Pakistan Studies – 2059/2

Environment of Pakistan

[Link] Topic Page no.

1 The natural topography, including drainage

2 Climate of Pakistan
3 Water Resources
4 Fishing Industry
5 Forest
6 Agriculture
7 Mineral resources
8 Power resources
9 Industries
10 Trade
11 Transport and communication
12 Population
13 Past Paper Index
14 Summary of Geography Topics
15 Paper Pattern

Compiled by: Ms. Samreen Syed

Page 1 of 234
 Pakistan’s Natural Topography – Highlands

Location of Pakistan

Pakistan’s neighbors are Iran on the south-west, Afghanistan west and north, China north-east, India to the east
and the Arabian Sea on the south.
The northern border is with Afghanistan’s so-called Wakhan Corridor, a strip of land in place no more
than 15km wide, beyond which is the former soviet republic of Tajikistan. It’s over 1800 km from Gawadar Bay
in south west Baluchistan to the Khunjerab Pass on the China border.

Definition: Topography is the study of natural and artificial physical features of the earth

• Examples :
• Natural features: Land, sea, rivers, lakes, mountain ranges, valleys , Passes etc.
• Manmade features: roads, bridges, buildings etc.

Topographically, Pakistan can be divided into seven regions.

1. Northern Mountains
 Karakoram
 Hindu Kush
 Himalayas

2. Western Mountains
 Safed Koh
 Waziristan Hill
 Sulaiman Ranges
 Kirther Ranges

3. Potwar Plateau [northern plateau]

4. BaluchistanPlateau

5. Indus Plain
 Upper Indus plain
 Lower Indus plain-
 Sibi Plains, Piedmont plains

6. Deserts
 Thar [South Eastern]
 Kharan,
 Thal

7. Coastal Areas
 Makran Coast
 Sindh Coast
 Delta – Swamps
Page 2 of 234
Northern Mountains

Karakoram Range
Karakoram is situated in the north of Himalaya in which Northern Kashmir and the regions of Gilgit are
situated. It begins in the Wakhan Corridor (Afghanistan) in the west and extends from Gilgit-
Baltistan into ladakh (India) in the east.
The average height of Karakoram range is 7,000 meters. Its highest top is K-2 which is 8611 meters high
(28,251 ft). The range is about 500 km (311 mi) in length.(from east to west)
This is the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 76
kilometres (47 mi) and the Biafo Glacier at 63 kilometres (39 mi) rank as the world's second and third longest
glaciers outside the polar regions.
The top of its neighbouring Mountains are covered with snow throughout the year. But in summer the normal
life begins and people become busy in earning their livings. The canals flow fast and green grass grows. This
mountain range lies between Pakistan and China. Here Karakoram Highway (KKH) has been built along the
river Hunza due to which trade between the two countries has progressed very much.
Coursing through it all like a 2500-km artery is the Indus River – rising in Tibet, flowing north-west and
around Naga Parbat, dropping south out of the mountains to water a populous floodplain, and emptying through
an immense delta into the Arabian Sea.

Himalayan Range

Himalaya is surrounded by most of the part of Pakistan towards North. Himalaya means “the house of ice”.
These mountains are spread up to Gilgit. The name of one of its top mountain is Nanga Parbat. Its height is
8,126 meters.
Lifted by the subduction of the Indian tectonic plate under the Eurasian Plate, the Himalayan mountain range
runs west-northwest to east-southeast in an arc 2,400 km (1,500 mi) long. Its western anchor, Nanga Parbat, lies
just south of the northernmost bend of the Indus river.
The Himalayas consist of parallel mountain ranges: the Sivalik Hills on the south; the Lower Himalayan Range;
the Great Himalayas, which is the highest and central range
The chain of Himalaya saves our plains from cold winds of Middle East. They also stop monsoon from Arabian
Sea and Bengal Gulf and becomes the source of rainfall. Their highest tops are covered with snow. When in
spring and summer seasons the snow melts, our rivers are supplied with abundant water. On their slopes in the
south there are forest of precious wood. The touring resorts of Pakistan like Murree, Nathiagali, Abbottabad and
Kaghan Valley are also situated in these ranges. Thousands of people come here for recreation. The valley of
Kashmir is in the heart of these ranges which is considered the Paradise on Earth.
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North Western Mountain Range - Hindukush Range

The Hindukush range lies in the north West of Karakoram Range. Most of the mountains of this range are in
Afghanistan. The highest top of this range is Tirich Mir which is 7690 meters high (25,289 ft) in the Chitral
District . In this range Chitral and Deer are situated.
The mountains of the Hindu Kush range diminish in height as they stretch westward. Near Kabul, in the west,
they attain heights of 3,500 to 4,000 metres (11,500 to 13,100 ft); in the east they extend from 4,500 to 6,000
metres (14,800 to 19,700 ft). The average altitude of the Hindu Kush is 4,500 metres (14,800 feet).
Several important rivers flow from, or through, the mountains of Kashmir into Pakistan. From the Pir Panjal
Range flows the Jhelum River (which bisects the famous Vale of Kashmir); the Indus River descends between
the Zaskar and Ladakh ranges; and the Shyok River rises in the Karakoram Range. South of the Pir Panjal is the
northwestern extension of the Siwalik Range (there rising to about 600 to 900 feet [200 to 300 metres]), which
extend over the southern part of the Hazara and Murree hills and include the hills surrounding Rawalpindi and
neighbouring Islamabad.

