of, Hydrophilidae, 749
medicinalis, 477f, 479 406, 407 hydropolyps, 201, 231
verbana, 479 feeding and digestion of, 403, 403f hydropores of Echinodermata, 883
Hislopia, 507 nervous system and sense organs of, hydrorhiza of Cnidaria, 201f, 202, 202f
Histeridae, 765 408, 409f hydrostatic skeleton, 52f, 52–53, 71
Histioteuthidae, 344 phylogeny of, 412, 413, 413f hydrotheca of Cnidaria, 199f, 201
Histioteuthis, 325f proboscis apparatus of, 403, 404, 404f hydrothermal vents, 1n, 8–9, 9n, 20–21
Histriobdellidae, 421 reproduction and development of, 411 mixed development in, 109
hnf-forkhead gene, 100f support and locomotion of, 402 Hydrozoa, 167, 187f, 188, 194
Hofstenia, 255 horizontal furrows of Xenoturbellida, body wall of, 197, 198f
miamia, 253f, 258f 267, 268 cnidae of, 217f, 218
Hofsteniidae, 253f Hormiphora, 180f feeding and digestion of, 218
Hoilungia hongkongensis, 166 hormones, 84 in food web, 220
Holarchaea, 812, 830 endocrine, 84 growth forms of, 201, 201f
Holasteroida, 879 neurohormones, 84 life cycle of, 231, 236, 238f–239f
Holaxonia, 188, 191 Hormoscilla spongeliae, 156 medusoid stage of, 208f, 234–240.
holoblastic cleavage, 95, 96f, 101, 103 host in symbiotic relationships See also hydromedusae
Holocene Period, 16 definitive, 23, 110 mesoglea of, 103
Holometabola, 738, 747, 781f, 782 intermediate, 23, 110 movement of, 213
holometabolous development of Hexapoda, house of Appendicularia, 924, 925, 926 nervous system and sense organs of,
777, 778, 778f, 779f, 781f, 782, 783 Hox genes, 9–10, 93, 94f, 95, 245, 246, 938 227, 228, 228f, 229f, 230
holophyly, 29n and appendages in Arthropoda, phylogeny of, 241, 242, 242f
holoplanktonic species, 20, 108 635–636, 656 polypoid stage of, 198f, 199, 199f,
Holothuria, 896, 897f in Chelicerata, 835 201f–203f, 201–204, 234, 238f–239f,
impatiens, 897f in Chordata, 919, 931, 933 239, 240
tubulosa, 897f in Cnidaria, 221, 233 radial symmetry of, 197f
Holothuroidea, 875f, 879–881, 909 in Dicyemida, 275 reproduction and development of,
body wall of, 883, 884f in Gnathifera, 282, 301 199f, 231, 234–240
circulation and gas exchange of, in Hexapoda, 780 support of, 210, 212, 212f
898, 898f, 899 in Lophotrochozoa, 321 symbiotic relationships of, 225
excretion and osmoregulation of, in Porifera, 159–160 taxonomic history and classification of,
899, 900 in Pycnogonida, 853 190
external anatomy of, 876f tagmosis mediated by, 631 thecate, 199f, 201
feeding and digestion of, 896, 897f in Xenacoelomorpha, 251 tissue layer homologies in, 189f
internal anatomy of, 897f Hubrechtella, 400 Hygrophila, 337
nervous system and sense organs of, 900 Hubrechtia, 400 Hylocelis californica, 521f
phylogeny of, 907f, 908 desiderata, 412 Hyman, L. H., 57, 111, 113, 260, 282, 459,
reproduction and development of, Hubrechtiidae, 399, 400, 412, 413f 488, 489, 500, 522
901, 902, 902f, 903f hull cells of Platyhelminthes, 545 Hymeniacidon perlevis, 157

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Hymenolepis diminuta, 532, 537 inquilism, 24 feeding and digestion of, 644, 689, 710,
Hymenoptera, 738, 739, 747, 748f, 783 Insecta, 629, 740–751 711, 714
feeding of, 757f, 764, 766 anatomy of, 753f, 767f locomotion of, 638, 703, 704f, 706
flight of, 761 antennae of, 754, 755f nervous system and sense organs of, 721
hamuli of, 757 circulation and gas exchange of, reproduction and development of,
leg modifications of, 758f 645–646, 767–770 724, 725, 727, 729f
phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, 782 classification of, 5, 738–739 thoracic appendages of, 704f
reproduction and development of, 777 defense mechanisms of, 751, 752f Isoptera, 37f
Hyocrinida, 878 diversity and abundance of, 735, 736, 783 Iurida, 807
Hyolithes, 14f evolution and phylogeny of, 37f, 736, Iuroidea, 807
Hyperia medusarum, 689 737, 751, 755, 781f, 782 Ivanov, A. V., 473
Hyperiidea, 225, 665, 686f, 687f, 689 excretion and osmoregulation of, 646, 647 Iwata’s larva, 411
locomotion of, 707 feeding and digestion of, 644, 757f, Ixodes
nervous system and sense organs of, 762–767 pacificus, 809
720f, 724 importance of, 736–737, 738, 746 scapularis, 809
Hyperiopsidea, 665 leg modifications of, 758f Ixodida, 804f, 807, 808
hyperparasitic parasites, 23 locomotion of, 759 Ixodidae, 809
Hypochilidae, 806, 815, 820f molting of, 640, 641f, 642
Hypochilus, 820f morphology of, 751, 752 J
Hypoconcha, 680f mouth appendages of, 754f, 755, 757f, 763f Jackson, A., 166–167
hypodermis of Arthropoda, 632 nervous system and sense organs of, Jägersten, G., 111, 115f
hypognathous condition, 755, 756f 771–775 Janaria mirabilis, 222, 224f
Hypomyzostoma dodecephalis, 420f number of species, 736 Janthina, 360, 364
hyponeural sinus of Echinodermata, ontogenesis of body segments, 754f Janthinidae, 335
898, 898f as pests, 737, 746 Jasus, 729f
hyponeural system of Echinodermata, reproduction and development of, jaw of Gnathifera, 281, 282, 283, 309
880f, 900 775–780 in Gnathostomulida, 283, 283f, 284
hypopharynx of Hexapoda, 755, 764 silk production of, 644 in Micrognathozoa, 53, 295, 298, 300f
hypostome of Cnidaria, 199, 199f thorax of, 755–757 in Rotifera, 286, 288–289
hypothetical ancestral mollusc (HAM), 392 threatened species, 737 jaw of Mollusca, 362
hypoxic regions in habitat, 17 instars of Arthropoda, 640 Jefferies, R. P. S., 931, 933
Hypsibius annulatus, 618f Integrated Taxonomic Information System Joeropsididae, 685f
Hypsibius exemplaris, 614f (ITIS), 6 Joeropsis, 685f
Hypsogastropoda, 324f, 326, 335–336 integumentary gas exchange, 72 Johansson, K. E., 473
Hyptiotes, 827 intermediate hosts of parasites, 23, 110 Johanssonia, 479f
Hyriidae, 340 intermolts of Arthropoda, 640, 641f, 642 Johnston’s organ, 740, 782
hysterosoma of Chelicerata, 808 interna, 691, 711 Jones, M. L., 473
internal transport, 69–70 Jonston, J., 322
I International Code of Zoological Julida, 789
Ichneumonidae, 747 Nomenclature (ICZN), 39 Juliidae, 337, 353
Ichthyostraca., 664 interplate ciliated groove of Ctenophora, 181 Jurassic period, 15
Ichthyotomus sanguinarius, 438f, 439 interradial canals of Ctenophora, 178 sponge reef system in, 123
Idas, 360 intersex characteristics of Crustacea, 724
Idiosepiidae, 344 interstitial cells of Cnidaria, 197, 198f K
idiosoma of Chelicerata, 808 interstitial organisms, 20 Kalyptorhynchia, 524, 535f, 536
Idmidronea, 500f intertentacular organ of Bryozoa, 498f, 507 Kamptozoa, 489
Idotea, 685f Intestina, 522 Kantharellidae, 275
Idoteidae, 685f Intoshia variabili, 483 Karling, T., 262, 522, 554, 554f
Ikeda, 465, 467f, 469 intracellular digestion, 56 kenozooids, 500, 506f
Ilbiidae, 337 invagination of coeloblastula, 102, 102f kentrogon, 711, 712f, 713f, 714f
Ilyocypris, 668f invasive species, 6 Kentrogonida, 711, 714
imaginal discs of Crustacea, 662 Keratella slacki, 292
of Hexapoda, 747, 756 of Urochordata, 917, 926 Keratosa, 125, 137
of Nemertea, 411 involution, 102f, 103 kernels in gene regulatory networks, 95
imagos, 775 Iphionidae, 421 Kerriidae, 746
Imparidentia, 326, 340 Ircinia Kimberella, 10, 11, 395
imperforate extraxial region of fasciculata, 148 quadrata, 395
Echinodermata, 881, 882f, 906, 907f oros, 157 kinetosome, 50
Incirrata, 342 variabilis, 148 Kinorhyncha, 564–568, 577, 578
incomplete gut, 57 Irciniidae, 125 blastocoelom of, 49
incomplete mesentery of Cnidaria, 200f, 201 iron, 74 body plan of, 564–566, 567–568
incurrent pores of Porifera, 131f, 139–140 Irregularia, 879 body wall of, 567, 567f
independent effectors, 81 Isocrinida, 878, 887, 901 characteristics of, 565
indeterminate cleavage, 99, 100 Isodiametra circulation, gas exchange, excretion, and
indeterminate growth of Crustacea, 730 divae, 257f osmoregulation of, 567–568, 568f
indirect development, 106, 106f, 107 earnhardti, 257f classification of, 566–567
induction process, 104 pulchra, 259f feeding and digestion of, 567, 568f
infauna, 20 Isolaimiida, 585 nervous system and sense organs of,
infundibulum of Ctenophora, 178 isolecithal ovum, 95, 95f 568, 568f
infusoriform embryos (larvae) of Dicyemida, Isophyllia sinuosa, 221f number of species, 3t, 564
276, 277, 279 Isopoda, 661f, 664, 688–689, 734 phylogeny of, 25, 564, 937f
infusorigens of Dicyemida, 277, 278 anatomy of, 685f reproduction and development of, 5
Ingolfiella, 687f circulation and gas exchange of, 68, 568f
Ingolfiellida, 665, 687f, 690 646, 646f, 717, 718f, 719 support and locomotion of, 567
ingression of coeloblastulae, 102f, 103 excretion and osmoregulation of, Kirkaldy, G. W., 40n
ink sac of Cephalopoda, 372f, 384 647, 720

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Kiwa, 680–681 of Ctenophora, 181, 181f, 182f, 183 Lepadocystis, 906f

hirsuta, 680 of Cycliophora, 319 Lepas anatifera, 661f
Klein, J., 877 cyphonautes, 507, 508f Lepetellidae, 334
kleptocnidism, 177, 222, 365 Desor’s, 411, 413 Lepetidae, 332
kleptoprotein bioluminescence, 669 of Dicyemida, 276, 277, 278, 279 Lepetodrilidae, 334
Koenemann, S., 699 of Echinodermata, 874, 881, 900, 903f, Lepidocystis, 907f, 908
Koenenia, 810f 903–904, 909 Lepidopa, 708
Kowalevsky, A., 323, 489 of Enteropneusta, 867f–868, 867–868 Lepidopleurida, 329, 382
krill, 662, 676, 676n, 708 of Entoprocta, 316f, 317 Lepidoptera, 738, 739, 747, 748f, 751, 752f,
Kristensen, R. M., 282, 295, 572 of Euchelicerata, 839, 839f, 844, 783
Krohn, A., 275 845f–846f, 846 abdominal limbs of, 636
Krohnitta subtilis, 302f hexacanth, 552, 553f development of, 779f, 780f
Krohnittella, 302 of Hexapoda, 778, 779, 783 dispersal of, 761
Krohnittidae, 302 Higgins, 574, 575, 575f, 576f, 577f evolution of, 780
Kronborgia, 534 of Hydrozoa, 238f–239f, 239, 240 feeding of, 757f, 763, 764
Kruppomenia minima, 327f infusoriform, 276, 277, 279 flight of, 761
K-selected species, 95, 108 Iwata’s, 411 frenula of, 757
Kukalová-Peck, J., 634n, 756n, 762, 782 lecithotrophic, 103, 106, 106f, 107 mouthparts of, 755, 757f, 763
Kulindroplax perissokomos, 393 of Loricifera, 572, 574, 575, 575f, 576f, 577f phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, 782
metamorphosis of, 107–108 sense organs of, 773f
L in mixed development, 108–109 Lepidosauria, 38f
labellum of Hexapoda, 755, 757f, 764–765 of Mollusca, 344–345, 354f, 355, 360, Lepidurus, 698
labial palps of Mollusca, 367, 367f 389–390, 390f–392f, 391, 395 arcticus, 698
labial probolae of Nematoda, 590 of Nematoda, 580, 596, 597 Leptasterias tenera, 902
Labidiaster, 890 of Nematomorpha, 580, 601, 602f, 604, 605 Leptocottis, 687f
labidognathous chelicerae, 815 of Nemertea, 411 Leptodora, 696f, 699
Labiocarida, 653, 666, 731 Pandora, 319 kindtii, 698
labium of Hexapoda, 735, 755, 763, 764 of Phoronida, 489, 493f, 495, 496 Leptodoridae, 698
Lacazella mediterranea, 517 planktotrophic, 103, 106, 106f, 107 Leptogorgia, 210
lacinia mobilis, 682 planula. See planula larva Leptomedusae, 188, 194, 208f, 222
lacunae of Platyhelminthes, 537, 544, 544f, 545f, Leptomitus, 14f
of Nemertea, 406 548, 549f, 552 Leptostraca, 664, 673f, 673–674
of Platyhelminthes, 522 of Porifera, 120, 125, 146–147, 148, 148n, circulation and gas exchange of, 717, 719
lacunar system of Acanthocephala, 150f, 151f, 152, 153–154 locomotion of, 703, 704f
293f, 294 of Priapula, 571f, 572 phylogeny of, 731
ladderlike nervous system of primary, 83 thoracic appendages of, 704f
Platyhelminthes, 539, 540f, 541f Prometheus, 319 Leptosynapta, 902
Laevicaudata, 665, 696f–697f, 698 of Pterobranchia, 870 Leptothecata, 194, 214
Laevidentaliidae, 340 of Pycnogonida, 851f, 852, 853–854 Lernaeodiscus porcellanae, 713f
Laevipilina Schmidt’s, 411 Leucascus, 131
antartica, 370 settlement process, 108 Leucauge, 609f
hyalina, 324f substratum selection, 108 Leucilla nuttingi, 121f
Lagenivaginopseudobenedenia, 40n tadpole, 929, 930f, 931f Leuckart, R., 169, 190, 282, 629, 877
Lagerstätten, 653 tornaria, 860, 868, 868f, 870 Leuconia, 126
Lamarck, J.-B., 3, 124, 190, 416, 459, 629, trochophore. See trochophore larva leuconoid sponges, 128f, 129, 130–131, 140,
663, 911 of Urochordata, 924, 927, 929, 930f–931f, 151
Lamellibranchiata, 323, 337 930–931 Leucosolenia, 129, 130f, 133f, 138f, 149
Lamellisabella, 470, 471f, 473, 475f vermiform, 276, 277, 278, 279 Leucothea, 168f, 176
zachsi, 473 Larvacea, 912, 919, 923f Lévi, C., 124
Lampea, 177 larval skeleton of Echinodermata, 903 levotropic direction, 97, 98, 99
Lampyridae, 749, 774 Lasionectes, 695f Leys, S., 148n
land, and terrestrial habitat. See terrestrial Lasioseius ometes, 804f life cycles, 105–110
habitat lasso cells of Ctenophora, 176 alternation of generations in, 185n
Lang’s vesicle in Platyhelminthes, 543 lateral canals of Echinodermata, 880f, 886, characteristics of, 105–106
languets of Urochordata, 921f, 925 887 classification of, 105–106
Laniatores, 806, 810f, 815 lateral field cells of Chaetognatha, 303f, 305 of Dicyemida, 277–279
Lankester, E. R., 115, 629 lateral fins of Chaetognatha, 303f, 304 direct development in, 106, 108
lappets, 229f, 230 Laternulidae, 340 in estuary and coastal wetland habitat, 21
Laqueus erythraeus, 516f latitudinal cleavage, 96, 96f in freshwater habitats, 22, 109
larva Latrodectus, 813f, 830 indirect development in, 106, 107
of Acanthocephala, 292, 294, 295f geometricus, 842 meroplanktonic, 107
acanthor, 294, 295f hasselti, 842 mixed development in, 106, 108–109
actinotroch, 489, 496 mactans, 842 of parasites, 109–110, 597–600
actinula, 238f–239f, 239, 240 Laurasia, 15, 16 settlement and metamorphosis in,
of Annelida, 454, 455f, 456, 456f, 464f, Laurentaglyphea, 682 106f, 107–108
465 Laurer’s canal of Platyhelminthes, 547, 547f in terrestrial habitat, 109
of Brachiopoda, 515, 516f, 517 Laurida, 665 ligament sacs of Acanthocephala, 293f, 294
of Bryozoa, 505–506, 506f, 507f, 507–508, Leach, W. E., 40n ligaments of Bivalvia, 350f, 351
508f Lecanicephalidea, 526 Light, S. F., 40n
of Cephalochordata, 916–917 Lecithoepitheliata, 523 Lightiella, 695f
chordoid, 319 lecithotrophy, 103, 106, 106f, 107, 147 monniotae, 660f
of Cnidaria, 221, 223f, 232, 233, 238f–239f legacy names, 25, 36, 274 serendipida, 40n
competent, 107–108 leg theory on insect flight, 762 Ligia, 661f, 685f
coronate, 508 Lejopyge, 14f Lima, 325f, 382
of Crustacea, 672f, 691, 700, 700n, 701–703, lemniscus of Acanthocephala, 293f, 294 Limacidae, 337, 376f
712f–713f, 727, 727n, 728f–729f Leonardo davincii, 40n Limacinidae, 337

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Limida, 339 lithocytes of Ctenophora, 179 Lottia, 331f, 348f

Limidae, 339, 360 Lithophaga, 360 Lottiidae, 331f, 332, 362
Limifossor, 327f Lithophora, 524 Lovén, S., 323
Limnocnida, 239f Lithotelestidae, 191 Lovenia elongata, 874f
Limnognathia maerski, 282, 295–301 Litobothriidea, 526 Lovén’s Rule, 880f
body plan of, 296, 297f Littoraria irrorata, 537 Lower Heterobranchia, 326, 336, 386
body wall musculature of, 297–298, 300f Littorina, 363f, 377f, 382f, 383f, 387f Loxoconcha, 668f
feeding and digestion of, 298 Littorinidae, 335 Loxokalypodidae, 314
jaw structures of, 295, 298, 300f Littorinimorpha, 382f Loxokalypus socialis, 314
locomotion of, 298 Living Planet Index, 22 Loxorhynchus, 679f
nervous system and sense organs of, Lobata, 168f, 172 Loxosceles reclusa, 830
299f, 301 anatomy of, 170f–171f, 172, 175 Loxosoma, 314
reproduction and development of, feeding and digestion of, 176 Loxosomatidae, 313, 314
299f, 301 phylogeny of, 183 Loxosomatoides, 314
sculptured winter egg of, 301, 301f reproduction and development of, 181 sirindhornae, 312, 315
Limnomedusae, 188, 193, 194, 208f, 220 lobopods (lobopodia), 50 Loxosomella, 313f, 314, 317
Limnoria, 689 of Onychophora, 622, 623 harmeri, 316f
Limnoriidae, 711 locomotion, 20, 49–56, 89 leptoclini, 315f, 316f
Limnoriidea, 644, 664 ameboid, 49, 50, 50f vancouverensis, 313f
Limulidae, 808 cilia and flagella in, 49, 50–52 vivipara, 316f
Limulus, 807, 808 muscles and skeletons in, 52–56 Lubomirskiidae, 144, 153
circulation and gas exchange of, Reynolds numbers in, 49–50 Lucernaria, 187f, 214f
833f, 834 Loliginidae, 344 Lucifer, 677
digestion of, 831, 832f Loligo, 342f, 372f, 375f, 381f luciferase, 81, 774
nervous system and sense organs of, 835 long branch attraction (LBA), 31n, 933 luciferin, 81, 774
polyphemus, 530f, 534, 609f, 803f, 807–808, Longidoridae, 585 Lucinida, 340
834, 839f longitudinal canals of Echinodermata, 887 Lucinidae, 370
reproduction and development of, longitudinal cleavage, 96, 96f Luffariella variabilis, 155
837, 838–839, 839f longitudinal cords of Nematoda, 587 Lumbricidae, 425, 440f, 445f
Linckia, 901, 901f longitudinal nerve cords, 82f, 83 Lumbriculidae, 416, 425, 435, 476
multiflora, 901f of Nemertea, 402f, 408, 412 Lumbricus, 435
Lindberg, D. R., 393f Lopadorrhynchidae, 418f, 422 circulation and gas exchange of,
Linderiella, 696f Lopadorrhynchus, 418f 442, 443, 443f
Lineus, 400, 409 lophocytes of Porifera, 134, 135f digestive system of, 441f
longissimus, 397 Lophogastrida, 664, 683f, 687 excretion and osmoregulation of, 445f
ruber, 405, 410f, 411 excretion and osmoregulation of, 720 reproduction and development of, 453f
viridis, 411 feeding and digestion of, 710 terrestris, 417f
Linguatula serrata, 672f locomotion of, 703, 704f Lumbrineridae, 418f, 421, 441
Lingula, 511, 511f, 512f, 514, 515, 517 thoracic appendages of, 704f Lumbrineris, 418f
anatina, 516f Lophogorgia, 85f luminescence. See bioluminescence
Linguliformea, 510f–511f, 511–512, 512f Lophopagurus, 709f Lunataspis, 808
body wall and support of, 513 Lophophorata, 247, 275, 322, 487–517 Luncinidae, 340
feeding and digestion of, 514 body plan of, 489–490 lung
reproduction and development of, Brachiopoda, 322, 487, 509–517 book lungs, 72, 645, 646f, 832, 833, 833f,
516f, 517 Bryozoa, 322, 487, 496–509 834
Linguloidea, 512 Phoronida, 322, 487, 490–496 of Mollusca, 375, 376f
Linnaeus, C., 124, 522, 629 phylogeny of, 487–488, 937f lunules of Echinodermata, 876f, 889
on Ctenophora classification, 169 taxonomic history of, 488–489 Lurifax vitreus, 370
on Mollusca classification, 322 lophophore of Lophophorata, 487, 488, 489 lurking predators, 62, 63
on Nematoda, 581 in Brachiopoda, 509, 510f, 513–514, 515f, Lycaenidae, 751
nomenclature system of, 38, 40n 517 Lycopodina
on Sipuncula, 459 in Bryozoa, 500, 503 hypogea, 140, 141f
Systema Naturae, 38–39, 459, 522, 568, 736 in Phoronida, 490, 491f, 492f, 494, 495, occidentalis, 140
Vermes phylum of, 416, 459 496 Lycosa, 833f, 845f
Linuche, 226 Lophophus, 501 erythrognatha, 830
Linyphiidae, 806, 825, 827, 828f, 839, 843f lophopodid colonies of Bryozoa, 501 rabida, 843f
Liocheles, 844f, 846 Lophotrochozoa, 275, 321, 488, 496 Lycosidae, 806, 824f, 827, 837, 842, 845f
australasiae, 846 Annelida, 415–485 Lycoteuthidae, 344
Liocranidae, 845f Lophophorata, 487–517 Lycoteuthis, 384
Liphistiidae, 815, 827 Mollusca, 321–395 Lyme disease, 809
Liphistiomorpha, 832 Nemertea, 397–413 Lymnaea, 389f
Liponema brevicorne, 213, 214f phylogeny of, 937f Lymnaeidae, 337
Lipostraca, 694 use of term, 321–322 lymphatic channels of Platyhelminthes,
lips of Nematoda, 589f, 590 lorica 532, 537
Liriope tetraphylla, 208f of Loricifera, 572, 574 Lynceus, 696f–697f
Lissarca miliaris, 390 of Priapula, 571f, 572 lyriform organs of Chelicerata, 835, 836f,
Lissoclinum, 926 of Rotifera, 285f, 287 837
Listriolobus, 466f Loricifera, 9, 564, 572–577, 578 Lyrocteis, 170f
LITE-1 in Nematoda, 594 blastocoelom of, 49, 574 imperatoris, 168f
Lithistida, 138n body plan of, 48, 573–575 Lysmata, 678
lithistid sponges, 138, 161 characteristics of, 574 californica, 660f, 678f
Lithobiomorpha, 787, 788, 790f, 793, 795, fossil record of, 564, 572 Lytechinus
796 life cycle of, 575, 575f, 576f, 577f pictus, 97
Lithobius, 790f, 793f marine habitat of, 17 variegatus, 896
forficatus, 795f, 796f number of species, 3t Lythoglyptida, 665
phylogeny of, 564, 937f

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M excretion and osmoregulation of, 720

feeding and digestion of, 708
regions of, 17–18, 18f
salinity of, 17, 21
Macandrevia cranium, 516f nervous system and sense organs of, temperature of, 17, 21
Maccabeidae, 569f, 570 651, 721 Markuelia, 564
Maccabeus, 568, 570 phylogeny of, 731, 731f Marphysa, 455f
tentaculatus, 569f, 571, 572 reproduction and development of, Marrella, 14f
Macellicephala, 438, 438f 702t–703t, 725, 727, 730 Martesia, 360
Macellomenia Malacovalvulida, 193 Martin, J. W., 663
morseae, 328f Malacozoa, 323 Martín-Durán, C., 483, 484f
schanderi, 328f malaria, 737, 764, 765 Martinssonia elongata, 733f
Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus, 293f, 295f Malawispongiidae, 144 mastax of Rotifera, 285f, 286, 288–289
Macrobdella decora, 479 Maldanidae, 424, 433f, 435 Masterman, T., 489
Macrobiotus, 615f Maldanomorpha, 424 Mastigias, 225f, 226
Macrocheira kaempferi, 608, 657, 659 male atrium of Platyhelminthes, 542, 543f, mastigonemes, 51
Macrocypris, 668f 552 Mastigoproctus, 812f, 818
Macrocystella, 906f male heterogamety, 105 Mastophora, 828–829
Macrodasyida, 556, 557, 557f, 559f, 560 Malleidae, 339 maxillae
macroherbivory, 61–62 malleoli of Chelicerata, 837 of Crustacea, 700
macromeres, 96, 96f, 97–98 Malletiidae, 339 of Hexapoda, 735, 739, 755, 763, 764
of Chaetognatha, 307 Malpighian tubules, 68f, 69, 644, 646–647, of Myriapoda, 785, 788, 791
of Ctenophora, 181, 182f 647f maxillipeds of Crustacea, 700–701, 701t
of Echinodermata, 903 of Chelicerata, 630, 831, 834 Maxillopoda, 650, 650n, 724, 731
of Nemertodermatida, 266, 266f of Hexapoda, 630, 768, 770, 770f, 782, 794 maxillules of Crustacea, 700
of Porifera, 151, 152, 152f, 153 of Myriapoda, 630, 793f, 794 Mayr, E., 39
quartet of, 97 of Tardigrada, 614f, 616 Mazocraeidea, 525
macrophagy, 57 Mammalia, 629 Mazoglossus, 870
of Mollusca, 361, 363f Mammuthus primigenius, 31n Meara, 262–263
Macropodus opercularis, 551 Manayunkia aestuarina, 61f stichopi, 261, 262, 262f, 263, 263f, 264f,
Macrorhynchia, 218 mancas, 682 265, 266f
macroseptum of Annelida, 450 mandible, 61 mechanoreceptors, 76, 77–78, 648, 648f
Macrostomida, 520f, 523 of Crustacea, 700, 755f of Crustacea, 723f
body wall of, 529, 531 of Hexapoda, 735, 739, 755, 755f, 756f, of Euchelicerata, 835–836, 836f, 837
feeding and digestion of, 534 763, 764, 765 of Urochordaa, 927
reproduction and development of, 542 of Myriapoda, 778–788, 791, 792, 796, 797 Mecoptera, 738, 739, 748f, 749–750
Macrostomorpha, 523 Mandibulata, 631, 652–653, 654, 655, 655f, phylogeny of, 37f, 750, 781f
body wall of, 529 798 Mecynostomidae, 253f
feeding and digestion of, 535f, 537 acron/ocular segment of, 632 medusoid form of Cnidaria, 185, 186, 196,
phylogeny of, 554, 555, 555f nervous system and sense organs of, 650 205–209, 231, 233–234
reproduction and development of, phylogeny of, 937f circulation of, 227
541, 542, 542f, 543f Mangelia, 363f evolution of, 241, 242, 243
Macrostomum, 520f, 535f, 542, 544f mangrove forests, 19f, 21 feeding and digestion of, 219
hystrix, 544f Mantispidae, 749 gas exchange and excretion in, 227
lignano, 544f, 554 mantle movement of, 213–215
Mactridae, 338f, 340 of Brachiopoda, 512–513, 513f nervous system and sense organs of,
Madin, L., 169 of Mollusca, 344, 345f, 346–347, 351, 394 227, 229f, 229–230
Madreporaria, 192 of Urochordata, 921f, 925 support of, 209, 210
madreporite of Echinodermata, 876f, 880f, mantle canals of Brachiopoda, 513, 513f symbiotic relationships of, 225
883, 886, 887 mantle cavity of Mollusca, 344, 345f, medusoid hypothesis on Cnidaria, 241
MADS box transcription factor genes, 10 346–347, 348f Medusozoa, 187f, 188, 190, 193
Magasella sanguinea, 511 in circulation and gas exchange, 373, 374, body wall of, 197
Magellania 375, 376, 377 feeding and digestion of, 219
flavescens, 514f evolution of, 394 medusoid form of, 205, 231
venosa, 510f in feeding, 366, 367f, 369 nervous system of, 227
Magelona, 416 torsion of, 353–355, 354f, 356, 392f phylogeny of, 221, 241, 242, 242f
pitelkai, 418f Mantodea, 738, 743, 743f, 744 polypoid stage of, 198
Magelonidae, 416, 418f, 444 leg modifications of, 758f reproduction and development of, 231
Magiciada, 746 phylogeny of, 37f, 781f Megadasys, 557f, 558
magnetic fields, 76 Mantophasmatodea, 37f, 738, 743f, 745, 781f Megaderaion, 870
magnetotactic capabilities, 775n manubrium of Cnidaria, 199, 205, 208f megaesthetes of Mollusca, 351
Majidae, 679f Manzanellida, 339 Megalaspis acuticauda, 654f
major claw of Crustacea, 725 Marchantiophyta, 5n Megalodicopia hians, 919f
Malachia, 322 Margaritidae, 334 megalopa of Crustacea, 729, 729f, 730
Malacobdella, 399, 400, 402 Margaritiferidae, 340 Megaloptera, 738, 739, 748f, 749
feeding and digestion of, 404f, 405 Marginellidae, 336 phylogeny of, 37f, 781f
grossa, 398f Marginifera, 511f Meganyctiphanes, 677f
nervous system and sense organs of, 408 Maricola, 524 Megaphragma, 747
phylogeny of, 412, 413 Marimermithida, 585 megascleres, 138
reproduction and development of, marine habitat, 16–21 Megascolecidae, 425, 453f
410, 411 acidification of, 6, 15, 17, 212 Mehlis’s glands of Platyhelminthes,
Malacosporea, 188, 193 dead zones in, 17 546, 551f
Malacostraca, 660f, 664–665, 666, 673–690, direct development in, 108 meiofauna, 20
755f gas exchange structures for, 17, 72 Meioglossus, 865, 871
anatomy of, 663f, 673f, 674f, 675f hydrothermal vents in, 20–21 psammophilus, 860, 864f, 867
body plan of, 701 indirect development in, 107 Meiopriapulus, 568, 578
circulation and gas exchange of, 718 mixed development in, 109 fijiensis, 570, 572
distinguishing features of, 700t–701t osmoregulation in, 17, 66, 67, 67f meiosis, 86

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Meiura, 680 Metacarcinus characteristics of, 296

melanin, 349 gracilis, 680, 726f feeding, and digestion of, 298
Melanopsidae, 335 magister, 403, 726f jaw structures of, 53, 295, 298, 300f
Melibe, 364, 370 metacercaria of Platyhelminthes, 548, 550f, locomotion of, 298
Melita, 686f 551 nervous system and sense organs of,
Mellita, 876f metacoel, 104, 105f, 488 299f, 301
Meloidae, 749 of Echinodermata, 881 number of species, 3t, 274
Meloidogyne, 600 of Enteropneusta, 863, 867 pharyngeal apparatus of, 298
incognita, 599f of Phoronida, 495 phylogeny of, 282, 937f
Melongenidae, 336 of Pterobranchia, 869, 870 reproduction and development of,
Membracidae, 746 metagenesis, 185n 299f, 301
Membranipora, 497f, 500, 503, 505f, 506, 507, metals, heavy, accumulation in Porifera, sculptured winter egg of, 301, 301f
508f 154 microhydrula stage, 234
membranacea, 501 metamerism Microlaimida, 584
Menippe adina, 729f of Annelida, 415, 426, 485 micromeres, 96, 96f, 97–98, 99
Mercenaria, 338f of Mollusca, 394 of Chaetognatha, 307
meridional canals of Ctenophora, 173f, 178, metamorphosis, 106f, 107–108 of Ctenophora, 181, 182, 182f
179, 179f, 181 of Brachiopoda, 516f, 517 of Echinodermata, 903
meridional rows of Ctenophora, 174 of Bryozoa, 507f, 508 of Nemertodermatida, 266f, 266–267
Meristoderes, 566f of Crustacea, 728f, 729, 730 of Porifera, 151, 152, 152f, 153
Merlia normani, 127f of Deuterostomia, 868, 868f, 870 quartet of, 97, 98, 99
Merliida, 126 of Echinodermata, 904–905 microphagy, 57, 61
Mermithida, 580, 580f, 585, 590, 595f of Hexapoda, 735, 765, 771, 772f, 777, of Mollusca, 361, 366
meroblastic cleavage, 96, 96f, 101 779, 781f Microphallus, 537f
meroplanktonic animals, 20, 107 of Loricifera, 575 papillorobustus, 537
Merostomata, 609f, 802f, 803f, 805, 807–808, of Mollusca, 390f Micropilina arntzi, 385
855 of Nematomorpha, 604 Microplana, 407
Mertensia ovum, 176 of Phoronida, 489, 490, 493f, 496 micropredators, 23
Mertensiidae, 183 of Platyhelminthes, 548, 551 Micropygoida, 879
Mesanthura, 685f of Porifera, 151 micropyle of Porifera, 145, 145f
mesenchyma, 186n of Urochordata, 921, 929, 930f, 930–931 microscleres, 138
mesenchymal cells, 186n metanauplius, 729, 730, 734 Microstomum caudatum, 224
mesenchyme, 186n Metandrocarpa, 922 microtriches of Platyhelminthes, 531, 531f
of Cnidaria, 186, 186n, 196, 197, 209, metanephridia, 68f, 69, 246 microtubules, 50–51, 51f
209f, 210, 213f of Annelida, 444, 445, 445f, 462, 469, 474, Micrura, 400, 411
of Ctenophora, 175, 176, 182 480 verrilli, 398f
of Platyhelminthes, 522, 529, 531–532, 537 of Brachiopoda, 515 Mictacea, 664, 683f, 688
mesenterial filament of Cnidaria, 200f, 201, in Phoronida, 495 Mictocaris, 683f, 688
213f, 218 metanephromixium, 69 halope, 688
mesentoblast, 103, 103f, 104, 275 metanotum of Hexapoda, 755 midsagittal plane, 46, 46f
mesic environment, 22 metapeltidium of Chelicerata, 818 migration
Mesobalanoglossus, 870 metapleural folds of Cephalochordata, of Crustacea, 706, 707–708
mesocoel, 104, 105f, 488 914f, 916 of Hexapoda, 775
of Echinodermata, 881, 885 metapodium of Mollusca, 356 Millepora, 203f, 212, 218
of Enteropneusta, 863, 867 Metapolycope, 668f Milleporidae, 194, 212, 242
of Phoronida, 490, 493 metasoma of Chelicerata, 802f, 803, 817, Miller, S., 1n
of Pterobranchia, 869 817f, 818 Millotauropus, 792
mesoderm, 47, 48, 101, 245, 275 metasome, 488 Milne-Edwards, H., 323, 489
endoskeleton derived from, 53 Metastrongylina, 585 Milne-Edwards openings of Crustacea, 719
evolution of, 936 metathorax of Hexapoda, 753f, 755, 761 Milnesium
formation of, 103, 103f, 104 metatroch, 117, 117f swolenskyi, 610
Mesogastropoda, 336 of Annelida, 455f, 456, 464f tardigradum, 611–612, 657
mesoglea, 47, 103, 186n Metazoa, 9, 47, 119 Mimetidae, 806, 829, 829f, 845f
of Cnidaria, 186, 196, 197, 209, 210 classification of, 3, 5, 8 mineralization of Arthropoda, 634
mesohyl, 127, 129, 130, 132, 134, 137, 140, definition of, 119 Minot, C., 399, 522
147f, 186n fossil record of, 2, 12–13, 15, 26 Minyadidae, 213
mesomeres, 97 hypothetical ancestors of, 112, 114f, 115, Miocene period, 16
of Echinodermata, 903 118 miracidia of Platyhelminthes, 548, 550f, 551
mesonotum of Hexapoda, 755 introduction to, 91–118 mirror symmetry, 174
mesoparasites, 23, 109 meiofaunal, 20 Misophrioida, 665, 690
mesopelagic zone, 18f, 20 origin of, 2, 10–11, 112–117 mitochondria, 1–2
mesopeltidium of Chelicerata, 818 phylogeny of, 24, 26, 935–939, 937f mitosis, 86f
Mesorhabditis belari, 594 meteor impacts, 1n, 16 Mitridae, 336
mesosoma of Chelicerata, 802f, 803, 817, Metridium, 218, 220, 231 mixed development, 106, 106f, 108–109
817f, 818, 833, 837 farcimen, 198 mixonephridium, 69
mesosome, 488, 489 senile, 186f Mnemiopsis, 170f–171f
of Phoronida, 494 Metschinkowiidae, 144 leidyi, 168f, 169, 176, 178, 181, 182
Mesostigmata, 804f, 807, 808 Metschnikoff, E., 56, 113, 114f, 182, 860 Modocia, 14f
Mesostoma, 64f, 540f microaesthetes of Mollusca, 351 Moinidae, 699
Mesotardigrada, 612 Microcerberidea, 664 molecular developmental biology, 91, 99
Mesothelae, 805, 813f, 815, 827 Microdajus pectinatus, 693f molecular phylogenetics, 24–25, 26, 31, 31n,
mesothorax of Hexapoda, 753f, 755, 761 Microdecemplicida, 799 114, 935–939
Mesozoa, 275 microfilaria, 584, 599 and biological classification, 36
Mesozoic Era, 11, 15–16 Micrognathozoa, 281, 295–301, 309, 556 of Hexapoda, 781
Metabonellia, 465, 469, 470f body plan of, 48, 296–301 molecular phylogenomics, 912, 935
haswelli, 466f, 470f body wall musculature of, 297–298, 300f Molgula, 922

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Mollusca, 321–395, 935 monomyarian condition of Mollusca, 360 muscles, 52–56

body plan of, 344–392 Mononchida, 585, 591f antagonistic, 54, 55, 55f
body wall of, 346, 349f Mononchus, 591f contraction of, 55f, 55–56
boring ability of, 360, 363f, 364, 366 monopectinate condition of Mollusca, in hydrostatic skeleton, 52f, 52–53
characteristics of, 322 348f, 374 Muspiceida, 585
circulation and gas exchange of, 347, monophyletic groups, 5, 5n, 26, 28f, 28–29, mutable collagenous tissue of
348f, 373–377, 374f–376f, 394 33, 34 Echinodermata, 885, 887
coloration and ink of cephalopods, classification of, 36f mutualism, 23–24
384–385, 388 legacy names of, 36 of Crustacea, 711
development of, 344–345, 353–356, in phylogenetic systematics, 34 of Hexapoda, 763, 767
389f–392f, 389–392 Monopisthocotylea, 525 of Nematoda, 600
digestion of, 370–373, 371f–373f Monoplacophora, 322, 323, 324f, 346, 395 threats to, 24
and Entoprocta, 314 circulation and gas exchange of, 373, Mycale, 135f
evolution and phylogeny of, 36, 392–395, 376, 377 vansoesti, 156
937f, 938 excretion and osmoregulation of, myelination, 83–84
excretion and osmoregulation of, 344, 377, 378 Mygalomorphae, 805, 813, 815, 832, 836
347, 377f, 377–378 feeding of, 366 feeding of, 829f
feeding of, 344, 361–370, 362f–365f, general anatomy of, 327–328, 329f reproduction of, 840
367f–369f locomotion of, 356 myiasis, 750
fossil record of, 10, 11, 322, 352, 355, 392, mantle and mantle cavity of, 347, 348f Myida, 340
393, 394, 395 nervous system of, 378 Myidae, 340
hypothetical ancestral, 392 phylogeny of, 393f, 394 Myochamidae, 340
locomotion of, 347, 356–361, 357f–359f, 361f reproduction of, 385 myocytes of Porifera, 133f, 134, 143
mantle and mantle cavity of, 344, 345f, shell of, 349, 351 Myodocopa, 663, 667f, 668f, 669, 724, 725
346–347, 348f, 351, 353–355, 356, 366, symbiotic relationships of, 370 Myodocopida, 663, 666, 668f, 669
394 monopodial growth of Cnidaria, 201, 201f myoepithelial cells of Cnidaria, 197, 198f,
morphological diversity of, 324f–325f, Monorhaphis chuni, 155 212, 213f
344, 395 Monostilifera, 398f, 399, 400 myonemes of Cnidaria, 197, 213f
nervous system of, 344, 378f, 378–380, circulation and gas exchange of, 406f Myopea callaeum, 258f
379f, 381f excretory system of, 407f Myopsida, 344
number of species, 3n, 3t, 16, 26, 274, feeding and digestion of, 403f Myosoma, 314
322, 395 phylogeny of, 412, 413, 413f myotomes of Cephalochordata, 913, 917
reproduction of, 344, 348f, 385f–388f, proboscis apparatus of, 404f Myrianida gidholmi, 451f
385–389 reproduction and development of, 411f Myriapoda, 607, 608, 609f, 628, 657, 785–799
sense organs of, 380–384, 382f, 383f Monstrilloida, 665, 690 appendages of, 631t, 635, 636, 785, 789,
shell of, 345f, 347–353, 389, 393, 394 Montchadskyellidea, 525 791, 799
symbiotic relationships of, 362, 370, 376, Montipora, 534 body plan of, 785, 789–798, 790f
378 Montucaris, 688 characteristics of, 608t, 630, 789
taxonomic history and classification of, Mopalia, 366 Chilopoda, 785, 788, 795–796, 799
322–344 Mopaliidae, 366 circulation and gas exchange of, 645,
torsion of, 346, 353–356, 354f, 374, Morlockia ondinae, 660f, 695f 793–794, 794f, 799
379–380, 391, 392f Mormonilloida, 665, 690 classification of, 787–789
molluscan cross, 98f, 99, 389, 389f, 464 morphogenesis, 104 Diplopoda, 785, 788–789, 796–798, 799
Molluscoides, 489 morphogens, 104 excretion and osmoregulation of, 646,
Molpadida, 881 mosaic ova, 99, 100 647, 794
molting of Ecdysozoa, 31n, 247, 280, 631, motor nerves, 75, 76f feeding and digestion of, 785, 791–793,
640f, 640–642, 652, 938 Motyxia, 787 793f, 799
in Crustacea, 640, 641f, 642, 643f, 730 mouth cone fossil record of, 785, 799
in Hexapoda, 640, 779 of Kinorhyncha, 567, 568, 568f locomotion of, 787, 789, 791, 792f, 799
in Myriapoda, 796, 798 of Loricifera, 573 nervous system and sense organs of, 649,
molt-inhibiting hormone of Arthropoda, mucous-net suspension feeding, 58, 60f, 650, 656, 794–795, 795f, 796f
642, 643f 219–220 number of species, 3t, 608t, 630, 785, 788
Monera, 8 mucrones of Loricifera, 574 Pauropoda, 785, 789, 798, 799
Monhysterida, 584 mud mounds, 161 phylogeny of, 37f, 652, 653, 655, 655f,
Moniezia, 541f Müller, J., 489, 762, 860 656, 785, 798–799, 937f
Moniliformis moniliformis, 537 Müller, K. J., 572, 653, 733 reproduction and development of, 795–798
Monoblastozoa, 112 Müller, O. F., 885 silk production of, 644
Monobrachium, 202f Müller’s larvae, 544, 544f, 545f Symphyla, 785, 789, 798, 799
Monocelididae, 524 multicellularity, 92, 120 tagmosis of, 631
Monocotylidea, 525 evolution of, 92, 112, 114–115 Myriochelata, 799
Monodella, 683f Multicrustacea, 663, 664–665, 673–694, 731, Myrmecodesmus adisi, 794
monodisc strobilation, 233 734 Myrmecotypus, 814f
monoecious individuals, 87 multipolar delamination, 153 Myrmeleontidae, 749
Monogenea, 520, 525, 528f, 537f multipolar egression, 153 Mysida, 664, 682, 683f
excretion and osmoregulation of, 538 multipolar ingression, 103 circulation and gas exchange of, 719
neodermis of, 531 multiradial symmetry, 45f excretion and osmoregulation of, 720
nervous system and sense organs of, 541 Multitubulatina, 556 locomotion of, 703, 706
phylogeny of, 554, 555f, 556 Multivalvulida, 193 nervous system and sense organs of,
reproduction and development of, 546, Muricea 721, 722f
547, 548, 548f, 549f californica, 207f reproduction and development of, 728f
support, locomotion, and attachment of, fruticosa, 211f Mysidacea, 682
532, 532f Muricidae, 336, 364, 371f, 386f Mysidae, 682
Monogononta, 285f, 286, 288f Mus, 94f mysis larva, 728f, 730
feeding and digestion of, 288, 289 musculus, 94f Mystacocarida, 664, 669, 670f
reproduction and development of, 291, Muscidae, 750 distinguishing features of, 700t–701t
291f muscle arms of Nematoda, 586f, 588 feeding and digestion of, 710

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locomotion of, 706 navigation mechanisms phylogeny of, 394, 395, 399, 411–413,
nervous system and sense organs of, 724 of insects, 775 937f, 938, 939
phylogeny of, 730 of Mollusca, 357, 362 reproduction and development of, 409–411
reproduction and development of, Neanthes nubila, 451f support and locomotion of, 402
702t–703t, 730 Nebalia, 285f, 289, 673f taxonomic history and classification of,
Mytilida, 339 Nebaliopsis typica, 674 399–400
Mytilidae, 338f, 339, 359, 360 Necator americanus, 597 Nemertes, 399
Mytilus, 338f, 368f neck of Platyhelminthes, 529, 529f Nemertoderma, 262, 263
californianus, 359f, 368f, 369 Nectiopoda, 699 westbladi, 263, 264f, 265, 266, 266f, 267
edulis, 369 Nectonema, 579, 601, 602f, 603, 603f, 604 Nemertodermatida, 250, 251, 252, 261–267,
Myxini, 912 Nectonematoidea, 601, 603, 603f 271, 522
Myxobolus cerebralis, 187f, 222, 223f Nectonemertes, 400 body plan of, 263–267
Myxosporea, 188, 192 nectophores, 202 body structure of, 263
myxospores, 222, 223f, 240 Needham’s sac of Cephalopoda, 388, 388f cell and tissue organization of, 263, 264f
Myxosporidium bryozoides, 190 Neis, 172 ciliary rootlet structure of, 263
Myxozoa, 188, 192–193 nekton, 20, 21 nervous system of, 265
body wall of, 197–198 Nemathelminthes, 281 number of species, 251, 261
life cycle of, 221–222, 223f, 240 nematocyst batteries, 216 nutrition, excretion, and gas exchange
as parasitic, 221, 222f nematocysts, 215–218, 221, 403 of, 264–265
phylogeny of, 33, 241, 242f discharged, 216f, 217f phylogeny of, 24, 262, 271f
polar capsules of, 216 as independent effectors, 81, 216 reproduction and development of,
taxonomic history and classification of, toxins of, 218 265–267, 266f
190 true, 216, 220 support and movement of, 263–264, 264f
Myzophyllobothrium, 533f Nematoda, 579, 580, 581–600, 605, 935 symbiotic relationships of, 262–263, 263f,
myzorhynchus of Platyhelminthes, blastocoelom of, 49, 588, 590 265
533, 533f body plan of, 48, 580f, 586–597 Nemertoscolex, 400
Myzostoma, 420f body wall, support, and locomotion of, parasiticus, 403
cirriferum, 420f 586f, 586–588, 587f Neoacarus, 805f
Myzostomida, 422, 483 characteristics of, 582 neoblasts
body plan of, 426 circulation, gas exchange, excretion, and of Annelida, 450
symbiotic relationships of, 420f, 439 osmoregulation of, 590–592, 592f of Platyhelminthes, 527, 561
classification of, 582–586 Neocephalopoda, 326, 341
N feeding and digestion of, 588–590 Neocopepoda, 665
Nacellidae, 332 fossil record of, 582 Neodasys, 556, 557f, 558, 560
naiads, 778 nervous system and sense organs of, Neodermata, 524, 531, 552
Naididae, 425, 439, 444 592–594, 593f phylogeny of, 554, 555f, 556
Nakano, H., 268 number of species, 3t, 581, 605 neodermis of Platyhelminthes, 531
Namanereidinae, 422 phylogeny of, 582f, 605, 937f, 939 Neofibularia, 154
Nanaloricida, 572 reproduction and development of, Neogastropoda, 324f, 335, 336
Nanaloricidae, 572, 574, 575 594–600 circulation and gas exchange of, 375f
Nanaloricus, 573f, 574, 575 symbiotic relationships of, 588, 599f, 600 development of, 390
mysticus, 572, 573f, 574f, 575 nematogens of Dicyemida, 276, 277 digestion of, 371f
Nannochoristidae, 750 Nematoida, 556, 563, 579–605, 652 feeding of, 363f, 364, 364f, 365
Nanosella fungi, 748 Nematoda, 579, 580, 581–600 nervous system of, 378, 379f
Naraoia, 14f Nematomorpha, 579, 580, 600–604 reproduction of, 386f
Narceus americanus, 792f phylogeny of, 246f, 937f, 938 sense organs of, 380
Narcomedusae, 188, 194, 214 Nematomorpha, 579, 580, 600–604, 605, 858 Neoglyphea, 682
Nasanov gland, 775 body plan of, 48, 601–604 Neognathophausia ingens, 687, 703
Nassariidae, 336 body wall, support, and locomotion of, Neogosseidae, 558
Natantia, 678 601–603 Neolepetopsidae, 332
Natica, 363f characteristics of, 600 Neoloricata, 329
Naticidae, 335, 357f, 364 circulation, gas exchange, excretion, and Neomenia carinata, 327f
Natronobacterium gregoryi, 9n osmoregulation of, 603–604 Neomeniomorpha, 322, 323, 326
natural selection, 39 classification of, 601 Neometra, 876f
and gas transport, 74 feeding and digestion of, 602f, 603 Neomphalidae, 334
and red queen hypothesis, 86 nervous system and sense organs of, Neomphalus, 366
NatureServe, 6 602f, 604 Neonemertea, 399, 400, 413f
naupliar eye of Crustacea, 702, 721, 724 number of species, 3t, 605 Neonesidea, 668f
nauplius of Crustacea, 700, 701–703, 711, phylogeny of, 564, 605, 937f, 938 Neoophora, 523, 555
724, 727, 728f, 729, 730, 734 reproduction and development of, 603f, neoöphorans, 542, 543f, 545, 546f, 555
discovery of, 727n 604, 605 Neopatida, 628
“head larvae” as precursors to, 700n Nematostella vectensis, 227, 228, 229, 232, 233 Neopilina, 322, 329f
Nausithoe, 234 Nemertea, 321, 322, 397–413, 522, 530 galatheae, 327, 394
Nautilia, 326 body plan of, 47, 397, 398f, 400–411 Neoproterozoic Era, 10
Nautilida, 324f, 341 body wall of, 401–402 Neoptera, 738, 742, 781f, 782
Nautilidae, 384 characteristics of, 399 Neosabellaria cementarium, 419f
Nautiliniellidae, 421 circulation and gas exchange of, 399, 400, Neoscona arabesca, 830f
Nautilus, 323n, 324f, 341, 388, 394 401, 406 Neotenotrocha, 296
anatomy of, 341f excretion and osmoregulation of, neoteny, 111
circulation and gas exchange of, 373 406–408 Neothyris lenticularis, 511
digestion of, 372 feeding and digestion of, 400, 402–406, Nephasoma minutum, 463, 465
locomotion of, 361, 361f 408 Nephila, 820f, 821, 822, 842
mantle cavity of, 347 and gonocoel theory, 116f nephridia, 68f, 68–69
sense organs of, 384 nervous system and sense organs of, 401, of Annelida, 428f, 444, 445, 445f, 446,
shell of, 352, 352f 408–409 462, 469
Navanax, 380 number of species, 3t, 413 of Arthropoda, 646, 719–720

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of Dicyemida hosts, 276, 279 Neuralia, 936 Nuda, 162, 169, 183
of Mollusca, 347, 348f, 355, 377, 378, 385 neuroblasts of Arthropoda, 656 Nudibranchia, 336, 353
of Nemertea, 406, 407 neuroectoderm, 82 circulation and gas exchange of, 375
of Onychophora, 624f, 625, 625f neurohormones, 84 detorsion of, 355
of Platyhelminthes, 538f neurons, 75 digestion of, 371f
nephridioduct, 68 chemosensory, 79 feeding of, 364, 364f, 365–366
of Annelida, 444, 445, 445f, 446 neuropils, 75, 593 general anatomy of, 332f–333f
of Nemertera, 406–407 neuropodium of Annelida, 427, 427f locomotion of, 360
of Phoronida, 492f, 495 neuropore of Cephalochordata, 916, 917f sense organs of, 380, 382
of Platyhelminthes, 537f, 538 Neuroptera, 37f, 738, 739, 748f, 749, 781f symbiotic relationships of, 370
nephridiopores, 68, 68f Neuropterida, 738, 739, 749 Nudipleura, 326, 333f, 336–337
of Annelida, 445, 445f, 457, 461f, 462 neurosecretory cells nuptial net of Myriapoda, 795, 797f
of Gastrotricha, 558, 559f neurohormones of, 84 nurse cells of Porifera, 144, 146, 153
of Mollusca, 377, 378 of Platyhelminthes, 539 nutritional mutualism, 23
of Nemertea, 407 neurotoxins nutritive-muscular cells of Cnidaria, 197,
of Phoronida, 490, 491f, 492f, 495 of Cnidaria, 218 198f
of Platyhelminthes, 538, 538f of Nemertea, 403 Nymphalidae, 751, 780f
nephritic pads, 719 neurotroch of Annelida, 456, 470f Nymphon, 851f
nephrocoel theory, 115–116 Newby, W. W., 424 brevirostre, 848f
nephrocytes of Chelicerata, 834 nidamental glands gracile, 853f
nephromixia, 69, 462 of Mollusca, 389 Nymphonidae, 804, 853f
Nephrops norvegicus, 317, 318f of Phoronida, 495, 496 Nymphopsis spinosissimum, 847f, 852
nephrostomes, 68f, 69 Nielsen, C., 116, 117f, 554 nymphs, 778
of Phoronida, 492f, 495 Niobia, 236f of Chelicerata, 846
Nephrozoa, 245–246, 250, 251, 274 Niphargus, 689
Deuterostomia. See Deuterostomia nitrogenous wastes, 65–66, 66f O
excretory organs of, 69 Nitsche, H., 489 Obama nungara, 534
nervous system of, 83 NK genes, 160 Obelia, 239f
phylogeny of, 246f, 271f, 937f, 938 NKL genes, 159–160 geniculata, 237
Protostomia. See Protostomia Noctuidae, 751 obligatory symbionts, 23
Nephtyidae, 421–422, 429f, 431 nodal gene, 100f mutualism of, 24
Nephtys, 431 nomenclature, biological. See biological obturaculum of Siboglinidae, 473
Nepidae, 746 nomenclature ocean habitat, 16–21. See also marine habitat
Nereididae, 418f, 422, 434f, 442f Nomeus gronovii, 224–225 oceanic zone, 20
circulation and gas exchange of, 442f non-Bilateria Metazoa, 47 Oceaniidae, 195
feeding and digestion of, 434f, 439, 440f Cnidaria, 185–243 Oceanospirillales bacteria, 474
nervous system and sense organs of, Ctenophora, 167–184 ocelli, 79, 80f, 648, 650
448, 449, 449f Placozoa, 165, 166–167 of Annelida, 448
reproduction and development of, 451f Porifera, 119–163 of Chelicerata, 837
support and locomotion of, 429 notochord of Chordata, 93, 912, 931, 932 of Cnidaria, 229f, 230
Nereis in Cephalochordata, 913, 914f, 916, 917f of Gastrotricha, 560
circulation and gas exchange of, in Urochordata, 919, 924 of Hexapoda, 753, 775
441–442, 443 Notodelphys, 671f of Platyhelminthes, 539, 540f, 541
feeding and digestion of, 439, 441 Notomastus, 449f of Rotifera, 290
fucata, 439 Notommatidae, 288f of Urochordata, 927, 930f
jaws of, 434f Notomyotida, 878 Ockham’s razor, 34n
nervous system and sense organs of, Notonectidae, 746 Octacnemus, 917, 919f
447f notoneuron, 116 Octobrachia, 326, 341
support and locomotion of, 429, 430f, 431 notopodium of Annelida, 427, 427f Octocorallia, 188, 190, 191, 207f, 220, 221,
virens, 431, 441 Notosaria nigricans, 513f 233, 242f
Neriene litigiosa, 842 Notostigmophora, 788, 799 Octopoda, 342
neritic zone, 20 Notostraca, 660f, 665, 695–698, 697f Octopodidae, 342
Neritidae, 334 feeding and digestion of, 710 Octopoteuthidae, 344
Neritiliidae, 334 locomotion of, 703 Octopus, 343f, 366, 383, 383f
Neritimorpha, 323n, 326, 334, 348f, 353 nervous system and sense organs of, bimaculoides, 324f
circulation and gas exchange of, 374 721, 723f chierchiae, 343f
excretion and osmoregulation of, 377 novel structure hypothesis on insect flight, ocular plate of Echinodermata, 882f, 883
reproduction of, 385, 386 761 ocular plate rule, 882f, 883, 886, 887
torsion of, 355 Novocrania, 511, 514 Ocypodidae, 680, 725
Neritopsidae, 334 anomala, 517 Ocyropsis, 181
nerve nets, 82, 82f lecointei, 510f maculata, 176
of Cnidaria, 179, 185, 213f, 227, 228f, 230 Novodinia, 890 Odaraia, 14f
of Ctenophora, 179 Nucella, 364f, 386f, 390 Odonata, 738, 741f, 742, 768
of Echinodermata, 900 emarginata, 364f evolution and phylogeny of, 37f, 780,
nervous system, 75–84, 89 lapillus, 64f 781f, 782
and body plans, 81–84 nuchal organs of Annelida, 449, 449f flight of, 761
cerebral ganglion in. See cerebral in Sipuncula, 463, 463f nervous system and sense organs of, 772
ganglion nuchal tentacles of Sipuncula, 457 reproduction and development of,
impulse conduction in, 75–76, 76f, 83–84 Nucinellidae, 370 776, 778
myelination in, 83–84 Nucula, 366 odontoblasts of Mollusca, 362, 362f
nerve nets in. See nerve nets Nuculana, 366 odontophore of Mollusca, 344, 362, 362f
and sense organs, 75–81, 83 Nuculanida, 339 Odontozona, 678
neural crest, of Chordata, 933 Nuculanidae, 339 odors, chemoreceptor detection of, 79
neural crest cells of Chordata, 933–934 Nuculida, 339 oecial vesicle of Bryozoa, 507, 507f
neural gland of Urochordata, 921f, 927 Nuculidae, 339 Oegopsida, 344

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Oenone, 239f oostegites of Crustacea, 725 opsins, 79, 515

Oenonidae, 421, 439, 441 ootype of Platyhelminthes, 546, 547f, 551f, oral cirri of Cephalochordata, 914f, 915
Oesia disjuncta, 871 552 oral disc of Cnidaria, 199, 206f
Oesophagostomum, 592f oozooid of Urochordata, 928, 929 oral grooves of Ctenophora, 176
Oikopleura, 923f Opabinia, 14, 14f oral hood of Cephalochordata, 914f, 915
ojassie, 497f, 499 open circulatory system, 70f, 71 oral lobes of Ctenophora, 170f–171f, 175
Olenellus gilberti, 654f opening lever of Chelicerata, 844, 844f oral papillae of Onychophora, 622, 622f,
Olenidae, 629 operculum of Cnidaria, 216, 216f 624, 625f
Olenoides, 14f Opheliidae, 418f, 424, 435, 449 oral ridges of Loricifera, 573
Olfactores, 859, 912, 934 Ophiacanthida, 879 oral siphon of Urochordata, 920, 921, 921f,
phylogeny of, 931, 932f, 933 Ophiactis, 901 922f, 925
Oligocene period, 16 Ophiocoma, 893, 900 oral styles of Kinorhyncha, 565, 566f, 568f
Oligochaeta, 416, 483 Ophioderma, 893 oral stylets
Oligostraca, 663–664, 666–694, 730, 734 Ophioleucida, 879 of Loricifera, 573, 575f
Olivellidae, 336 Ophiopholis aculeata, 874f of Nematoda, 588
Olividae, 336 Ophiophragmus filograneus, 900 of Tardigrada, 616
olynthus of Porifera, 129, 130f, 151 Ophioscolecida, 879 oral sucker of Platyhelminthes, 528f, 532
Omalogyra, 365, 385 Ophiothrix, 892f, 893 oral surface of Echinodermata, 877
Ommastrephidae, 344 fragilis, 60f oral tentacles
ommatidia, 79, 80f, 649, 649f, 656 Ophiura sarsii, 893 of Echinodermata, 887
of Chelicerata, 835 Ophiurida, 878 of Urochordata, 922f
of Crustacea, 722–724 Ophiuroidea, 439, 874f, 878–879, 909 Orbiculariae, 822
of Hexapoda, 772, 772f, 773 body wall of, 883, 884f Orbiniidae, 418f, 422, 428, 431, 441, 449f
of Myriapoda, 795 circulation and gas exchange of, 898 Orbitestellidae, 336
tetrapartite, 650, 656n excretion and osmoregulation of, 899, 900 orb webs, 819, 821–822, 822f, 823f, 827, 828,
omnivores, 57 external anatomy of, 876f 829f
deposit feeders as, 59 feeding and digestion of, 892f, 892–893 Orchestia, 706
grazers as, 63 internal anatomy of, 892f Orchestoidea, 706
Onchestoma, 466f nervous system and sense organs of, 900 Ordovician Period, 15
Onchidiidae, 337 phylogeny of, 907f, 908 Oreaster, 890
Onchidorididae, 336 reproduction and development of, Oreohelicidae, 337
Onchnesoma, 462 901, 902, 903f organic matter, dissolved, as nutrition,
Onchocerca volvulus, 582, 597, 599, 605, 680 support and locomotion of, 888 57, 63–65
Oncholaimus vesicarius, 594 water vascular system of, 880f, 886 of Annelida, 462, 474
Onchoproteocephalidea, 526, 527 Ophryotrocha, 434f of Mollusca, 370
onchosphere stage of Platyhelminths, Opilioacarida, 808 of Porifera, 140
552, 553f Opilioacariformes, 805f, 807, 808 organ of Berlese, 776
oncomiracidium of Platyhelminthes, Opiliones, 806, 810f, 815 organ of Tömösváry, 78, 795, 796f
547, 548f, 549f circulation and gas exchange of, 834 Oribatida, 807
oncosphere of Platyhelminthes, 552 feeding and digestion of, 766, 826 orifice of Bryozoa, 500
Oniscidea, 644, 664, 689 nervous system and sense organs of, 837 Ornithodoros moubata, 809
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 3 phylogeny of, 854f orogenital pores of Platyhelminthes, 542
ontogeny, 91 reproduction and development of, 838, 842 Oropsylla montana, 748f, 750
and developmental tool kits, 92 Opiloacarida, 807 Orsonwelles, 40n
and phylogeny, 92, 110–112 opisthaptor of Platyhelminthes, 528f, 532, Orsten deposits, 13, 13n, 14, 653, 656
Onuphidae, 418f, 421 532f, 548, 548f Chelicerata in, 855
Onychocaudata, 665, 698 Opisthobranchia, 323, 331, 336, 337, 353, 365 Crustacea in, 673, 700, 732f–733f, 732–733
Onychodictyon ferox, 620f opisthognathous condition, 755, 756f Onychophora in, 619
Onychophora, 247, 607, 608, 609f, 619–628, Opisthogoneata, 799 Tardigrada in, 610
657, 755f Opisthokonta, 2 Orthogastropoda, 323n, 326, 332
acron/ocular segment of, 632 Opisthorchis viverrini, 548 orthognathous chelicerae, 815
body plan of, 622f–624f, 622–628 opisthosoma, 801, 802f, 803, 803f, 819, 855 orthologs, 30, 92, 99
characteristics of, 608t, 619, 657 of Amblypygi, 811 Orthonectida, 112, 416, 482f, 482–483, 483f,
circulation and gas exchange of, 624–625 of Arachnida, 808 485
classification of, 620–621, 629 of Araneae, 812, 813, 813f, 815 Orthoporus ornatus, 786f, 794
compared to Tardigrada and in circulation and gas exchange, 831, Orthoptera, 738, 743f, 744–745, 752f
Arthropoda, 608, 608t, 619 833, 833f feeding of, 763
excretion and osmoregulation of, 625, 646 of Euchelicerata, 807, 818 flight of, 761
feeding and digestion of, 622f, 624, 625f in feeding and digestion, 826, 831, 832f forewings of, 757
fossil record of, 619, 621f, 628 ganglia of, 835, 835f general anatomy of, 753f
gape gene expression in, 608 in locomotion, 824 leg modifications of, 758f
homologies of anterior/head of Opiliones, 815 locomotion of, 759
appendages, 631t of Palpigradi, 815 mouth appendages of, 754f
locomotion of, 623f, 623–624, 634 of Pseudoscorpiones, 816 nervous system and sense organs of,
musculature of, 623, 623f in reproduction, 839, 841, 844 771f, 774
nervous system and sense organs of, of Ricinulei, 816 phylogeny of, 37f, 781f
622, 624f, 625–626, 626f, 647, 657 of Schizomida, 816 Orzeliscus, 615f
number of species, 3t, 608t of Scorpiones, 817, 817f Oscarella, 124, 137
phylogeny of, 25, 607, 610, 619, 628, 655f, of Siboglinidae, 471f, 472f, 473, 474, 475f, lobularis, 162
937f, 938 476 Oscarellidae, 126
reproduction and development of, of Solifugae, 818 osculum of Porifera, 129, 131, 131f, 142, 143
619, 623, 625f, 626–628, 627f and spider silk, 819 Osedax, 470, 472f, 473, 474, 475, 475f, 476
systematics and biogeography of, 628 of Uropygi, 818 carnivorous scavenging of, 63, 89
Oonopidae, 806 Opisthoteuthidae, 342 frankpressi, 472f
Ooperipatus, 626 Opisthothelae, 805, 815, 827 rubiplumus, 472f, 475f
Oopsacas minuta, 151f Opohiothrix lineata, 893 in whale fall community, 21

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osmoconformers, 67 Page, L., 353 Paracanthobdella livanowi, 478

osmoregulation, 65–69, 89 Paguristes, 681f Paracentrotus, 894f
and habitat, 17, 66–67, 67f Pagurus, 224, 681f paracrine system of Porifera, 143
nephridia in, 68f, 68–69 Palaeacanthocephala, 293, 293f, 294 Paracyrba wanlessi, 831
water expulsion vesicles in, 67–68 Palaeocopida, 663, 669 Paradoryphoribius chronocaribbeus, 610
osmoregulators, 67 Palaeoheterodonta, 326, 339, 340 Paradoxopoda, 799
osmotic hypothesis on cnidae exocytosis, 218 Palaeonema phyticum, 582 Parafossarulus, 551
osphradia of Mollusca, 355, 356, 379f, 380, Palaeonemertea, 398f, 399, 400 paragastric canals of Ctenophora, 178
382, 382f body wall of, 401, 401f, 402f Paragiopagurus fasciatus, 660f
ossicles of Echinodermata, 883, 884f circulation and gas exchange of, 406, 406f Paragonimus, 680
Osteichthyes, 913 digestive system of, 405f westermani, 550f
ostia of Calcarea, 129, 131f excretory system of, 407f Paragordius, 602f, 603f, 604
Ostrachodermata, 322 nervous system and sense organs of, 409f obamai, 603f
Ostracoda, 663, 666–669 phylogeny of, 412, 413f ParaHox genes, 120, 159–160
anatomy and diversity of, 667f–668f proboscis apparatus of, 403, 404f ParaHoxozoa, 160
body plan of, 701 reproduction and development of, Parakontikia ventrolineata, 539
circulation and gas exchange of, 717, 718 410f, 411 Paraleptophlebia, 770f
distinguishing features of, 700t–701t Palaeopantopoda, 849 Paralineus, 400
excretion and osmoregulation of, 720 Palaeoptera, 738, 741, 741f parallelism, 32n, 32–33
feeding and digestion of, 710, 711 evolution and phylogeny of, 782 paralogous genes, 30
fossil record of, 669 flight of, 761 Paralvinella fijiensis, 419f
locomotion of, 706, 707 Palaeotaxodonta, 339 Paramecium, 113f
nervous system and sense organs of, 724 Palcephalopoda, 326, 341 Paramecynostomum diversicolor, 253f
number of species, 666 Paleoannelida, 416 Paramicrolaimidae, 584
phylogeny of, 730–731 Paleocene, 16 Paranaspides lacustris, 675f
reproduction and development of, Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, 16 Paranemertes, 400, 403
702t–703t, 724, 725, 725n, 727, 730 Paleoloricata, 346 peregrina, 403, 404f
Ostrea, 388 Paleozoic Era, 11–15 Paraneoptera, 738, 745, 782
Ostreida, 339 Pallenopsidae, 804 paranota, 788
Ostreidae, 339, 359, 360 pallial budding, 928 paranotal lobe hypothesis on insect flight,
Ostreobium, 156 pallial line of Mollusca, 350f, 351 762, 762f
Otohydridae, 194 Pallisentis fractus, 293f Parapagurus, 222
otolith of Urochordata, 927, 930f Palola, 452 parapet of Cnidaria, 212
Otoplanidae, 524 viridis, 451f paraphyletic groups, 5, 26, 29, 29f, 29n,
Ottoia, 14f palpal organ of Chelicerata, 840, 840f, 841 33, 34
prolifica, 570 Palpigradi, 806, 810f, 815–816, 831, 834 Parapinnixa, 680f
tricuspida, 570 nervous system and sense organs of, 837 parapodia of Annelida, 427, 428, 429f
ova, 86f, 86–87, 95, 95f phylogeny of, 854f in circulation and gas exchange, 441, 442f
centrolecithal, 95, 95f, 101 reproduction and development of, 842 in locomotion, 430f, 431, 432
ectolecithal, 523 palp proboscis of Mollusca, 367, 367f parapolar cells of Dicyemida, 276
endolecithal, 523 Paludicola, 524 Parasagitta elegans, 305f
isolecithal, 95, 95f Palythoa toxica, 190 Parascaris equorum, 596f, 597
mosaic, 99, 100 palytoxin, 190 Paraseison, 289
regulative, 99 Panagrellus redivivus, 581 annulatus, 285f
telolecithal, 95, 95f Panarthropoda, 563, 579, 605, 607–657 kisfaludyi, 288f
ovaries, 86, 86f, 87f Arthropoda, 607, 608, 628–799 parasites, 8
Ovatella, 355 comparison of phyla, 608, 608t, 619 ectoparasites, 23, 109
ovicell of Bryozoa, 498f, 500f, 506f, 507, 507f evolution of, 607 endoparasites, 23, 109
Ovicides, 400 Onychophora, 607, 608, 619–628, 657 hyperparasitic, 23
oviducts, 87, 87f phylogeny of, 25, 246f, 607, 610, 619, 652, intermediate hosts of, 23, 110
ovigers of Pycnogonida, 848f, 849, 852 655f, 937f, 938 life cycle of, 109–110, 597–600
oviparity, 108 segmentation of, 564 mesoparasites, 23, 109
ovipositor of Hexapoda, 776, 776f Tardigrada, 607, 608, 610–618, 657 micropredators, 23
ovoviviparity, 108 Pancrustacea, 5, 607, 628, 657, 662 parthenogenetic, 109
Ovulidae, 63, 335 Crustacea, 607, 628, 657, 659–734 primary (definitive) hosts of, 23, 110
Owenia, 416, 417f, 440f, 455f Hexapoda, 607, 628, 657, 735–783 Parasitiformes, 804f, 807, 808, 809, 854f
Oweniida, 416, 426, 446, 485 phylogeny of, 653, 655, 655f, 656, parasitism, 23
Oweniidae, 416, 417f, 455f 730–731, 731f, 732, 781f, 799, 939 parasitoids, 23
Oxidus gracilis, 787 Pandalus, 718f Paraspadella gotoi, 302f, 307, 309f
Oxycorynia, 920f Pandaros, 155 Parastichopus, 875f, 897f
oxygen Pandeidae, 195 tremulus, 265
atmospheric, 7, 10, 13, 14, 15, 114 Panderia, 654f Parastomonema, 588
in estuary habitat, 21 Pandora larvae of Cycliophora, 319 Paratomella
in marine habitat, 17 Pandoridae, 340 rubra, 253f, 259
uptake and transport of, 71–75, 72f, 75t Pangaea, 10, 15 unichaeta, 258f
oxygen minimum zones (OMZs), 17 Pannychia, 438f Paratomellidae, 253f
Oxyopidae, 806, 827 Panorpidae, 750 paratomy
Oxyurida, 584 Panpulmonata, 324f, 326, 334f, 337, 353 of Acoela, 259, 867
Ozobranchidae, 478, 480 Panscorpiones, 854f of Enteropneusta, 867
ozopores of Myriapoda, 786 pansporocysts, 222, 223f Paravortex, 534
Pantopoda, 849 parazoan grade of body construction, 120
P Panulirus, 681f, 722f parenchyma, 186n
pacemaker mechanism, 71 argus, 705f, 708 parenchyme, 186n
Pachycerianthus torreyi, 206f Papilionidae, 751 of Platyhelminthes, 522, 529
Pachygrapsus, 680f papulae of Echinodermata, 898, 899f parenchymella larvae, 125, 149, 150f, 153
paedomorphosis, 111, 554, 887 Parabuthus, 826, 841f Paroctopus digueti, 343f

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 I-32 Index

Parorchis acanthus, 537 Pediculus, 765 Peripatopsidae, 619, 621, 628

parsimony, 34, 34n humanus, 31n, 765 Peripatopsis, 626
parthenogenesis, 88, 88n, 109 Pedinoida, 879 alba, 620f
of Cnidaria, 232 Pedipalpi, 854f capensis, 620f, 624f
of Crustacea, 702t pedipalps of Chelicerata, 803, 808, 809, 819 moseleyi, 620f, 623f, 624f, 627f
of Euchelicerata, 837 in Araneae, 812, 814–815 sedgwicki, 622f
of Gastrotricha, 560 in feeding and digestion, 826 Peripatus, 623f, 625
of Hexapoda, 744, 777 in reproduction, 839–840, 840f, 842, 843f, peripheral tentacles of Sipuncula, 457
of Loricifera, 575 844 Periphylla, 234
of Nematoda, 594 peduncle, 701n Periplaneta americana, 537
of Nematomorpha, 604 of Cnidaria, 204 Periplomatidae, 340
of Rotifera, 290, 291–292 peg organs of Hexapoda, 773, 773f Peripodida, 878
of Tardigrada, 617 Pelagia, 220, 234, 235f periproct of Echinodermata, 901
Paruroctonus, 826 noctiluca, 219 perisarc of Cnidaria, 199f, 201, 205f
mesaensis, 826 Pelagica, 412, 413f peristalsis in hydrostatic skeleton, 53
Patella, 374 pelagic organisms, 18–19 peristome of Echinodermata, 899
Patellidae, 332 trochaea theory on, 117f peristomial membrane of Echinodermata,
Patellogastropoda, 323, 323n, 331, 348f pelagic zone, 20 890, 895f
circulation and gas exchange of, 374 Pelagonemertes, 400 peristomium of Annelida, 417f, 418f, 426,
excretion and osmoregulation of, 377 pelagosphera larva of Sipuncula, 464f, 465 427, 432, 434f
feeding of, 362 Pelagothuria, 875f, 876f in Hirudinea, 476
general anatomy of, 331f, 332 Pelecypoda, 323, 337, 358 in Siboglinidae, 471, 471f
reproduction of, 385 Peltogaster paguri, 712f peritoneum, 49
sense organs of, 380 Peltospiridae, 334 peritrema of Myriapoda, 793, 794f
shell of, 350f, 353 Penaeoidea, 677, 678f peritrophic matrix of Arthropoda, 643–644
torsion of, 353, 355 Penaeus, 677, 728f peritrophic membrane of Arthropoda, 644
path integration, 706 setiferus, 678f in Hexapoda, 766, 766f
Patiria, 45f, 889, 890 Penicillaria, 192, 788 perivisceral coelom of Echinodermata, 885
miniata, 891f Penicillata, 786f, 787, 799 Permian Period, 11n, 15
Patu, 815, 829f penis papilla of Platyhelminthes, 546 Perophora, 919f, 928
Paucitubulatina, 556–557 Pennaria, 239 petaloids of Echinodermata, 876f, 899
Paucitubulatina, 559f Pennatula, 206f Petalophthalmidae, 682
Pauropoda, 785, 786f, 789, 791 Pennatulacea, 186f, 188, 191, 204, 206f, 241 Petasidae, 194
circulation and gas exchange of, 793 in Ediacaran Period, 12f petasma of Crustacea, 725
feeding and digestion of, 792 movement of, 213 Petrochirus diogenes, 660f
head and mouth appendages of, 791 polymorphism of, 202 Petrolisthes, 59f, 681f
locomotion of, 791 Pentanymphon, 850 armatus, 723f
nervous system and sense organs of, 795 Pentapora, 497f, 503 cabriolli, 714f
phylogeny of, 799 Pentapycnon, 850 Petta, 440f
reproduction and development of, 795, 798 pentaradial symmetry, 45f, 46 Peyssonal, J.-A., 489
Paussinae, 775 of Echinodermata, 875, 877, 900, 906, 909 pH, 75
Paussini, 23 Pentastomida, 629, 664, 672f, 672–673 and acidophiles and alkaliphiles, 9, 9n
pavement cells, 127 distinguishing features of, 700t–701t of marine habitat, 6, 15, 17, 212
pax1/9 genes, 931 nervous system and sense organs of, 724 Phacellophora, 215, 220
Pax6 gene, 80, 93, 656 phylogeny of, 730 camtschatica, 680, 689
Paxillosida, 878 reproduction and development of, 725 Phacops rana, 654f
pdm gene, 762 Pentastomum, 672f Phagocata, 541
pearls, 351, 351n Pentazonia, 786f, 789, 798, 799 phagocytosis, 56, 56f
Pearse, V. B., 166 Penthaleidae, 809 of Acoela, 252
Pecten, 382, 383f Penthaleus major, 809 of Platyhelminthes, 536f, 536–537
Pectinaria, 433f, 435, 436f Peracarida, 650, 664, 674, 682–690 of Porifera, 134, 136f, 138, 140, 144, 156
Pectinariidae, 424, 433f, 436f anatomy and diversity of, 683f–687f Phagodrilus, 435
feeding and digestion of, 435 phylogeny of, 731 Phalangida, 815, 842
support and locomotion of, 432 reproduction and development of, Phallonemertes, 400
Pectinatella, 497f, 501 702t–703t, 703, 725, 727, 730 murrayi, 398f
magnifica, 499 thoracic appendages of, 704f Phanerozoic Eon, 11, 13
pectines of Chelicerata, 817f, 837 pereomeres of Crustacea, 666n, 701 Phareicranaus manauara, 810f, 846f
Pectinida, 339 pereon, of Crustacea, 666n, 701 pharyngeal apparatus of Micrognathozoa,
Pectinidae, 339, 359, 360 pereonite of Crustacea, 666n, 701 298
pectinobranch condition of Mollusca, 374 pereopods of Crustacea, 666n, 701 pharyngeal canals of Ctenophora, 178
pedal cords of Mollusca, 378, 378f perforate extraxial region of pharyngeal chamber of Urochordata, 925
pedal disc of Cnidaria, 198, 206f, 213 Echinodermata, 881, 882f, 887, 906 pharyngeal gill slits, 274, 912, 931
pedal ganglion of Annelida, 446, 447f, 448 periblastula, 101, 101f of Cephalochordata, 913, 915
pedestals of Pycnogonida, 848f, 849, 850 of Arthropoda, 651, 651f of Urochordata, 920, 921f
Pedicellaria, 885 peribuccal coelom of Enteropneusta, 863 pharyngeal glands of Platyhelminthes, 534
globifera, 885 pericardial chamber of Mollusca, 344, 373 pharyngeal pump of Hexapoda, 767
tridens, 885 perihemal coelom of Enteropneusta, 863 pharynx
triphylla, 885 perihemal sinuses of Echinodermata, 898 of Acoela, 253f, 257
pedicellariae of Echinodermata, 884f, 885, Perinereis, 434f of Ctenophora, 175, 178, 179
890, 896 periodomorphosis, 798 of Gastrotricha, 556, 558, 559f
Pedicellina, 313f, 314 periostracum of Nematoda, 590, 591f
cernua, 313f, 316f of Brachiopoda, 512, 513, 513f of Platyhelminthes, 534–536, 535f, 536f
Pedicellinidae, 314 of Mollusca, 349, 349f, 351, 353 pharynx simplex of Acoela, 253f, 257
pedicel of Hexapoda antennae, 754 Peripatidae, 619, 620, 620f, 628 Phascolion, 417f, 458f, 462
pedicle of Brachiopoda, 511, 512f Peripatoides, 620f cryptum, 465
pediculosis, 765 aurorbis, 620f strombus, 465

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Phascolopsis, 460 of Nematoda, 594 and legacy names, 25

Phascolosoma, 52f, 458f, 460, 461f, 464f, 465 of Platyhelminthes, 539 and molecular phylogenetics, 24–25, 26
agassizii, 463 photosynthesis, 7, 13, 17 and ontogeny, 92, 110–112
Phascolosomatidae, 459f, 459–460, 462 Phoxichilida, 852 origin of term, 3
Phasmatodea, 37f, 738 Phoxichilidiidae, 804, 847f, 853f Physa, 386f
Phasmida, 738, 743f, 744, 781f Phoxichilidium femoratum, 853f Physalia, 202, 203f, 204, 220
Phasmidia, 582 phragma muscles of Chaetognatha, 302f, 305 physalis, 202
phasmids of Nematoda, 593f, 594 Phragmatopoma californica, 433f symbiotic relationships of, 224
Phenacolepadidae, 334 Phragmophora, 302 toxins of, 218
Phengodidae, 749 Phreatoicidea, 664 physa of Cnidaria, 198–199, 214f
phenotype, 93 Phreatoicopsis terricola, 530f Physidae, 337
plasticity of, 109 Phrixometra, 902f Physoglenidae, 828f
Pheretima, 453f Phronima, 689 Physonectae, 196, 202, 204, 237
pheromones, 84 Phthipodochiton thraivensis, 393 phytoplankton, 10, 20
Pherusa, 419f Phthiraptera, 746, 747 Picrophilus oshimae, 9n
Phidiana, 333f Phthiria relativitae, 40n Pieridae, 751
Philactinoposthia novaecaledoniae, 253f Phthirus, 765 pigment cells of Arthropoda, 649, 649f, 650,
Philodina roseola, 285f pubis, 765 656
Philoponella republicana, 823 Phylactolaemata, 497f, 498f, 499 pigments
Phlebobranchia, 912 body plan of, 500, 501 in coloration and ink of cephalopods, 384
Pholadidae, 340, 360 body wall, muscles, and movement of, 501 light-sensitive, 79
Pholadomyidae, 340 circulation, gas exchange, and excretion respiratory, 74–75, 75t, 443–444, 495
Pholas, 360 of, 504 in shells of Mollusca, 349, 352
Pholcidae, 806, 845f feeding and digestion of, 503 Pikaia, 14f
Phoneutria, 813f reproduction and development of, 507, Pilidiophora, 399, 400
fera, 830 509, 509f body wall of, 402f
Phonognatha, 821 zooid interconnections, 502–503 phylogeny of, 412, 413f
phonoreceptors of Hexapoda, 773, 773f Phyllangia, 206f proboscis apparatus of, 403
Phoratopidea, 664 Phyllidiidae, 336 reproduction and development in, 411
phoresis, 24 Phyllobothriidea, 526, 527 pilidium of Nemertea, 400, 411, 412f
of Chelicerata, 805f, 809, 816 Phyllobothrium, 533 Pilumnidae, 711
Phoronida, 247, 321, 322, 487, 489, 490–496, phyllobranchiate gills, 676–677, 718f Pimoidae, 839
517, 857 Phyllocarida, 664, 673f, 673–674 pinacocytes, 120, 127, 129, 132, 133f, 134, 140
body plan of, 490–496 appendages of, 635, 704f pinacoderm of Porifera, 127–128, 129, 132,
body wall, body cavity, and support of, distinguishing features of, 700t–701t 133f, 134, 145, 152f, 162
490–494 reproduction and development of, Pinnidae, 339, 359
characteristics of, 490 702t–703t Pinnotheridae, 680f, 725
circulation, gas exchange, and excretion Phyllodoce, 456 pinnules
of, 494–495 Phyllodocida, 419, 421, 422, 429, 429f, 444 of Echinodermata, 876f, 886, 887, 889
feeding and digestion of, 494 Phyllodocidae, 422, 429f, 431, 434f of Siboglinidae, 471, 471f
nervous system of, 495 circulation and gas exchange of, 443 pinocytosis, 56f, 56–57
number of species, 3t, 490 nervous system and sense organs of, of Platyhelminthes, 537
phylogeny of, 24, 392–393, 496, 937f 448, 449f of Porifera, 134, 138
reproduction and development of, reproduction and development of, 456f pinocytotic channels, 56, 56f
488, 495–496 Phyllopoda, 665, 694, 695–699 pinocytotic vesicles, 56, 56f
taxonomic history of, 489 phyllopodia of Arthropoda, 635 piriform glands of Chelicerata, 825
Phoronis, 489, 490, 493, 496 in Crustacea, 703 Pirsig, R. M., 35
australis, 492f Phyllorhiza, 220 Pisaster
embryolabi, 495 phylogenetic fuse hypothesis, 13 giganteus, 35, 38, 39, 874f
hippocrepia, 493f, 494 phylogenetics, molecular, 24–25, 26, 31, giganteus capitatus, 39
ijimai, 492f, 495, 496 31n, 114, 935–939, 937f ochraceus, 890, 901
muelleri, 491f and biological classification, 36 Pisaura, 842
ovalis, 495, 496 of Hexapoda, 781 Pisauridae, 806, 842
pallida, 491f, 493f phylogenetic systematics, 34 Pisces, 629
psammophila, 491f parsimony principle in, 34, 34n Piscicola, 481f
vancouverensis, 495 phylogenetic trees, 3–5, 25, 27, 28f, 28–29, Piscicolidae, 478, 480, 481f, 482
Phoronopsis, 490, 493 41, 937f Pisionidae, 421
californica, 491f, 494 and classifications, 34, 36, 36f, 38f Pista, 435
harmeri, 490, 492f, 494, 495, 496 construction of, 34 placenta of Onychophora, 626, 627, 627f
viridis, 495 direction of time in, 28, 28f Placentonema gigantissima, 9, 581
phosphorus in ocean water, 15 and explicit phylogenetic hypotheses, 35 placids of Kinorhyncha, 565–566, 566f
photic zone, 18f, 20 molecular, 31, 31n, 35 Placiphorella, 366
Photis conchicola, 707, 707f most recent common ancestors in, 28f velata, 363f
photoautotrophy, 65 new species in, 35 Placobdella, 480f
photocytes of Hexapoda, 774 origin of, 3–4, 4f placoids of Tardigrada, 616
photophores of Mollusca, 384 parsimony in, 34n Placozoa, 120, 166f, 166–167, 241
photoreceptors, 76, 78, 78f, 79–81, 80f in phylogenetic systematics, 34 asymmetry of, 44, 44f
of Annelida, 448, 449f sister taxa in, 28f, 35 classification of, 165, 167
of Arthropoda, 648–651 phylogenomics, 936 discovery of, 165
of Chaetognatha, 304, 307 of Hexapoda, 781 number of species, 3t
of Cnidaria, 230 molecular, 912, 935 phylogeny of, 24, 26, 160, 246f, 936, 937f,
of Crustacea, 721–724 phylogeny, 3–5, 24–25, 26, 27–41, 935–939 939
of Echinodermata, 900 and biological classification, 35–36, 36f, plagiognath chelicerae, 815
of Euchelicerata, 835, 837 38f Plagiorchiida, 525, 531, 531f, 537f, 548, 550f
of Mollusca, 382, 383, 384 construction of, 33–35 Plakina trilopha, 151f
of Myriapoda, 795 and Hox genes, 93, 94f Plakinidae, 126

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Plakobranchus, 370 Plecoptera, 738, 742, 743f, 778 Polyceridae, 336, 365
plakula, 113 phylogeny of, 37f, 781f Polychaeta, 416, 483, 485
Planctosphaeroidea, 862 Plectida, 584, 587f, 589f and gonocoel theory, 116f
plankton, 20, 167, 169 Plectonchus, 595f locomotion of, 638
planktotrophy, 103, 106, 106f, 107 Pleistocene Period, 16 number of species, 5
Planocera, 540f, 544f Plenocaris, 14f phylogeny of, 426
Planorbidae, 337 Pleocyemata, 659n, 664, 677–682, 731 Polycheles, 682
Plantae, 3n pleomeres of Crustacea, 701 Polychelida, 664, 682
classification of, 3, 5, 5n, 8 pleonites of Crustacea, 701 Polychisme, 40n
planula larva, 151n, 231, 238 pleopods of Crustacea, 663f, 701 Polychoerus gordoni, 261f
anthozoan, 231, 231f, 232, 233 plerocercoid stage of Platyhelminthes, Polycladida, 520f–521f, 523
cubozoan, 230, 231 552, 553f body wall of, 530f, 531
hydrozoan, 236, 238, 238f–239f, 239, 240f Plerogyra sinuosa, 253f feeding and digestion of, 535, 536, 536f,
photoreceptors of, 230 Plesiodiadema, 876f 537
scyphozoan, 233, 234, 235f plesiomorphy, 32, 32n nervous system and sense organs of,
staurozoan, 234 Plesiotrochidae, 335 539, 540f
Planulozoa, 165 pleura, of Arthropoda, 632 phylogeny of, 555, 555f
plasmodium, 222, 223f pleural folds of Crustacea, 700 reproduction and development of, 542,
of Orthonectida, 482, 482f, 483, 483f Pleurobrachia, 168f, 169 543f, 544, 544f, 545f, 547
Plasmodium, 764, 765 apical sense organ of, 180f support, locomotion, and attachment
plastic accumulation in oceans, 7 bachei, 51f, 169, 177f, 181, 182, 936 of, 532
plasticity, phenotypic, 109 general anatomy of, 170f Polyclinum, 918f
plates of Echinodermata, 883, 885 reproduction and development of, Polycope, 668f
Platnick, N. I., 842 181, 182 Polydesmida, 786f, 787, 789, 790f, 795, 798
Platycopida, 663, 668f, 669 Pleurobranchidae, 336, 353 polydisc strobilation, 233
Platycopioida, 665, 690 pleurobranchs of Decapoda, 676 Polydora, 432, 436f
Platyctenida, 172 Pleuroceridae, 335 alloporis, 439
feeding and digestion of, 176 Pleurodasys helgolandicus, 560 polyembryony
general anatomy of, 170f–171f, 175 Pleuroncodes planipes, 660f of Bryozoa, 508
locomotion of, 176 Pleurostigmophora, 788, 799 of Hexapoda, 777
reproduction and development of, 181 Pleurotomariidae, 334, 374 polygastry, 236
Platydemus manokwari, 534 Pleurotomarioidea, 356 Polygordiidae, 420
Platydesmida, 796 Pliciloricidae, 572, 574, 575, 576f Polygordius, 428
Platydorididae, 336 Pliciloricus, 574, 575 Polymastiida, 126
Platyelmia, 522 enigmaticus, 573f polymery of Pycnogonida, 850
Platyelminthes (now Platyhelminthes), 522 gracilis, 573f, 575f polymorphism, developmental, 109
Platygaster vernalis, 777 hadalis, 572 of Rotifera, 292
Platyhelminthes, 241, 246, 250, 251, 252, Pliocene period, 16 Polyneoptera, 738, 742, 743f, 781f, 782
399, 519, 520–546, 560–561, 935 Plocamia karykina, 156 Polynoidae, 417f, 421
Acoela compared to, 255f, 258, 259, 260 Plumatella, 497f feeding of, 435
body forms of, 520, 520f–521f plumatellid colonies of Bryozoa, 501 nervous system and sense organs of, 448
body plan of, 47, 48, 522, 527f, 527–552 pneumatophores, 202, 204 parapodia and chaetae of, 429f
body wall of, 529–532, 530f pneumostome, 72f–73f, 74 support and locomotion of, 431
characteristics of, 522 of Mollusca, 375, 376f symbiotic relationships of, 438f, 438–439
circulation and gas exchange of, Pocillopora damicornis, 232 Polyommatini, 751n
527, 537–538 podia of Echinodermata, 877, 881 Polyophthalmus, 448
Ctenophora compared to, 183 podites of Arthropoda, 634 Polyopisthocotylea, 525
excretion and osmoregulation of, podobranches of Decapoda, 676 Polyorchis, 187f, 208f
522, 527, 538–539 Podocopa, 663, 667f, 668f, 669 Polyphemidae, 698, 699
feeding and digestion of, 522, 533–537 Podocopida, 663, 668f, 669 polyphyletic groups, 5, 26, 29, 29f, 29n
flukes and tapeworms, 531, 532–533, 537, Podocoryne, 224 legacy names of, 36
539–541, 546–552 carnea, 167 polypides of Bryozoa, 498f, 499, 500, 501,
free-living forms, 522, 523, 527–528, Podon, 698 502, 503, 504, 505, 508, 508f
529–531, 532, 533–537, 539, 542–545 Podoplea, 665 Polyplacophora, 136f, 322, 323, 324f, 345f,
life cycle of, 547, 548–551, 549f, 550f, 552, podosoma of Chelicerata, 808 346, 395
553f Poduromorpha, 740f development of, 389, 389f, 390f
Nemertera compared to, 412 Poecilosclerida, 122f, 123, 126, 135, 146 feeding of, 366
Nemertodermatida compared to, 263, 265 Poecilostomatoida, 665, 670f generalized anatomy of, 328–329, 330f
nervous system and sense organs of, Pogonophora, 416, 422, 423, 470, 473, 483 nervous system of, 378, 378f
255f, 539–541 polar cap of Dicyemida, 276 phylogeny of, 393, 393f, 394
number of species, 3t, 520, 522, 561 polar capsules of Cnidaria, 216, 221, 222f sense organs of, 382, 382f
phylogeny of, 24, 36, 554–556, 560, 937f polar fields of Ctenophora, 180f, 181 shell of, 350f, 351
reproduction and development of, polar filaments of Cnidaria, 221, 222, 222f Polyplacotoma mediterranea, 166, 166f
541–552, 561 Polaromonas vacuolata, 9n Polypodiozoa, 188, 190, 192, 205, 241, 242f
support, locomotion, and attachment of, Polian vesicles of Echinodermata, Polypodium hydriforme, 190, 192, 205
532–533 880f, 886, 887 polypoid form of Cnidaria, 185, 186, 196,
symbiotic relationships of, 534 Polinices, 64f, 357f 198–205, 221, 231, 233, 238f
taxonomic history and classification of, Polis, G., 63 defense mechanisms of, 220
522–527 Politolana, 77f evolution of, 241, 242, 243
Platylepas, 691 Pollicipes, 59f gas exchange and excretion of, 227
Platynereis, 429 polymerus, 692f movement of, 212–213
dumerilii, 418f pollination, 737 nervous system and sense organs of,
Platytrochozoa, 247, 275, 311–320, 321 mutualism in, 23, 24 227, 228
Cycliophora, 311, 317–320 polyaxial cleavage of Porifera, 149 support of, 209, 210, 211–212
Entoprocta, 311, 312–317 Polybrachia, 470, 471f, 473 polypoid hypothesis on Cnidaria, 241
phylogeny of, 246f, 937f, 938 Polycelis tenuis, 536

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Polystilifera, 398f, 399, 400, 402 post-parthenogenetic hermaphroditism of proboscis apparatus

excretory system of, 407f Gastrotricha, 560 of Nemertea, 398f, 399, 400, 401, 403,
phylogeny of, 412, 413f potassium in ocean water, 15 405f, 411, 412
Polystoma integerrimum, 549f Praesagittifera shikoki, 254f of Platyhelminthes, 535f
Polystomatidea, 525 Praxillura maculata, 60f proboscis complex of Enteropneusta, 866
polythridium of Priapula, 571 Praya dubia, 202 proboscis skeleton of Enteropneusta,
polytomy, 35 Precambrian Period, 11, 11n, 12, 15, 112 863, 864f
polytroch larvae of Annelida, 456 predation, 57, 62–63, 64f Procarididea, 678f
Polyxenus lagurus, 786f in Cambrian Period, 13, 14–15 Procaris, 678, 710
Polyzoa, 489 defense mechanisms against. See defense ascensionis, 678f, 709f
Polyzoniida, 796 mechanisms procercoid stage of Platyhelminthes,
Pomatias, 379f herbivory compared to, 61n 552, 553f
Pomatiasidae, 335 keystone predators in, 6 Prochlorococcus, 7
Pomatiopsidae, 335 micropredators in, 23 Prochloron, 926
Pontodoridae, 422 prehensors of Myriapoda, 787, 791 proctodeal ectoderm, 103
Porania, 890 prelarva stage of Chelicerata, 846 Proctonotidae, 336
Porcellanidae, 725 premolt state of Arthropoda, 640, 641f, 642 procuticle of Arthropoda, 633, 633f, 634
Porcellio, 646f, 718f, 719 preoral ciliary organ of Enteropneusta, prodissoconch of Mollusca, 351
Porifera, 119–164 865f, 865–866 proecdysis of Arthropoda, 640
activity and sensitivity of, 143 preoral disc of Pterobranchia, 868 progenesis, 111
anterior–posterior polarity of, 120 pressure drainage channels of proglottids of Platyhelminthes, 529, 529f,
anthropogenic pressures on habitat of, Echinodermata, 889 538, 538f, 551f, 552
154 pretarsus of Hexapoda, 756, 758f prognathous condition, 755, 756f
aquiferous system of, 126, 127–132, preventral organs of Onychophora, 622 Progoneata, 799
138–140, 142, 143, 146, 159 Priapula, 247, 564, 568–572, 577, 578, 858 Progradungula otwayensis, 828f
biochemical agents of, 154–155 blastocoelom of, 49, 570 Progymnoplea, 665
bioerosion from, 157–159 body plan of, 569, 570–572 prohaptor of Platyhelminthes, 528f, 532,
bleaching of, 157 body wall, support, and locomotion of, 532f, 548
body complexity of, 128f, 129 570 Prokaryota, 2, 7–9
body forms of, 120, 121f–122f, 127f characteristics of, 570 classification of, 3, 8
body structure of, 120, 127–132 circulation, gas exchange, and evolution of, 7, 10
cell reaggregation of, 135–136 osmoregulation of, 571 first appearance of, 1
cell types of, 120, 132–136 classification of, 570 number of species, 2, 3n, 5, 9
cellular pluripotency of, 120, 126, 159 feeding and digestion of, 571 as paraphyletic group, 34
characteristics of, 120 fossil record of, 564, 568, 570 Prokoeneniidae, 816
and colonial theory, 113 nervous system and sense organs of, Prolecithophora, 524, 542, 555f, 556
defense mechanisms of, 123 571f, 571–572 Prometheus larva of Cycliophora, 319
development of, 120, 148–154 number of species, 3t Prometor grandis, 467f
distribution and ecology of, 154 phylogeny of, 29n, 564, 937f, 938 Proneomenia, 378f
evolution of, 160–163 reproduction and development of, antarctica, 327f
excretion of, 142 571f, 572 pronotum of Hexapoda, 755
fossil record of, 10, 11, 159, 160, 161, 161f Priapulidae, 569f, 570, 571 propodium of Mollusca, 356
gas exchange of, 142 Priapulopsis, 568 Propontocypris, 668f
growth rates of, 155–156, 157 Priapulus, 572 Proporus bermudensis, 258f
harvest and sale of, 137, 137f australis, 569f proprioceptors, 78, 648, 648f
hybridization across species, 147–148 caudatus, 273, 569f, 572 of Crustacea, 721
mineralized skeleton of, 53, 120, 123, 124, tuberculatospinosus, 569f of Euchelicerata, 835, 836–837
134, 137 Priapus humanus, 568 of Hexapoda, 773, 774
number of species, 3t, 123 primary cilia of Porifera, 142 Prorhynchida, 523, 528
nutrition of, 123, 138–142 primary gill bar of Enteropneusta, 864f, 865 nervous system and sense organs of, 539
origin of, 159–160 primary hosts of parasites, 23, 110 phylogeny of, 555, 555f
phylogeny of, 24, 26, 27n, 120, 159–163, primary larva, 83 Proscoloplos, 449f
183, 246f, 936, 937f of Echinodermata, 903 Proseriata, 524
reef-building, 123, 124, 160, 161 of Pentastomida, 725 body wall of, 531
reproduction of, 120, 143–148, 156, 159 primary pigment cells of Arthropoda, feeding and digestion of, 535, 536, 537
“sneezing” of, 142, 143 649, 649f, 650, 656 nervous system and sense organs of, 539
support of, 120, 136–138, 138f–139f Primavelans, 505f, 507 phylogeny of, 555, 555f
symbiotic relationships of, 123, 140, 142, insculpta, 506f reproduction and development of, 543f
153, 154, 156–159 primeval soup theory, 1n Proserpinellidae, 334
taxonomic history and classification of, primitive character states, 32 Proserpinidae, 334
123–126, 190 Primno, 687f Prosobranchia, 323, 331
Porites astreoides, 221f, 232 principal filaments of Mollusca, 376 prosoma, 801, 803, 818, 819, 855
Poritiina, 243 prions, 8 of Amblypygi, 811
porocytes, 129, 134 Proarticulata, 241 of Arachnida, 808, 809
Poromyidae, 340 Problognathia minima, 283 of Araneae, 812, 813, 815
Porpita, 203f, 220 Probopyrus bithynis, 729f in excretion and osmoregulation, 834
portal vein, cecal, of Cephalochordata, Proboscidactyla, 202f, 222 in feeding and digestion, 829, 831, 832f
914f, 916 proboscides of Mollusca, 367 ganglia of, 835, 835f
Portia, 829, 838f proboscis, 61 in locomotion, 824
Portunidae, 679f, 706 of Acanthocephala, 292, 293, 293f, 294 of Merostomata, 802f, 807
postanal tail of Chordata, 912 of Enteropneusta, 861f, 863, 864f, 865, of Opiliones, 815
postecdysis of Arthropoda, 640 865f, 866 of Palpigradi, 815
postlarva phase of Mollusca, 367, 367f of Pseudoscorpiones, 816
of Crustacea, 730, 730 of Nemertodermatida, 262f of Ricinulei, 816
of Echinodermata, 903f of Platyhelminthes, 535f, 536 of Schizomida, 816
postmolt period of Arthropoda, 640, 641f of Pycnogonida, 848f, 849, 850 of Scorpiones, 817, 817f

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 I-36 Index

of Solifugae, 818 Protosagitta spinosa, 301 Pterobranchia, 860, 860f, 862, 863, 868–870,
of Uropygi, 818 Protostomia, 245, 246–247, 274, 279–280, 871
of Xiphosura, 803f 283, 857 body wall and cavities of, 869
prosome, 488, 489 coelom of, 116, 247 circulation and gas exchange of, 869–870
prosopyles, 130, 132f, 133f gastrulation and gene expression of, 100f classification of, 862
Prosorhochmus, 411f as legacy name, 25, 247–248, 274, 858 external anatomy of, 861f–862f
Prosthiostomum nervous system of, 83, 274, 279 feeding and digestion of, 862f, 869, 869f
acroporae, 534 number of species, 938 fossil record of, 870, 871
montiporae, 534 phylogeny of, 24, 31n, 246f, 488, 857–858, nervous system of, 870
Prostigmata, 807 937f, 938 phylogeny of, 871
Prostoma, 411 trochaea theory on, 116, 117 reproduction and development of,
graecense, 404f protostomy, 938 870, 870f
prostomium of Annelida, 417, 417f, 418f, Protostyela longicauda, 929 support, muscles, and movement of, 869
426, 427, 434f protostyle of Mollusca, 373 Pterokrohnia, 302
in Hirudinea, 476 prototroch, 117, 117f Pterosagitta draco, 307
in Siboglinidae, 471, 471f of Annelida, 454, 455f, 456f, 469, 470f pterothorax of Hexapoda, 755
protandry, 87 protozoea, 729, 730 Pterotrachea, 333f, 363f
protection mutualism, 23 protractor muscles, 54 Pterygocythereis, 668f
Proteobacteria, 8 Protura, 735, 738, 739–740, 740f, 751, 767, 783 Pterygota, 735, 738, 740, 741, 783
alpha, 1, 652, 926 evolution and phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, 782 evolution and phylogeny of, 32, 781f, 782
gamma, 474, 926 thorax of, 756 thorax of, 755, 756
symbiotic, 1, 21, 124, 125, 474, 652, 926 proventriculus of Hexapoda, 767, 767f Pterygotus bohemicus, 802f
Proteocephalidea, 526 Pruvot, G., 393 Ptiliidae, 749
proterosoma of Chelicerata, 808, 818 Pruvotina impexa, 327f Ptilocerembia, 745
Proterospongia, 113f, 114 Psammogorgia, 207f Ptilocrinus, 887
Proterozoic Eon, 10, 12, 12f, 13, 17 Pseudamphithoides incurvaria, 707, 707f Ptilosarcus gurneyi, 186f
prothorax of Hexapoda, 753f, 755 Pseudingolfiellidea, 665 ptychocysts, 192, 206f, 216
Protista, 33, 112, 113f, 123 Pseudoarctolepis, 14f Ptychodera flava, 860
classification of, 3, 5, 5n, 8 Pseudobiceros bajae, 520f Ptychoderidae, 862, 863, 865, 867
number of species, 3n pseudoblastomeres of Onychophora, Ptychogastriidae, 194
in Proterozoic, 10 627, 627f puerulus larvae, 729
Protoalcyonaria, 188, 191 Pseudocarcinus gigas, 659 Pulex irritans, 750, 765
Protobonellia, 417f, 465 Pseudocellus, 816 Pulmonata, 323, 331, 336, 337, 355
Protobranchia, 326, 339 Pseudoceros pulsatile bodies, 250, 255
circulation and gas exchange of, 374 canadensis, 539 of Acoela, 250, 255
development of, 389 ferrugineus, 520f of Nemertodermatida, 261
digestion of, 372 Pseudochactoidea, 807 of Xenoturbellida, 250
feeding of, 366–367, 367f, 368f pseudocnidae of Nemertea, 403 pulsatile organs, 71
mantle and mantle cavity of, 347 pseudocoelom, 49 of Hexapoda, 767, 768f
reproduction of, 387 Pseudocolochirus violaceus, 897f Pulsellidae, 340
protocerebrum, 647, 648f pseudofeces of Mollusca, 369 pumping mechanisms in circulatory
of Crustacea, 721 pseudogamy, 88n system, 71
of Euchelicerata, 835, 837 of Nematoda, 594 Punciidae, 669
of Hexapoda, 771 pseudophalangia of Micrognathozoa, 298 Puncturella, 331f
of Myriapoda, 791, 794, 795f Pseudoplexaura, 207f Punnettia, 400
of Pycnogonida, 852 pseudopods, 50, 50f pupae of Hexapoda, 778, 778f, 779f,
protochordates, 915 Pseudoscorpiones, 806, 810f, 816, 855 779–780, 780f
protocoel, 104, 105f, 488, 489 circulation and gas exchange of, 834 pupation of Hexapoda, 778
of Echinodermata, 881, 885 nervous system and sense organs of, 837 Pupillidae, 337
of Phoronida, 493 phylogeny of, 854f Pycnoclavella diminuta, 918f
protoconch of Mollusca, 350f, 352 reproduction and development of, 842 Pycnogonida, 609f, 801, 803, 804, 807n,
Protoctista, 5n pseudosimplex stage of Tardigrada, 846–854, 855
Protodrilida, 418f, 420 611f, 612, 612f appendages of, 631t, 803, 849, 850, 853f,
Protodrilidae, 420 Pseudosquilla ensigera, 313f 853–854
Protodriliformia, 419, 420 pseudotrachea, 646f body plan of, 849–854
Protodriloididae, 420 of Crustacea, 646, 718f, 719 circulation, gas exchange, and excretion
Protoglossus kohleri, 865f pseudozoea larvae, 730 of, 852
Protognathiidae, 664 Psilogastropoda, 323n classification of, 804
protogyny, 87 Psocodea, 738, 746f, 746–747, 765 Euchelicerata compared to, 849
protonephridia, 68f, 68–69, 116, 116f, 246 phylogeny of, 37f, 781f, 782 external anatomy of, 847f–848f, 849–850
of Annelida, 444, 445f Psocoptera, 746 feeding and digestion of, 849, 850–852,
of Cephalochordata, 914f, 916 Psolidium, 897f 851f
of Entoprocta, 313, 314, 315 Psolus, 896 fossil record of, 653, 849, 855
of Gastrotricha, 558, 559f chitinoides, 884f homologies of anterior/head
of Nemertea, 400, 406–407, 413 Psychidae, 751 appendages, 631t
of Platyhelminthes, 522, 537f, 538, 538f, psychrophiles, 9 Hox genes of, 853
555 ptenoglossate radula, 364 internal anatomy of, 851f
of Priapula, 571 Ptenothrix, 740f locomotion of, 850
of Rotifera, 290 Pteraeolidia, 370 nervous system and sense organs of,
of Scalidophora, 564 Pteraster tesselatus, 874f, 888 647, 851f, 852
protonephromixium, 69 Pteriida, 339 number of species, 849
protonymphon larvae, 851f, 852, 853–854 Pteriidae, 339, 359 phylogeny of, 849, 853f, 854, 854f
protopod of Arthropoda, 634, 634n, 635, Pteriomorphia, 325f, 326, 339 reproduction and development of,
635f, 636, 701n, 756n feeding of, 367, 369 851f, 852–854
in Crustacea, 701, 704f sense organs of, 383f Pycnogonidae, 804, 847f, 852, 853f
in Hexapoda, 754, 755, 756

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 for more ebook/ testbank/ solution manuals requests: email [email protected] Index I-37

Pycnogonum Rathkea, 236f retrocerebral organ of Rotifera, 290, 290f

litorale, 850, 853f, 854 Rathkeidae, 195 retrolateral tibial apophysis of
rickettsi, 850 Reaka-Kudla, M., 20 Euchelicerata, 841
stearnsi, 847f recapitulation concept, 91, 110–111, 183 Retusidae, 337
Pycnophyes, 566f, 568f receptors, sensory, 76–81 reversal, evolutionary, 33
Pycnopodia, 887, 888, 890 rectal accessory gills of Hexapoda, 770 Reynolds, O., 49
pygidium redia of Platyhelminthes, 551 Reynolds numbers, 49–50, 89
of Annelida, 426 Red List of Threatened Species, 6, 662 in Crustacea, 705, 708
of Arthropoda, 651 red queen hypothesis, 86 in Hexapoda, 760
Pygocephalomorpha, 682 reduction bodies of Porifera, 145f, 146, 155 in suspension feeding, 57–58
Pylactolaemata, 499 Reduviidae, 737, 746, 765 rhabdites
pyloric ceca of Echinodermata, 890, 891f reef ecosystems, 20, 192n, 226–227 of Nemertea, 403
pyloric stomach of Echinodermata, Cnidaria in, 220, 226–227 of Platyhelminthes, 530f, 530–531, 561
890, 891f Porifera in, 123, 124, 140, 154, 157–159 Rhabditida, 580f, 584, 596, 605
pylorus of Bryozoa, 503, 505f reef mounds, 161 anatomy and locomotion of, 586f
Pyralidae, 751 reflectional symmetry, 174 anterior end of, 589f
Pyramidellidae, 364, 365 regeneration, 84–85, 85f, 99 cuticle patterns of, 587f
Pyramidelloidea, 337 of Aceola, 259, 271 excretory system of, 591f–592f
pyriform organ of Bryozoa, 505 of Annelida, 450, 451f, 463, 469, 474 reproductive system of, 595f
Pyrolobus fumarii, 9n of Arthropoda, 640, 724, 866–867 Rhabditis, 591f, 592f
Pyrosoma, 923f of Bryozoa, 505, 508 Rhabditophora, 522, 523
Pyrosomatida, 924 of Cnidaria, 221, 231, 236 epidermis and body wall of, 530f
Pyrosomida, 912, 928, 929 of Ctenophora, 181 nervous system and sense organs of, 540f
Pyrostephidae, 196 of Echinodermata, 896, 900–901, 901f phylogeny of, 554, 555, 555f
Pyura, 926 of Nemertea, 397, 409 reproduction and development of, 544f
Pyuridae, 928 of Phoronida, 495 rhabdites of, 531
of Placozoa, 167 Rhabdocalyptus dawsoni, 132f
Q of Platyhelminthes, 528, 539, 541, 542f Rhabdocoela, 523–524, 530f
quadriradial symmetry, 45f, 46, 197f, 207 of Porifera, 144 excretion and osmoregulation of, 538f
Quammen, D., 737 of Rotifera, 291 feeding and digestion of, 534, 534f, 535,
quartet of macromeres, 97 of Urochordata, 927–928 535f, 536, 536f
quartet of micromeres, 97, 98, 99 regulative ova, 99, 100 nervous system and sense organs of, 540f
Quaternary Period, 16 Rehbachiella, 694, 732f phylogeny of, 555, 555f
quiescence of Porifera, 145–146 kinnekullensis, 701 reproduction and development of, 542,
Remipedia, 630, 660f, 666, 699, 734 543f, 545, 546f
R anatomy of, 695f rhabdoid glands of Acoela, 255
appendages of, 699, 704f rhabdoids
rachiglossate radulae, 363f, 364, 364f
body plan of, 699, 700, 701 of Acoela, 255
rachis, 204, 206f
circulation and gas exchange of, 717 of Platyhelminthes, 530, 530f, 561
racquet organs of Chelicerata, 837
distinguishing features of, 700t–701t rhabdome of Arthropoda, 649f, 650
radial canals
feeding and digestion of, 710 in Hexapoda, 772, 772f, 773
of Cnidaria, 207, 208f, 209f, 215f
locomotion of, 638, 703, 704f, 705f rhabdomere of Arthropoda, 650
of Echinodermata, 882f, 883
nervous system and sense organs of, 721, rhabdomeric eyes, 80
radial cleavage, 96–97, 97f, 100
723f, 724 Rhabdopleura, 860, 861f, 869, 870
radial spokes, 51, 51f
phylogeny of, 653, 655, 731 Rhabdopleuridae, 862
radial symmetry, 44–46, 45f
reproduction and development of, 724, 730 Rhampsinitus transvaalicus, 805f
biradial, 44–46, 45f, 174, 197f
renal appendages of Mollusca, 378 Rhaphidioptera, 738
of Cnidaria, 196, 197f, 198, 227
renal sacs of Mollusca, 378 Rhaptothyreida, 586
of Ctenophora, 45f
renal vesicles of Urochordata, 927 rheoreceptors of Platyhelminthes, 539, 540f
multiradial, 45f
renette cells of Nematoda, 590–592, 592f, 605 Rhigonematida, 584
nerve nets in, 82, 82f
Reniera, 143 Rhinebothriidea, 526
pentaradial, 45f, 46, 875, 877, 900, 906, 909
Renilla, 231 rhinophores of Mollusca, 333f, 380
quadriradial, 45f, 46, 197f, 207
amethystina, 186f Rhipicephalus annulatus, 809
Radiaspis radiata, 654f
reproduction, 84–88, 89 rhipidoglossate radulae, 362, 363f, 364f
Radiata, 29n, 124, 190
asexual, 84–86, 87, 88, 89 Rhizocephala, 665, 691, 692f, 693n, 711, 724
radiations, 33f
sexual, 86–88 life cycle of, 711, 712f–714f
radioles of Annelida, 435, 437f
Reptantia, 412, 413f, 678, 731 Rhizophora, 711
radula, 61, 62f, 344, 361–366, 362f–364f,
Reptilia, 34, 38f, 913 Rhizostomeae, 188, 193–194, 210f
370, 395
Reptilomorpha, 913 Rhodactis howesii, 190
buccal structures associated with, 362f
repugnatorial glands of Arthropoda, 644 Rhodaliidae, 195
docoglossate, 362, 364f
resilin in Arthropoda, 630 Rhodophyta, 5n
ptenoglossate, 364
respiration, 71 Rhodopidae, 336
rachiglossate, 363f, 364, 364f
external, 71 rhombogens of Dicyemida, 276, 277, 278
rhipidoglossate, 362, 363f, 364f
internal (cellular), 71, 72f Rhombozoa, 3t, 275–280, 482
taenioglossate, 362, 363f, 364
respiratory pigments, 74–75, 75t rhopalia (rhopalium), 209f, 210f, 215f, 229f,
toxoglossate, 363f, 365, 365f
of Annelida, 443–444 230
radular membrane of Mollusca, 362, 362f,
of Lophophorata, 495 photoreceptors in, 79
363f
respiratory tree of Echinodermata, 896, Rhopalonematidae, 194, 240
radular sac of Mollusca, 362, 362f
897f, 898, 898f, 899 Rhopalura ophiocomae, 482f
Raff, R., 31n
Resticula nyssa, 288f Rhynchelmis, 453f
Ramisyllis, 451f
restitution cells, 250, 263 Rhynchobdellida, 426, 477
Ranella, 382f
retinula of Arthropoda, 649, 649f, 650, 656 circulation and gas exchange of,
Rangeomorpha, 240
in Hexapoda, 772, 772f, 773 479–480, 480f
Rapana venosa, 364
retractor muscles, 54 feeding and digestion of, 478, 479, 479f
Raphidioptera, 37f, 739, 748f, 749, 781f
of Cnidaria, 213f, 214f reproduction and development of, 481
Rasta, 40n
of Rotifera, 287f, 288

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rhynchocoel, of Nemertea, 399, 404, 411, life cycle of, 291f, 292 nervous system and sense organs of,
412, 413 nervous system and sense organs of, 837, 838f
Rhynchocoela, 397, 399, 400 290, 290f reproduction and development of, 841,
rhynchodeum of Nemertea, 404 number of species, 3t, 284–285, 309 842, 843f, 845f
Rhynchonellida, 512 phylogeny of, 281–282, 937f salt marshes, 19f, 21
Rhynchonelliformea, 510f–511f, 511, 512, polymorphism of, 292 Salvelinus frontinalis, 537
512f–513f reproduction and development of, Sanders, H., 20
body wall and support of, 513 88, 290–292 Sapphirina, 726f
feeding and digestion of, 513–514, 514f, Rotiferophthora angustispora, 286 metallina, 724
515f rotules of Echinodermata, 893, 894f saprophytes, 57
nervous system and sense organs of, Rouphozoa, 275, 519–562 Sarcophagidae, 750
514f, 515 Gastrotricha, 519, 556–560 Sarcoptes scabiei, 804f
reproduction and development of, phylogeny of, 937f Sarcoptiformes, 804f, 807, 808
516f, 517 Platyhelminthes, 519, 520–546 Sareptidae, 339
Rhynchoscolex, 544 Rouse, Greg, 268 Sarotrocercus, 14f
Rhynchothoracidae, 804, 853f Roux, W., 91, 99 Sars, G. O., 860
Rhynchothorax australis, 853f r-selected species, 95, 107 Sars, M., 190
Rhyniognatha, 780 rudiment of Echinodermata, 881 Sarsia, 236f
ribosomal RNA, 31n, 936 Rudman, W. B., 353 Sarsostraca, 694
Rice, M., 459 Rugiloricus, 574, 575 Saturniidae, 751, 752f, 780f
Richtersius coronifer, 612f cauliculus, 575 Sauropsida, 913
Ricinoides, 816 manuelae, 575 Saxipendium, 860
atewa, 811f renaudae, 575 coronatum, 860
crassipalpe, 811f Rugosa, 15, 16, 242–243 Scalidophora, 247, 556, 563–578, 579, 605
Ricinulei, 806, 811f, 816 Runcinidae, 337 fossil record of, 564
circulation and gas exchange of, 834 Runcinoidea, 337 Kinorhyncha, 564–568
nervous system and sense organs of, 837 Runga, 828f Loricifera, 564, 572–577
phylogeny of, 854f phylogeny of, 246f, 564, 577, 578, 652,
reproduction and development of, S 937f, 938, 939
841, 842, 844, 846 Sabella, 432, 435 Priapula, 564, 568–572
Riedl, R., 283 Sabellariidae, 419f, 423, 433f scalids of Scalidophora, 564, 578
Rieger, R. M., 282 Sabellastarte magnifica, 419f in Loricifera, 573–574, 575
Riftia, 21, 470, 474 Sabellida, 423, 474 in Priapula, 569, 570, 571, 572
pachyptila, 20–21, 470, 472f, 474 Sabellidae, 419f, 423, 433f, 473 Scalpellum, 691
rigid skeleton, 52, 53–56 circulation and gas exchange of, 443, 444 scalpellum, 724
ring canal of Echinodermata, 882f, 883, feeding and digestion of, 435, 437f scan-and-trap method of suspension
886, 887 nervous system and sense organs of, 446, feeding, 58
ring furrows of Xenoturbellida, 267, 268, 268f 448, 449, 449f scape of Hexapoda antennae, 754
Riodinidae, 751 parapodia and chaetae of, 429f Scaphandridae, 337
Ripistes parasita, 438 reproduction and development of, 450 scaphognathites, 719
Rissoellidae, 336 support and locomotion of, 432 Scapholeberis, 698
Rissoidae, 335 Saccocirridae, 418f, 420 Scaphopoda, 322, 325f, 326, 340, 345f, 346
Ristau, D. A., 124n Saccocirrus, 418f circulation and gas exchange of, 376
river blindness, 582, 597, 599, 605, 680, 750 Saccoglossus, 860f, 861f, 865, 867 development of, 391f
RNA, 5 kowalevskii, 867f feeding of, 369–370
ribosomal, 31n, 936 mereschkowskii, 864f general anatomy of, 340, 341f
transcriptome sequenced from, 31n, 936, Saccorhytida, 859 locomotion of, 360
936n Saccorhytus coronarius, 859 mantle and mantle cavity of, 347
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 809 Saccosporidae, 193 phylogeny of, 393f, 394
Rodinia supercontinent, 10 Sacculina carcini, 692f sense organs of, 382
rope ladder nerve cord of Annelida, 446 Sacculinidae, 693n shell of, 351
rosette cells, 98f, 99, 179, 179f sacculus of Onychophora, 625 Scarabaeidae, 749, 765
Rossella, 155 Sacoglossa, 61, 337, 353, 365, 370 Scathophaga stercoraria, 748f
Rostanga pulchra, 156, 353 Sadocus polyacanthus, 805f scatophagous insects, 765
rostellum of Platyhelminthes, 533, 533f, 541 Sagartiomorphe, 224 scavenging, 57, 62–63
rostrum of Bryozoa, 500, 501f Sagitta, 303f Scheltema, A., 323
rotational hypothesis of gastropod torsion, bipunctata, 77f Schinderhannes bartelsi, 653
353, 354 sagittal plane of Ctenophora, 174 Schistosoma, 521, 554
rotational symmetry, 45f, 46, 174 Sagittidae, 302 haematobium, 554
Rothschildia cincta, 778–779, 779n sagittocysts of Acoela, 254f, 255–256, 256f, mansoni, 528f, 550f, 554
Rotifera, 284–295, 309, 313, 556 259 schistosomiasis, 521, 550f
Acanthocephala, 285, 286, 292–295, 309 sagittocytes of Acoela, 256, 256f Schizocardium, 865
blastocoelom of, 49 Sahnicythere, 668f schizocoely, 104, 104f, 115, 116, 456, 652, 859
body cavity, support, and locomotion of, Saint-Hilaire, Geoffroy, 82 schizogony in Cnidaria, 222
287–288 Saipanetta, 668f Schizomida, 807, 811f, 816–817, 855
body forms of, 285, 285f Saldidae, 746 body plan of, 818
body wall and external anatomy of, Salenioida, 879 circulation and gas exchange of, 834
286–287 Salinella, 112 phylogeny of, 854f
characteristics of, 286 salve, 113f reproduction and development of, 837,
cilia of, 286, 287, 288 salinity of habitat, 17, 21, 22, 900 842, 846
circulation, gas exchange, excretion, and Salpa, 923f Schizomus crassicaudatus, 811f
osmoregulation of, 289–290 Salpida, 912, 924 Schleip, W., 25
classification of, 286 Salticidae, 806 Schmidt, I., 140
corona of, 285f, 286, 287, 287f, 288, 289 feeding and digestion of, 827, 831 Schmidtea, 541
dormancy of, 290 locomotion of, 824f, 825, 825f mediterranea, 554
feeding and digestion of, 288–289, 289f Schmidt’s larva, 411

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Schmitt, W., 688 movement of, 214, 215 settlement process, 106f, 108
Schneider, A., 489 nervous system and sense organs of, Sexanymphon, 850
Schultze, M., 399 229f, 230 sexual reproduction, 86–88, 89
Schulze, F. E., 166 phylogeny of, 242 Sheina orri, 669
Schwabe organs of Mollusca, 382 Scyphozoa, 167, 188, 193, 220, 226, 680, 689 shell, of Mollusca, 345f, 347–353, 349f, 350f,
Scissurellidae, 334, 374 evolutionary history of, 241 389, 393, 394
Scleractinia, 188, 192, 192n, 227 life cycle of, 234, 235f shell eyes of Mollusca, 351
in Cenozoic Era, 16 medusoid form of, 209, 209f Shergoldana australiensis, 582
defense mechamisms of, 221f nervous system and sense organs of, shiny spheres of Placozoa, 166, 167
in Mesozoic Era, 15 228, 230 Shira-larva of Loricifera, 572
phylogeny of, 242–243 phylogeny of, 241, 242, 242f shrimp, use of term, 659n
reproduction and development of, 232 polypoid stage of, 198 Siberian Traps, 15
support of, 210, 211, 211f, 212 reproduction and development of, Siboga research vessel, 473
Scleractinia, 206f 231, 233–234, 234f, 235f Siboglinidae, 416, 417f, 423–424, 470–476,
Scleraxonia, 188, 191 Scytodes, 829, 830f 485
sclerites Scytodidae, 806, 829, 830f anatomy of, 471f, 475f
of Arthropoda, 632 Secernentea, 583 body forms of, 426
of Cnidaria, 221 secondary gill bar of Enteropneusta, body plan of, 426, 473–476
of Mollusca, 323 864f, 865 circulation, gas exchange, excretion, and
scleroblasts, 210 secondary pigment cells of Arthropoda, osmoregulation of, 441, 474, 475f
Sclerocypris, 667f 649f, 650 nervous system and sense organs of, 474
sclerocytes of Porifera, 120, 134, 135f, 137 Sedentaria, 416, 422, 426, 485 nutrition of, 474
Sclerolinum, 470 sedentary animals, 20 reproduction and development of,
Sclerospongiae, 124, 126, 138, 138n, 139f Segestria, 840f 474–476
sclerotization of Arthropoda, 634 Segestriidae, 840f taxonomic history of, 473
Scolecida, 313 segmental gland of Onychophora, 625 tube, body wall, and body cavity of, 473
scolex of Platyhelminthes, 528–529, 533, segment polarity genes of Arthropoda, 652 Siboglinum, 470, 471f, 473, 475f
533f, 537, 541, 541f, 552, 553f Seilacher, A., 240 fiordicum, 474
Scolopendra, 787, 792, 792f Seison, 289 veleronis, 471f
cingulata, 794f, 797f Seisonidea, 282, 285f, 286, 288f weberi, 473
subspinipes, 794f reproduction and development of, 290–291 Sicariidae, 806
viridis, 792 symbiotic relationships of, 289 Sicyonia, 677
Scolopendromorpha, 786f, 788, 790f, 792, selective deposit feeders, 60 ingentis, 609f
793f Selenella, 500, 501f Siegesbeck, J., 40n
circulation and gas exchange of, 793, 794f self-fertilization, 87, 169, 181 Sigalionidae, 421
nervous system and sense organs of, 795 Semaeostomeae, 188, 193, 210f Sigwart, J. D., 393f
reproduction and development of, 796 Semelidae, 340, 369 Silene, 2
Scolopendropsis duplicata, 788 Semibalanus balanoides, 661f silicatein, 137
Scoloplos armiger, 418f Semicytherura, 668f Silicea, 162
Scopalinida, 126 seminal bursa of Acoela, 260, 261f Silicispongia, 162
Scopiastes, 650 seminal receptacle, 87, 87f Siliquariidae, 335, 356, 357f
Scopimera, 719 seminal vesicle, 87, 87f silk, spider. See spider silk and webs
Scorpiones, 807, 817f, 817–818, 855 Semper cells, 650n, 656, 732 silk glands, 819, 820f, 823, 825, 833
circulation and gas exchange of, 833 sense organs, 75–81, 83, 89 Silurian Period, 15, 653, 655
excretion and osmoregulation of, 834 sensilla, 648 simplex stage of Tardigrada, 614
feeding and digestion of, 826–827, 827f, of Chelicerata, 835–836, 837 Simpson, G. G., 40
831 of Crustacea, 721, 723f Simuliidae, 599, 750
nervous system and sense organs of, of Hexapoda, 773 Simulium, 680
835, 837 sensilla chaetica of Chelicerata, 837 sinking behavior of Pycnogonida, 850
phylogeny of, 854f sensory nerves, 75, 76f siphon
reproduction and development of, 837, sensory receptors, 76–81 of Echinodermata, 895f, 896
840f, 842, 844, 844f, 846 sensory vesicle of Urochordata, 927, 930f of Mollusca, 347, 358f, 361, 369, 369f,
Scorpionoidea, 807 Senticaudata, 665, 686f, 689 375, 388
Scotoplanes, 875f, 889 Sepia, 275, 361f of Thalassematidae, 467
Scr gene, 780 Sepiida, 344, 352 of Urochordata, 920, 921, 921f, 922f, 925,
Scrippsia, 45f Sepiidae, 344 926
Scrobicularia, 358f Sepiolidae, 344 siphonal canal of Mollusca, 350f, 352
Scruparia, 497f Sepioteuthis lessoniana, 325f Siphonaptera, 738, 739, 748f, 749, 750
Scudderia furcata, 78f septa of Cnidaria, 211, 211f feeding of, 764, 765
Scutelloida, 879 Sergestes, 677 phylogeny of, 37f, 750, 781f
Scutigera, 790f, 791 Sergestoidea, 677 Siphonariidae, 337
coleoptrata, 788 serial homology of Annelida, 415 Siphoniulida, 795
Scutigerella immaculata, 792, 798 Serolidae, 685f Siphonodictyon, 155
Scutigeromorpha, 630, 786f, 788, 790f, 793 Serolidea, 664 coralliphagum, 155
excretion and osmoregulation of, 794 Serpulidae, 423, 432, 433f siphonoglyphs of Cnidaria, 199, 200f
nervous system and sense organs of, 795 circulation and gas exchange of, 441, Siphonomecus, 460
reproduction and development of, 442f, 443, 444 Siphonophora, 188, 195–196
795, 796 excretion and osmoregulation of, 444, 445f feeding and digestion of, 220
Scyllaeidae, 337 feeding and digestion of, 435 movement of, 214
Scypha, 130 nervous system and sense organs of, nervous system and sense organs of, 230
scyphistoma, 233, 234f, 235f 446, 448 phylogeny of, 242
Scyphistoma, 190 reproduction and development of, 450, polymorphism of, 202
scyphomedusae, 197, 205, 207, 209, 220, 455f polypoid stage of, 202–204
226, 233, 234 sessile animals, 20 reproduction and development of, 236,
anatomy of, 210f as predators, 62, 63 237, 240
life cycle of, 235f setal-net suspension feeding, 58, 59f toxins of, 218

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Siphonophorae, 169 reproduction of, 385, 385f spherical symmetry, 44, 44f
Siphonophorida, 792, 795 shell of, 347 spherulous cells of Porifera, 135
Siphonosoma, 460, 464f solenoid condition, 129, 131 Sphinctozoa, 160
Siphonosomatidae, 459, 459f Solifugae, 807, 811f, 818, 846 Sphingidae, 751
Siphonostomatoida, 665, 671f, 690 circulation and gas exchange of, 834 Sphodros, 827, 829f
siphonozooids, 204 nervous system and sense organs of, 837 spicules
siphuncle of Mollusca, 352 phylogeny of, 854f of Nematoda, 594, 595f
Sipuncula, 29n, 415, 417f, 457–465, 483, reproduction and development of, 842 of Porifera, 137–138, 138f–139f, 145, 155,
485, 629 somatic cells of Dicyemida, 276, 278, 280 162, 163
body forms of, 417f, 427, 458f somatocoels of Echinodermata, 881, 885, spider silk and webs, 644, 819–823, 820f,
body plan of, 426, 457, 460–465 904, 904f, 905, 905t, 907f 822f, 823f
body wall and coelom of, 428, 460, 460f, somites of Arthropoda, 632 in feeding, 821, 827–830, 828f–829f
461f Sorbeoconcha, 326, 335 in locomotion, 825, 825f
circulation and gas exchange of, 443, Sorberacea, 917 in reproduction, 842, 843f
460–461 sorting area of Mollusca, 372, 373f spidroins, 819
classification of, 416, 419, 459–460 Spadella, 301, 306, 307 Spinicaudata, 666, 698, 719
excretion and osmoregulation of, cephaloptera, 307 spinnerets, 819, 820f, 821, 823, 825
462–463 Spadellidae, 302 Spinoloricus cinziae, 573, 573f
feeding and digestion of, 462 spadix of Mollusca, 388 spinoscalids
nervous system and sense organs of, Sparassidae, 806, 815 of Kinorhyncha, 565, 566f, 568
463, 463f Spartobranchus, 871 of Loricifera, 573, 574f
phylogeny of, 426, 459, 459f tenuis, 871 Spinulosida, 878
reproduction and development of, Spatangoida, 879 Spiochaetopterus, 417f
457, 463–465, 464f Spathebothriidea, 526 Spionida, 423
support and locomotion of, 461–462 spat of Mollusca, 360 Spionidae, 417f, 423, 432, 435, 436f
Sipunculida, 459 spawning, broadcast, 87, 107 spiracles, 72, 645, 646f
Sipunculidae, 459, 459f, 460, 462 species of Hexapoda, 768, 769f, 770, 771
Sipunculus, 460, 461, 461f biological definition of, 39–40 of Myriapoda, 793
norvegicus, 458f classification of, 5, 6, 35–36, 36f of Onychophora, 624f, 625
nudus, 458f, 460f, 461f, 465 database listings of, 6 spiral cleavage, 25, 96, 97f, 97–99, 247, 275, 280
Siriella, 661f endangered, 6 of Acoela, 260–261
sister taxa, 28f, 35 evolutionary concept, 40 cell fates in, 100, 101
six1 genes, 931 extinctions of, 6 of Chaetognatha, 307
Skara, 732f, 733 invasive, 6, 662, 917, 926 coding system for, 97–99, 98f, 544, 728f
skeletal plates of Echinodermata, 883, 885 nomenclature on, 38–39 of Crustacea, 727, 728f
skeleton, 52–56, 89 number of, 2–3, 3t, 5–7, 16, 26, 35 of Entoprocta, 313
endoskeleton, 51, 53, 54f, 55 threatened, 6, 662, 737 of Platyhelminthes, 544, 555
exoskeleton, 53, 54, 55, 55f type specimen of, 39, 39n Spiralia, 241, 247, 273, 274–280, 311, 321
hydrostatic, 52f, 52–53, 71 Species Plantarum (Linnaeus), 38 Annelida, 415–485
rigid, 52, 53–56 specific epithet, 38, 40n Dicyemida, 275–280
Slabber, M., 282 Spelaeogriphacea, 664, 683f, 688, 704f Gastrotricha, 556–560
sleeping sickness, 750 Spelaeogriphus lepidops, 683f, 688 gastrulation and gene expression in, 100f
sleeze of sponges, 124n Spemann, H., 91, 99 Gnathifera, 281–309
slime glands of Onychophora, 623f, 624, Spengel, J. W., 323, 860 as legacy name, 25, 275
625f Spengelidae, 862 Lophophorata, 487–517
slime papillae of Onychophora, 622, 622f Spengelomenia bathybia, 328f Mollusca, 321–395
slit sense organs, 78, 836f Speonebalia cannoni, 674 Nemertea, 397–413
slit sensilla of Arthropoda, 648 sperm, 86f, 86–87 phylogeny of, 24, 31n, 246f, 554, 556, 629,
in Euchelicerata, 835–836, 836f spermatic cysts of Porifera, 146 652, 937f, 938
Smittina cervicornis, 156 spermatogenesis of Nemertodermatida, Platyhelminthes, 520–546
“smoking sponges,” 146 265, 266f Platytrochozoa, 311–320
snail fever, 521 spermatophores, 87 Rhombozoa, 275–280
snail gene, 101 of Mollusca, 386, 388, 389 Rouphozoa, 519–561
“sneezing” of Porifera, 142, 143 of Phoronida, 492f, 495 Spirobolida, 788, 789
Snodgrass, R., 655 spermatozeugmata of Siboglinidae, Spirobranchus giganteus, 433f, 455f
Snowball Earth events, 10, 11 475, 476 spirocysts of Cnidaria, 216, 220
Solaster, 888 sperm duct, 87, 87f Spirorbinae, 423
dawsoni, 889 sperm follicles of Porifera, 146, 147f Spirostreptida, 789, 794
stimpsoni, 889 sphaeridia of Echinodermata, 900 Spirostreptus, 792f
sole, of Mollusca foot, 344, 356 Sphaeriidae, 340, 390 Spirula, 352
Solemyida, 339 Sphaerocladina, 126 Spirularia, 192
Solemyidae, 339, 370 Sphaerodoridae, 422 Spirulida, 344
solenia of Cnidaria, 201 Sphaeroeca, 114 Spirulidae, 344
Solenidae, 340 volvox, 113f Spirurida, 584
solenocytes, 68 Sphaerolichida, 807 Spodoptera, 829
Solenofilomorpha crezeei, 258f Sphaeromatidae, 644, 711, 724 Spondylidae, 339, 359
Solenofilomorphidae, 259 Sphaeromatidea, 664 Spondylus, 382
Solenogastres, 322, 323, 324f, 345–346, 389f Sphaeromatoidea, 664 Spongia, 137, 156
circulation and gas exchange of, 377 Sphaerotheriida, 786f officinalis, 137f
development of, 389, 390f Sphaerotheriidae, 797 Spongiae, 124
digestion of, 373 Sphaerotherium, 797 Spongiaria, 124
general anatomy of, 326, 327f Sphaerulariopsis, 580f Spongicola, 156, 678
locomotion of, 356 Sphecidae, 747 venusta, 679
mantle and mantle cavity of, 347 Spheciospongia, 157 Spongida, 124
nervous system of, 378f confoederata, 122f Spongilla, 122f, 145f
phylogeny of, 393, 393f vesparium, 156 Spongillida, 126

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Spongillidae, 145f Stichopus, 896 style sac of Mollusca, 372, 373, 373f
spongin, 124, 125, 134, 137, 144–145 stichosome of Nematoda, 590 stylet
spongocoel, 129 stigmata of Urochordata, 925, 926 of Crustacea, 711
spongocytes of Porifera, 134, 135f Stilbonematidae, 588 of Hexapoda, 755, 757f, 764
spore valves of Cnidaria, 222 Stoecharthrum monnati, 483 of Loricifera, 573, 575f
sporocysts of Platyhelminthes, 551 Štolc, A., 190 of Nematoda, 403–404, 588
sporosacs, 236 Stolidobranchia, 912 of Nemertea, 400
Squilla, 645f, 675f stolon, of Pterobranchia, 861f, 869 of Platyhelminthes, 536, 542–543, 544f
stabilimentum of Euchelicerata, 821, 823f stolonal funiculus of Bryozoa, 503 of Tardigrada, 613f, 614, 614f, 616, 618
stalk, of Cnidaria, 204, 206f Stolonifera, 188, 191 stylet glands of Tardigrada, 613f, 614f, 616
stalking predators, 62–63 stoma, of Nematoda, 590 Stylobates, 222
Staphylinidae, 749 stomachic plexus of Phoronida, 494 aeneus, 224f
star-cell organ of Entoprocta, 315 Stomatolepas, 691 Stylochus, 544, 544f
statoblasts of Bryozoa, 497f, 509, 509f Stomatopoda, 664, 674, 675f Stylommatophora, 337, 353, 371f, 376f, 378
statoconia of Mollusca, 382 circulation and gas exchange of, 645f, reproduction of, 387f
statocysts, 77f, 77–78 717, 719 sense organs of, 380
of Acoela, 253f, 254f, 258–259 excretion and osmoregulation of, 720 Stylopallene cheilorhynchus, 853f
of Annelida, 449–450 feeding and digestion of, 710 Styraconyx qivitoq, 611f
of Brachiopoda, 515 internal anatomy of, 715f subenteric ganglion of Entoprocta, 315
of Cnidaria, 230 locomotion of, 638, 703 subepidermal plexus of Ctenophora, 179
of Crustacea, 721, 722f reproduction and development of, subequal blastomeres, 96
of Ctenophora, 179, 180f 725, 729f Suberites, 156
of Echinodermata, 900 sense organs of, 722, 722f Suberitida, 126
of Mollusca, 384 Stombus, 356 sublittoral zone, 17–18, 18f
of Nemertea, 409 stomoblastula of Porifera, 125, 151, 152f, 162 subneural gland of Urochordata, 927
of Nemertodermatida, 261, 264, 264f, 265 stomochord of Hemichordata, 863, 932 substomodeal comb row of Ctenophora, 173f
of Platyhelminthes, 539, 540f stomodeal ectoderm, 102 substomodeal meridional canals of
of Urochordata, 927 stomodeal plane of Ctenophora, 174 Ctenophora, 173f
of Xenoturbellida, 267, 270, 270f stomodeum subtentacular canals of Ctenophora, 173f
statoliths, 77f, 77–78 of Ctenophora, 174, 183 subtidal zone, 17–18
of Acoela, 258, 259 of Nemertea, 404 subumbrella, 205
of Ctenophora, 179, 180 Stomolophus meleagris, 235f Succinea vaginacontorta, 40n
of Mollusca, 382 Stomphia, 213, 214f Succineidae, 337
of Nemertodermatida, 261, 265 stone canal of Echinodermata, 886, 887 sulcal side of Cnidaria, 199
Stauroteuthidae, 342 Strepsiptera, 738, 739, 747, 748f, 749 sulfur dioxide, atmospheric, 16
Staurozoa, 188, 193, 210f phylogeny of, 37f, 781f superpositional eyes of Arthropoda, 650
evolution of, 2 wings of, 760 Superstitionoidea, 807
movement of, 214f, 215 Streptomyces avermectinius, 600 support structures, 49–56
phylogeny of, 241, 242f Streptoneura, 323 supralittoral zone, 17, 18f
polypoid stage of, 198 streptoneury of Gastropoda, 355, 379 surface-to-volume dilemma, 47–48, 400, 407
reproduction of, 234 stretch receptors, 78 and colony formation, 86
Stegodyphus, 823 Strickland code, 39 and gas exchange, 72
Stegophrynus dammermani, 810f stridulation of Chelicerata, 842, 843f in Nemertera, 400, 407
Stegosoma, 923f Strigamia, 790f and osmoregulation, 67–68
Steinböck, O., 262 strobila in Porifera, 142
Steinernema, 591f, 592f, 595f, 599f of Cnidaria, 233, 234f suspension feeding, 57–59, 89, 361
Steinernematidae, 588 of Platyhelminthes, 529, 529f ciliary-mucous mechanism, 58–59, 60f
Stelletta, 144f Strobila, 190 contact methods, 58
stem cells of Porifera, 134–135 strobilation mucous-net, 58, 60f
stem nematogens of Dicyemida, 278f, 279 of Cnidaria, 231, 233, 234f, 235f scan-and-trap method, 58
stenohaline animals, 67 monodisc, 233 setal-net, 58, 59f
Stenolaemata, 499 of Platyhelminthes, 529 tentacle or tube feet, 59, 60f
Stenoplax, 389f polydisc, 233 sutures of Mollusca, 352
Stenopodidea, 664, 676, 678f, 678–679, 723f, stroma of Echinodermata, 877 swimming bells, 202, 203f, 204
725 Stromatocystites, 882f, 906, 907f, 908 swimming motion, 20
stenopods of Arthropoda, 635 Stromatoporoida, 160, 161f of Annelida, 430f, 431, 477, 481, 482
Stenopus, 678, 678f, 679 Strombidae, 335 of Arthropoda, 637, 638, 638f
hispidus, 723f Strombus, 380 of Cephalochordata, 913
Stenorhynchus, 679f Strongylida, 584–585, 589f, 592f of Cnidaria, 214–215, 219, 230
Stephanian deposits, Onychophora in, Strongylocentrotus, 880f, 899f of Crustacea, 703, 705f, 706
619, 620f droebachiensis, 40n of Echinodermata, 887
Stephanoceros, 285f purpuratus, 61, 874f, 889, 899f and evolution of multicellularity, 114
Stephanodrilus, 477f Struck, T., 483, 484f, 519 of Mollusca, 360–361, 361f
Stephanoscyphistoma, 234 Stunkard, H. W., 275 of Nematoda, 588
Stephen, A., 459 Styela, 60f, 918f, 922 of Nematomorpha, 603
stereoblastula, 101, 101f, 103, 153 Styelidae, 928 Reynolds numbers in, 49–50
stereogastrula, 102f, 103 Stygiomysida, 664, 687 Sybota, 829f
stereom of Echinodermata, 877, 887, 905, stygobionts, 22 Sycon, 121f, 130, 138f
907f, 908 Stygobromus, 689 development of, 151, 151n, 152f
sternite of Arthropoda, 632, 632f Stygocarella, 675f distribution of, 154
Sterreria, 262f Stygocarididae, 675 syconoid sponges, 128f, 129–130, 138f, 140,
psammicola, 258f Stylaster, 202, 212f 151
Stiasny-Wijnhoff, G., 399 californicus, 439 sylleibid condition, 129, 131
Stichocotylida, 525 Stylasterias, 890 Syllidae, 418f, 422, 448
stichocytes of Nematoda, 590 forreri, 884f reproduction and development of, 450,
Stichodactyla mertensii, 198 Stylasteridae, 194, 195, 212, 212f, 242 451f, 452

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Syllis ramosa, 451f

Symbiodiniaceae, 192n, 225
T phylogeny of, 25, 607, 610, 655f, 937f, 938
reproduction and development of, 617f,
Symbiodinium, 157, 192n, 225, 370 Tabanidae, 750–751 617–618, 618f
Symbion Tabaota, 537 symbiotic relationships of, 611f, 613f, 616
americanus, 317, 319 table palintomy of Porifera, 149 tarsal organs of Chelicerata, 836f, 837
pandora, 317, 318f, 319 tabulae of Cnidaria, 211–212 tarsomeres of Hexapoda, 756, 756n, 758f
symbiotic relationships, 21, 22–24, 57 Tabulata, 15, 16, 243 tarsus of Hexapoda, 753f, 756, 756n, 758f
of Acoela, 252, 254f, 255 Tachinidae, 751 taxis, 76
of Annelida, 438f, 438–439, 441, 474, 485 Tachypleus, 807, 808 taxonomy, 6, 40
of Arthropoda, 644, 652, 711, 765, 809 gigas, 808 Tectitethya crypta, 155
of Bryozoa, 501, 850 tridendatus, 808 Tedania, 154
of Cnidaria, 221, 224–226, 241 tactile receptors, 77, 77f teeth of Mollusca, 362, 363f, 364
in coral reef ecosystems, 192n of Annelida, 448, 463 Tegella, 507
of Mollusca, 362, 370, 376, 378 of Arthropoda, 648, 648f, 835 Tegenaria, 820f, 832f, 836f
of Nematoda, 588, 599f, 600 tadpole larva of Urochordata, 929, 930f, 931f Tegiticula, 737
of Nemertodermatida, 262–263, 263f, 265 Taenia, 521f, 533 tegmentum of Mollusca, 351
parasitic life cycle in, 23, 109–110 saginata, 529f, 552, 553f tegmina of Hexapoda, 757
of Platyhelminthes, 534 solium, 533f, 551f, 552, 554 Tegulidae, 334
of Porifera, 123, 140, 142, 153, 154, taenidia of Hexapoda, 768, 769f tegument of Platyhelminthes, 531, 531f,
156–159 taenioglossate radula, 362, 363f, 364 532, 537
of Rotifera, 289 Taeniopoda eques, 609f Telesto, 206f
of Tardigrada, 611f, 613f, 616 Tagelus, 358f Tellinidae, 340, 369
of Urochordata, 925, 926, 929 tagmata of Arthropoda, 631 Tellinoidea, 369
of Xenoturbellida, 270 in Crustacea, 700t teloanamorphosis, 798
symmetry, 44–47 in Hexapoda, 757 teloblast, of Arthropoda, 651
bilateral, 46. See also bilateral symmetry tagmosis of Arthropoda, 631, 647, 657 teloblastic development
of nervous system, 82f, 82–83 tail fan of Crustacea, 663f, 701 of Annelida, 415, 456, 456f, 457, 485
radial, 44. See also radial symmetry tail fin of Arthropoda, 651
rotational, 45f, 46, 174 of Chaetognatha, 303f, 304 of Tardigrada, 617–618
spherical, 44, 44f of Urochordata, 929 telolecithal ova, 95, 95f, 96
Sympagurus dofleini, 224f tail flip of Crustacea, 706 telopod of Arthropoda, 634, 634n, 635, 635f,
Symphyla, 747, 785, 786f, 789, 791 Tainisopidea, 664 636
circulation and gas exchange of, 793 Talitroidea, 689 in Diplopoda, 788
feeding and digestion of, 792 Tamoyidae, 193 telotroch, 117, 117f
head and mouth appendages of, 791 Tanaidacea, 664, 683f, 688 of Annelida, 456, 456f, 470f
locomotion of, 791 excretion and osmoregulation of, 720 telson of Arthropoda, 651
nervous system and sense organs of, 795 feeding and digestion of, 710 in Crustacea, 663f, 701
phylogeny of, 799 Tangaroa tahitiensis, 843f Temnocephala caeca, 530f
reproduction and development of, tanning, 54 Temnocephalidae, 534
795, 798 of Arthropoda, 634 Temnosewella caeca, 530f
Symphypleona, 739, 740f Tantulocarida, 662f, 665, 693–694 temperature receptors, 81, 721
Symphytognathidae, 815, 829f anatomy of, 693f Tenagodus, 357f
Symplasma, 131, 162 distinguishing features of, 700t–701t Tenebrionidae, 749, 771, 775
symplesiomorphy, 32n feeding and digestion of, 711 tension hypothesis on cnidae exocytosis, 218
sympodial growth of Cnidaria, 201, 201f nervous system and sense organs of, tentacle
Symsagittifera roscoffensis, 255 721, 724 of Brachiopoda, 513, 514
Synagoga mira, 691 reproduction and development of, of Cnidaria, 201, 202f, 205f, 206f, 208f,
Synalpheus, 710 702t–703t, 724 219, 220, 232
regalis, 710 tantulus, 693–694 of Ctenophora, 169, 170f–171f, 172, 174,
Synaphridae, 832 tanycytes of Scalidophora, 564 175, 176, 176f, 177f, 178, 183–184
synapomorphy, 32n Tanystylum grossifemorum, 847f in deposit feeding, 60
Synapta, 61f, 875f tapetum of Chelicerata, 837, 838f of Echinodermata, 882f, 883, 887, 892
synapticles of Enteropneusta, 864f, 865 tapeum of Mollusca, 382, 383f of Entoprocta, 314, 316
Syncarida, 664, 674, 675–676 tapeworms and flukes. See flukes and of Phoronida, 491f, 492f, 494, 495
locomotion of, 706 tapeworms of Sipuncula, 460, 461, 461f, 462, 463, 463f
reproduction and development of, Tardigrada, 247, 607, 608, 609f, 610–618, 657 in suspension feeding, 59
702t–703t, 725, 727 acron/ocular segment of, 632 of Urochordata, 922f
synchronous broadcast spawning, 107 anhydrobiosis of, 610–612 tentacle canal of Ctenophora, 178
syncytial theory, 114 blastocoelom of, 49 tentacle crown of Bryozoa, 499, 500, 501,
syncytial tissues, 131–132, 132n, 143, 143n body plan of, 613f, 613–618, 614f 502, 503, 504f
Syndermata, 285 characteristics of, 608t, 610, 657 tentacle scale of Echinodermata, 892, 892f
Syndesmis, 534, 534f circulation and gas exchange of, 616 tentacle sheaths of Ctenophora, 172, 174, 183
Synechococcus, 157 classification of, 629 tentacular plane of Ctenophora, 174
syngamy, 86 coloration of, 615 tentacular shedding of Cnidaria, 232
synonyms, 39 compared to Arthropoda and Tentaculata, 169, 183, 489
Syrphidae, 750 Onychophora, 608, 608t, 619 tentillae of Ctenophora, 174, 175, 176f
Systellommatophora, 337, 353, 380 excretion and osmoregulation of, 616, 646 Tephritidae, 751
Systema Naturae (Linnaeus), 38–39, 459, 522, feeding and digestion of, 616 Terebella, 435
568, 736 fossil record of, 610 Terebellidae, 419f, 424, 449
systematics, 27–41 genome sequencing, 612 circulation and gas exchange of, 441,
characters in, 31, 33 life cycle of, 610–612 442f, 443
goal of, 41 locomotion of, 610, 615, 634 feeding and digestion of, 435, 436f
phylogenetic, 34 musculature of, 615 Terebelliformia, 424, 432, 444
nervous system and sense organs of, Terebrasabella, 432
614f, 616f, 616–617, 657 Terebratalia transversa, 516f, 517
number of species, 3t, 608t, 610

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Terebratelloidea, 514f reproduction and development of, Thraciidae, 340

Terebratulida, 512 469, 470f threatened species, 6, 737
Terebratulina, 512f support and locomotion of, 465 of Crustacea, 662
Terebridae, 336 symbiotic relationships of, 439 thresholds in nerve impulse conduction, 76
Teredinidae, 62, 340, 360, 370, 388 Thalassinidea, 682 through gut, 57. See also complete gut
Teredo, 359f, 360 Thalassisobates litoralis, 794 Thuesen, E., 301f
navalis, 63f Thalassocalyce, 175 Thylacodes
tergal orgin hypothesis on insect flight, 761 inconstans, 175, 175f arenarius, 366
tergite of Arthropoda, 632, 632f Thalassocalycida, 172, 175, 175f squamigerus, 366
Tergivellum cinnabarinum, 861f Thaliacea, 911, 912, 917, 921, 923f, 924 Thyone, 902
terminalia in Hexapoda, 757 body wall, support, and locomotion of, thyroid hormones, 932–933
terminal tentacle of Echinodermata, 882f, 925 Thysanocardia nigra, 458f
883, 887 circulation, gas exchange, and excretion Thysanoptera, 37f, 738, 745, 746f, 781f, 782
Terpios, 155 of, 927 Thysanozoon, 521f, 531
terrestrial habitat, 22 feeding and digestion of, 926 brocchii, 530f
gas exchange structures for, 72, 74 nervous system and sense organs of, 927 Thysanura, 781f
life cycle adaptations for, 109 phylogeny of, 932, 932f Thysaura, 740
nitrogenous wastes in, 66 reproduction and development of, Thysiridae, 340
osmoregulation in, 66, 67f 927, 928, 929 tibia of Hexapoda, 753f, 756, 758f
Terrestricythere, 668f Thaumarcheota., 125 Tichenor, J., 88
Terrestricytheridae, 669 Thaumastodermatidae, 560 tick fever, 809
Terricola, 524 Thaumatoconcha, 667f tidal flats, 19f, 21
Testacea, 323 theca Tiedemann’s bodies of Echinodermata,
Testacella, 353, 364 of Cnidaria, 199f, 201, 211 880f, 886, 887
Testacellidae, 337 of Echinodermata, 887 Tipulidae, 751
testes, 86, 86f, 87f Thecata, 188, 194 tissues, 47, 48
Tethya, 44f thecate Cnidaria, 199f, 201 Titaniloricus, 574
aurantium, 122f, 156 Thecideida, 512, 513, 515 inexpectatovus, 573
bergquistae, 144f Thecidellina meyeri, 510f Titanus giganteus, 748
burtoni, 144f Thecosomata, 337 Titiscania, 353
orphei, 156 Thecostraca, 661f, 665, 691–693, 731 Titiscaniidae, 334
seychellensis, 156 anatomy and diversity of, 692f Tityus, 826
Tethydidae, 337, 364 distinguishing features of, 700t–701t Tjalfiella, 181
Tethyida, 126 reproductive features of, 702t–703t toes
Tethys Sea, 15, 16 Thectardis, 11 of Loricifera, 574, 575, 575f
Tetilla, 149 Thelyphonellus amazonicus, 812f of Rotifera, 285f, 287
Tetrabothriidea, 526 Thelyphonida, 818, 854f Tokummia katalepsis, 653
Tetrabranchiata, 341 Themiste, 460, 465 Tomopteridae, 422, 431
Tetracapsula dyscrita, 458f Tomopteris, 431
bryosalmonae, 190 lageniformis, 463 Tömösváry organ, 78, 795, 796f
bryozoides, 190 pyroides, 465 Tonicella lineata, 324f, 330f
Tetraclita, 728f Theraphosa blondi, 813f, 814f, 815 Tonicia, 382f
Tetraconata, 656, 662, 732, 734 Theraphosidae, 805, 813f, 814f, 836, 840f, Tonna, 371f
Tetractinellida, 126, 138, 149 842 Tonnidae, 335
Tetractinomorpha, 124, 125 Theridiidae, 806, 813f, 823, 827, 828f tornaria larva, 860, 868, 868f, 870
Tetragnatha, 840f feeding of, 830, 830f, 831 Torquaratoridae, 860, 861f, 862, 865, 871
Tetragnathidae, 806, 821, 840f Theridion, 845f torsion of Gastropoda, 346, 353–356, 354f,
Tetraliidae, 711 thermophiles, 9, 9n 374, 391, 392f
tetrapartite ommatidium of Arthropoda, thermoreceptors, 81, 721 nervous system in, 379–380
650, 656n Thermosbaenacea, 664, 683f, 688, 725 torted gastropods, 355
in Crustacea, 722–724 Thermosbaena mirabilis, 688 touch receptors, 77, 77f
Tetraphyllidea, 526–527, 533 Thermozodium esakii, 612 of Annelida, 448, 463
Tetrapulmonata, 817, 818, 854f Thetispelecaris, 688 of Arthropoda, 648, 648f, 835
Tetrigidae, 745 Thetys vagina, 40n toxins
tetrodotoxin Thiaridae, 335 of Chaetognatha, 306
of Chaetognatha, 306 thigmotaxis, 77 of Cnidaria, 190, 216, 218, 220
of Platyhelminthes, 536 Tholoarctus natans, 615 of Euchelicerata, 826, 829, 830, 830f
Tetrophthalmi, 815 Thomisidae, 806, 827, 831, 842, 843f of Mollusca, 365f, 365–366
Tettigoniidae, 745, 752f Thompson, D., 47 of Myriapoda, 786–787, 791–792, 799
Teuthoida, 344 Thompson, J., 323 of Nemertea, 403
Tevnia, 470 Thompson, J. V., 489, 727n of Platyhelminthes, 536
jerichonana, 472f Thompsonia, 711 of Porifera, 154–155
Thalassematidae, 415, 424–425, 457, Thoosa, 147f toxoglossate radula, 363f, 365, 365f
465–469, 466f–468f, 485 Thoracica, 661f, 665, 691, 692f Toxopneustes roseus, 62f
body forms of, 426, 427, 465, 466f circulation and gas exchange of, 718 trabeculae of Echinodermata, 877
body plan of, 426 feeding and digestion of, 708 trabecular syncytium of Hexactinellida,
body wall and coelom of, 428, 465 thoracomeres, 666n 131, 152
circulation and gas exchange of, 469 of Crustacea, 700, 701 tracheae, 72, 74, 75, 645–646, 646f
and diversity of Annelida, 417f Thoracophelia mucronata, 418f of Chelicerata, 832–833, 834
excretion and osmoregulation of, 469 thoracopods of Crustacea, 700t of Hexapoda, 768
feeding and digestion of, 465–468, 467f, thoracotropic hormone of Arthropoda, of Myriapoda, 793, 794f
468f 642, 643f tracheal system, 72, 72f–73f, 74, 75
nervous system and sense organs of, thorax of Hexapoda, 768, 769f
468f, 469 of Crustacea, 699 of Myriapoda, 793–794, 794f
phylogeny of, 29n, 416 of Hexapoda, 735, 739, 752, 753f, 755–757 Tracheata, 655
Thorectidae, 125

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tracheoles Tridacninae, 360 Tuba valkyrie, 385

of Hexapoda, 769, 769f Tridentellidae, 664 tube feet of Echinodermata, 877, 883, 908
of Myriapoda, 793–794, 794f Trididemnum, 926 in Asteroidea, 886, 890, 891f
Tracheophyta, 5n trigger spines of Priapula, 571 in chemoreception, 900
Trachylina, 188, 194, 208f, 240, 241 Trigoniida, 340 in Crinoidea, 886–887, 889
Trachymedusae, 188, 194, 214 Trigoniidae, 340 in Echinoidea, 887, 894, 895f, 896, 900
transcription factors, 92, 99 Trigoniulus corallinus, 797f in excretion, 899
transcriptome, 31n, 936, 936n Trilobita, 608t, 609f, 628, 654, 654f, 655f in feeding, 59, 60f, 889, 890, 892f,
transdifferentiation of hydromedusae, 237 appendages of, 634, 635 892–893, 894, 895f, 896
transfer choanocytes of Porifera, 146, 147f body plan of, 629 in gas exchange, 898, 899, 899f
transport, internal, 69–70 fossil record of, 629, 634, 650, 653 in hemal system, 898, 898f
transportation mutualism, 23 nervous system and sense organs of, 650 in Holothuroidea, 887
transverse canals of Ctenophora, 178 number of species, 629 in locomotion, 887–888, 888f, 889, 900
transverse cleavage, 96 phylogeny of, 655f in Ophiuroidea, 886, 892f, 892–893
transverse fission taxonomic history and classification of, in water vascular system, 880f, 881,
of Annelida, 463 629 886–887
of Cnidaria, 231, 232, 233 trilobite larva, 839, 839f Tubellaria, 522
of Enteropneusta, 867 Trilobitomorpha, 629 Tubifex, 222, 444
of Lophophorata, 495 Trilobozoa, 240 Tubificidae, 425
of Nemertea, 409 trimeric body plan, 488, 489 Tubiluchidae, 569f, 570
of Platyhelminthes, 541, 542f Trimusculidae, 366 Tubiluchus, 568, 571, 572
of Xenacoelomorpha, 259, 260f Trimusculoidea, 337 corallicola, 569f, 571
transverse plane, 46f, 47 Trinchesia, 371f Tubipora, 210
Trapeziidae, 711 trinomen, 39 Tubulanus, 400, 403, 406f, 409f, 411
Trebius heterodonti, 671f trioecy, 88 sexlineatus, 398f
Trechaleidae, 806, 814f, 835 Triopha, 364f Tubularia, 199f, 204, 239f
tree diagrams, 3–4, 4f Triops, 697f, 698, 723f Tubulipora, 497f
Trefusiida, 585 Triopsidae, 698 Tullberg, T., 323
Trematoda, 520, 522, 524 Tripedalia cystophora, 219, 234 Tunicata, 323, 857, 911, 912, 917–931, 932f,
neodermis of, 531 Tripedaliidae, 193 934
nervous system and sense organs of, 541f Triphoridae, 335 tunicin, 925, 933
phylogeny of, 554, 556 Triploblastica, 245 tun stage of Tardigrada, 610, 612, 612f, 657
reproduction and development of, triploblasty, 47, 48, 115 turbellarian archetypes, 554, 554f
548, 549f, 550f, 551 body plan in, 48f, 48–49 Turbeville, J. M., 399
Trembley, A., 236 Triplonchida, 585 Turbinidae, 334
Tremoctopus, 389 Triticella, 497f, 500, 507 Turridae, 336
Trepaxonemata, 523, 555, 555f tritocerebrum, 647, 648f, 855 Turritella, 366
Treptichnus pedum, 12, 13f, 570, 936–938 of Crustacea, 721 Turritellidae, 335, 366
Treptoplax reptans, 166 of Euchelicerata, 835 Turritopsis dohrnii, 237
Tresus, 338f, 358f of Hexapoda, 771 twilight zone, 20
Triassic period, 11n, 15 of Myriapoda, 791, 794, 795f twist gene, 101
Triatominae, 737, 746, 765 of Pycnogonida, 852 Tydeus starri, 804f
Tribolium confusum, 537 Tritonia tetraquetra, 382 Tylenchida, 580f, 585, 587f, 591f, 599f
Tribrachidium, 240 Tritoniidae, 337 Tylenchulus semipenetrans, 580f
Tricellaria, 501f trivium of Echinodermata, 883 Tyler, S., 282
occidentalis, 500f trochaea, 116 Tylodelphys, 548
trichimella larva, 125, 149, 150f, 151f, 152 trochaea theory, 116–117, 117f Tylodinidae, 337
Trichinella, 597 trochal discs of Rotifera, 287, 287f, 288 tympanic organs, 78, 78f
spiralis, 581, 597, 598f, 605 trochanter of Hexapoda, 753f, 756, 756n, of Hexapoda, 773f, 773–774
Trichinellida, 585, 598f 758f tympanum, 78, 78f
Trichobilharzia, 548 Trochidae, 334, 386f of Hexapoda, 773, 773f
trichobothria, 77, 835, 836f trochophore larva, 117, 117f, 275 type specimen of species, 39, 39n
trichobranchiate gills, 676–677, 718f of Annelida, 454, 455f, 456, 456f, 464f, Typhlatya, 709f
Trichocephalida, 585 465, 470f, 476, 485 Typhloscolecidae, 422
trichogon, 711, 712f, 714f of Cycliophora, 319 typhlosole of Annelida, 439
Trichogrammatidae, 747 of Entoprocta, 317, 320 Typosyllis, 451f
trichomes of Hexapoda, 768, 769f of Mollusca, 353, 389–390, 390f, 395
Trichoplax, 113–114, 166–167 Trochozoa, 322 U
adhaerens, 113, 113f, 166, 166f, 167 trochus of Rotifera, 287, 287f Ubx gene, 636
Trichoptera, 738, 739, 748f, 751 Trombicula, 804f, 809 Uca, 725, 726f
evolution and phylogeny of, 37f, 780, 781f Trombidiformes, 804f, 805f, 807, 808 princeps, 660f
trichoscalids of Loricifera, 574, 574f, 575 trophi of Rotifera, 286, 288f, 288–289 Uloboridae, 806, 812, 819, 822, 823
Trichuris trichiura, 597, 598f, 605 trophocytes of Porifera, 144, 146, 147f feeding of, 827, 830
Tricladida, 520f, 524 trophosome reproduction and development of,
body wall of, 530, 530f of Nematoda, 590 842, 843f
excretion and osmoregulation of, 538f of Siboglinidae, 474 silk of, 820f
feeding and digestion of, 535, 536, 536f Truncatellidae, 335 Uloborus, 820f
nervous system and sense organs of, trunk Umbellula, 187f, 204
539, 540f of Crustacea, 699 Umbonium, 366
phylogeny of, 554, 555f, 556 of Enteropneusta, 861f, 863 Umbraculida, 337
reproduction and development of, 543, of Siboglinidae, 471, 471f Umbraculidae, 337
543f, 545, 546f, 547 Trypanorhycha, 527 unequal cleavage, 96, 96f
Tricolia, 348f Trypanosoma cruzi, 765 Unguiphora, 524
Tridacna, 9, 55f, 57, 192n, 346, 370 trypanosomiasis, 737, 765 unguitractor plate of Hexapoda, 756
gigas, 346 Trypanosyllis californiensis, 418f unicellularity, 114
maxima, 325f Trypetesa., 692f Unionida, 340, 391f

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Unionidae, 340, 390 Vampyromorpha, 342 nervous system of, 474

unipolar ingression, 103 Vampyroteuthis infernalis, 40n reproduction and development of,
Uniramia, 655 Vanadis, 449f 474–475, 476
uniramous limbs of Arthropoda, 635, 635f, vanadium levels in Urochordata, 926, 927 vestimentum of Siboglinidae, 473
636 van Beneden, E., 23, 275 Vetericaris, 678
United Nations Convention on Biological van der Horst, C., 860 Vetigastropoda, 323n, 324f, 326, 331f, 334,
Diversity, 6 vanes of Porifera, 129, 159 348f
United Nations Environment Programme, 6 van Leeuwenhoek, A., 285 circulation and gas exchange of, 374, 376f
United States Geological Service (USGS), 6 Van Valen, L., 86 excretion and osmoregulation of, 377,
unranked classification, 36, 38f Vargula, 668f 378
Upogebia, 709 vascular budding of Urochordata, 928 feeding of, 362, 363f, 364f, 366
Upupa epops, 40n Vauxia, 14f locomotion of, 357f
Urbilateria, 250 vegetal pole, 95, 96, 96f, 103 reproduction of, 385, 386f
urea, 66, 66f veins of insect wings, 756–757, 759f sense organs of, 380
Urechis, 467, 468, 468f, 469, 470f Velamen, 168f, 172 shell of, 350f, 353
caupo, 52f, 439, 466f, 467f, 469 velarium of Cnidaria, 209, 210f, 214 torsion of, 353, 355, 356
ureotelic animals, 66 velar tentacles of Cephalochordata, Vetulicolia, 859
uric acid, 66, 66f, 647 914f, 915 Vetulocystida, 859
uricotelic animals, 66, 647 Velatida, 878 vibraculum of Bryozoa, 500, 501f
Urnaloricidae, 572, 575, 577f Velella, 187f, 204, 205f, 220 vibration sensors, 77
Urnaloricus gadi, 575, 575f, 577f veliger larva of Mollusca, 345, 354f, 355, Victorella, 507
Urnatella, 314 360, 389–390, 391, 391f, 395 Viridiplantae, 5n
gracilis, 312, 314 velum viruses, 5, 8
urn cells of Dicyemida, 277 of Cnidaria, 208f, 209, 214 visceral cords of Mollusca, 378, 378f, 379
urns of Sipuncula, 460, 462 of Mollusca, 389–390 vitellarium
Urochordata, 857, 859, 911, 917–931, 934 Velutinidae, 353 of Platyhelminthes, 542
biogeographical distribution of, 919 Vendobionta, 240 of Rotifera, 291, 291f
body plan of, 920–931 Vendozoa, 240 vitellogenesis, 95
body wall, support, and locomotion of, Venerida, 340 Viviparidae, 335, 366
925 Veneridae, 338f, 340 viviparous animals, 108
circulation, gas exchange, and excretion venom Viviparus, 363f, 366
of, 927 of Cnidaria, 218 Vogt, C., 522
colonial species, 917, 920f, 922, 926, of Echinodermata, 885 Voight, O., 166
927–928, 928f, 929, 931, 934 of Euchelicerata, 826, 829, 830 volcanism, 15, 16
compound species, 919f, 920f, 921f, 922, of Mollusca, 365 Voltzow, J., 356
927, 928 ventral aorta of Cephalochordata, 914f, 916 Volutidae, 336
feeding and digestion of, 915, 917, 919, ventral ganglion of Chaetognatha, 303f, 307 Volvox, 112, 113f, 149, 289
920, 924, 925–926 ventral jaws of Micrognathozoa, 298, 300f von Baer, K., 91
fossil record of, 933 ventral muscle plate of Micrognathozoa, von Eschscholtz, J. F., 169, 860
general anatomy of, 921f–922f 298, 300f von Frisch, K., 775
genome of, 917, 919, 933 ventral nerve center of Chaetognatha, 307 von Graff, L., 323
invasive species, 917, 926 ventral organs of Onychophora, 622 von Ihering, H., 323
nervous system and sense organs of, 83, ventral storage organ of Cephalochordata, von Siebold, K., 629
924, 927, 932 913, 914f Vosmaer, R., 169
number of species, 3t, 911 ventral vessels Vulsella vulsella, 156
phylogeny of, 24, 912, 919, 931–932, 932f, of Enteropneusta, 864f, 866
933, 934, 937f, 938 of Pterobranchia, 870 W
reproduction and development of, Vermes, 26, 416, 459, 522, 629 Waddycephalus teretiusculus, 672f
922, 924, 927–931, 928f Vermetidae, 335 Walcott, C., 283
social, 920f, 922, 924, 928, 929 feeding of, 366 walking legs
symbiotic relationships of, 925, 926, 929 locomotion of, 356 of Hexapoda, 758f, 758–759, 759f
Urodasys, 557f Vermetus, 366 of Onychophora, 623f, 623–624
uropods of Crustacea, 663f, 701 vermiform embryos of Dicyemida, 276, Waloszek, D., 572, 653, 733
uropolar cells of Dicyemida, 276 277, 278, 279 Waminoa, 253f, 258
Uropygi, 817, 834, 842, 846, 855 vermigon, 711, 712f, 714f water expulsion vesicles, 67–68
characteristics of, 818 vernal pools, 22 water pollution, 7
classification of, 807, 816 Verongida, 156 water vascular system of Echinodermata,
examples of, 812f Verongimorpha, 125 877, 881, 885–887, 905, 908, 909
phylogeny of, 854f Veronicellidae, 337 and body wall regions, 882f
Urosalpinx cinerea, 364 Verruca, 692f and gas exchange, 899, 899f
Uschakov, P. V., 473 vertebrae of Echinodermata, 883, 892f structure of, 880f
uterine bell of Acanthocephala, 293f, 294 Vertebrata, 9, 24, 857, 859, 911, 912–913 webs, spider. See spider silk and webs
uterus of Platyhelminthes, 542, 551f, 552 Hox genes in, 933 Weigert, A., 416, 484f
neural crest cells in, 933–934 Westblad, E., 266, 267
V number of species, 3t wetland habitat, 21, 22
Vaejovis spinigerus, 826 phylogeny of, 38f, 931, 932, 932f, whale falls, 21
Vaejovoidea, 807 933–934, 937f, 938 Wheeler, W. C., 339
vagabond’s disease, 765 Verticillitidae, 125 wheel organ of Cephalochordata, 914f, 915,
vagina, 87, 87f Vertiginidae, 337 933
of Platyhelminthes, 546, 551f, 552 Vespidae, 747 Wiegert, A., 483
vaginal nozzle of Acoela, 260 vestibule Wigglesworth, V. B., 762
Valvatida, 878 of Cephalochordata, 915 Wiley, E. O., 40
Valvatidae, 336 of Chaetognatha, 303f, 304 Wilkinson, C. R., 157
valves of Mollusca, 346, 350f, 351, 351, 358f, Vestimentifera, 416, 422, 423, 470, 472f, 483 Wilson, E. B., 91
360 body plan of, 473 spiral cleavage coding system of,
Valvifera, 644, 665, 685f excretion of, 474 97–99, 98f, 544, 728f

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 I-46 Index

Wilson, E. O., 6, 736

Wilson, H. V., 135
Xenoturbella, 24, 250, 251, 267–270
bocki, 251, 267, 268, 269f, 270, 270f
Y
wings of insects, 783 churro, 268f Yager, J., 699
and classification, 740, 741–742, 745, 747, japonica, 268 Y-cells of Gastrotricha, 558
749, 750–751, 756, 757 monstrosa, 268f y-larva, 691, 692f
and flight, 759–762 profunda, 268f Yoldia, 366
hinge arrangement, 760, 760f westbladi, 267 yolk, 95, 95f, 96, 96f
origin of, 782 Xenoturbellida, 250, 251, 267–270, 271, 859 Y-organ in Arthropoda, 642
and thorax, 755, 756–757 body plan of, 268–270 Yunnanozoa, 859
veins in, 756–757, 759f body structure of, 268f, 268–269, 269f Yunnanozoon, 859
Wingstrandarctus, 616 nervous system and sense organs of,
corallinus, 611f, 613f 267, 268, 270 Z
Wiwaxia, 14f number of species, 250, 251 Zanclea, 222
Woese, C., 7 nutrition, excretion, and gas exchange Zancleida, 195
Wolbachia, 600, 652, 777, 777n of, 270 Zappa confluentus, 40n
pipientis, 777n phylogeny of, 251, 271f, 938 Zelinkiella synaptae, 289
World Register of Marine Species reproduction and development of, 270 Zimmer, R., 495–496
(WoRMS), 6 support and movement of, 269–270, 270f zip-junctions of Micrognathozoa, 296
Wright, T. S., 489 xeric habitats, 22 Zoantharia, 188, 192, 220
Wuchereria, 597 Xestospongia, 45f zoea larva, 728f–729f, 729n, 730
bancrofti, 597, 605, 737 muta, 147f, 155, 157 zoecium of Bryozoa, 500, 500f, 501, 501f,
Xibalbanus tulumensis, 723f 502, 506f
X Xiphinema index, 600 Zonosagitta
Xanthidae, 729f Xiphosura, 801, 803, 807–808, 855 bedoti, 305f
Xenacoelomorpha, 245, 246, 249–271, 274, body plan of, 803, 803f pulchra, 305f
530, 859 circulation and gas exchange of, zonula adherens of Nemertodermatida,
acoelomate body plan of, 48 831, 832f, 834 263, 264f
Acoelomorpha, 251, 252–267 classification of, 805 zoochlorellae, 225, 226
characteristics of, 249–250 digestion of, 831, 832f of Acoela, 255
cilia of, 114, 251 excretion and osmoregulation of, 834 zoonotic pathogens, 23
classification of, 251 locomotion of, 823, 824 Zoophyta, 488–489
feeding and digestion of, 534 nervous system and sense organs of, Zoophytes, 190
nervous system of, 83, 539 81, 650, 656n, 835, 837 zooplankton, 20, 167
number of species, 3t, 250 phylogeny of, 854f, 854–855 zooxanthellae, 192n, 195, 215, 225, 227
phylogeny of, 24, 246f, 249–250, 251, 554, reproduction and development of, of Acoela, 255
937f, 937–938 651, 837, 838–839, 839f of Cnidaria, 225f, 225–226, 230, 232, 243
Xenoturbellida, 251, 267–270 X-organ Zoraptera, 37f, 738, 743f, 745, 781f
xenacoelomorph cilia, 251 of Arthropoda, 642, 643f Zorotypus, 745
Xenobalanus, 691 of Gastrotricha, 560 Zygentoma, 738, 739, 740, 741, 741f, 780
Xenodasys, 557f Xylophaga, 360 evolution and phylogeny of, 37f, 782
Xenophoridae, 335 Xylophagaidae, 360 Zygiella, 825f
Xenosiphon, 460 xylophagy, 891 Zygoneura, 83
Xenotrichula, 557f Xyloplax, 891, 902 zygote, 86, 95
Xylotrechus nauticus, 780f
Xysticus, 842, 843f
Xystodesmidae, 787

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