Lifestyle

People of Gilgit-Baltistan (formerly known as northern areas of Pakistan) have unique cultural heritage,
linguistics basis, religious and archaeological foundations and historical background of their own. The people of
those areas are fair color with blue or green eyes and blond or golden hair color. The people of northern areas
live under their own ancestral traditional lifestyles and their customs, family integration and gathering, personal
appearances in their own traditional dresses and celebrate their ceremonies and festivals under their own
ancestral rituals and ceremonial forms. The people of KPK and tribal areas live under their own inherited
ancestral lifestyles and customs as ‘tribes men’. These people are known as ‘Pashtoons/Pakhtoon’ and world-
known for their kindness, hospitality, straightforward nature, and bravery.

Problems

1. Low population density

2. Difficult terrain
3. Lack of infrastructure facilities such as electricity , gas supply, roads, bridges etc
4. Passes are closed from Nov to March [during winter] due snowfall and avalanches.
5. Soil erosion due to extensive deforestation and overgrazing
6. Large number of tourists has adversely affected the environment
7. Limited scale of economic activities leads to low per capita income.

Page 4 of 234
Northern Mountains

Ranges Location Altitude / Passes Relief and Lifestyle and Importance

highest drainage features economic activities
peaks
Karakoram To the Average Khunjerab parallel ranges, the population in these Fruits, wool and
North height Pass mountains is very handicrafts are sent all
7,000 mainly run from east sporadic(scattered)
[Pakistan over the country from
In the meters. to west
and China these regions.
regions Transhumance
of Gilgit– highest border] (seasonal movement)
craggy peaks and Karakoram Highway
Baltistan peak is steep slopes. is practiced)
K-2 (KKH) has been built
8611 Terrace or step farming along the river Hunza
v-shaped narrow
meters is done at small scale due to which trade
valleys
on slopes of hills to between the two
grow rice, maize, and countries has
rugged landscape
tea depending on the progressed very much.
Hindu kush To the Average Lawari Pass /terrain/ bare rocks
height of the region
north West height connects they are living.
snowcapped peaks Form a natural border
of 6,000 Chitral with
Karakoram meters. Dir in KPK for Pakistan both with
Orchards of fruits like Afghanistan and
Range glaciers and apples, peaches, pears,
highest Shandur snowfields plums, etc., are China.
peak is Pass common.
Tirich Mir connects narrow, deep, steep Mountains are a rich
7690 Ghizer ravines gorges source of rock and
District of People also rear
meters animals like sheep and minerals. The rock
Gilgit-
fast flowing rivers cows for wool and milk that is used to build
Baltistan an
d Chitral roads comes from the
District of K Small scale cottage Northern Mountains
PK industries are set up,
produce rugs, carpets, Act as a protection
Himalayas To the Average Babusar embroidered material against the cold winds
South of height Pass and handicrafts. of Siberia.
the 5000 connects
Karakoram meters. Naran Other industries Rich in glaciers which
ranges Kahghan include: processing of feed the River Indus,
mountain highest and Chillas food grains, making and therefore allows
peak is In Gilgit vegetable oil, fruit water to flow through
Nanga Baltistan processing. the plains of Pakistan,
Parbat and agriculture to
8,126 Tourism thrive.
meters

[Link] [lawari pass]

Page 5 of 234
 Western Mountains Ranges
The Koh-e-Sufaid

The Koh-e-Sufaid is in the South of Khyber Pass. The average height of this range is up to 3600 metres. It is
covered with snow throughout the year. That is why it is called Koh-e-Sufaid. River Kurram flows in its south.
Khyber Pass is situated in the South of river Kabul which joins Kabul to Peshawar this Pass is an old passage of
trade. All the invaders in olden times entered in the Sub-Continent through this Pass which is 53 km long.
Peshawar Cantonment lies close to Khyber Pass. Trade with Afghanistan is also carried out through Kurram
Pass.

 The safed koh ranges are an important part of western mountains.

 They are located in an east-west direction of the Kabul river.
 They are known as Spin Ghar (white mountains).
 The Kurram flows to the south of safed koh range.
 The Kurram pass provides route into Afghanistan.
 The Kohat valley is located on the other side of the Kurram pass.
 The main city linked to safed koh ranges is Parachinar.
 The agriculture takes place in Kohat valley but at a small scale. Wheat, rice and sugar cane are
cultivated.
 River Kabul and swat cuts through the vale of Peshawar, an alluvial land irrigated from canals of
Warsak dam on river Kabul.

Kohat And Waziristan Hills

Kohat and Waziristan hills are situated between two rivers i.e. Gomal and Kurram. This mountain range is
spread to north-south direction. River Tochi is an important river of this range. There are many passes through
these mountains. These passes promote cultural and trade ties between Pakistan and Afghanistan. Tochi and
Kurram passes are located in these hills.

 The Waziristan hills are located at the south of Safed Koh ranges with 1500-3000 meters in altitude.
 These hills are located between the rivers Kurram and Gomal.
 They are in an area which is highly mineralized with 35million tones of copper deposits found,
manganese, chromite and gold etc.
 The Waziristan hills, along with Safed Koh ranges separates Pakistan from Afghanistan.
 The Bannu valley near Tochi pass and Dera Ismail Khan near Gomal pass are important towns and
military centers.
 Waziristan hills have valleys that have deposits of clay and dolomite brought down by streams.
 The agriculture on these hills is carried out on a small scale which is irrigated by the Kurram dam on
Kurram river.

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Suleiman Range
Koh e Suleiman is in the South of River Gomal. The highest peak is Tukht-e-Suleiman which is 3,500 meters
high. It is a barren land. It is destroyed due to floods. Government controls flood by constructing high
boundaries. Important place is Bolan at which river Bolan is situated. Through this path, railway line reaches
Quetta after passing through Sibbi.

 Suleiman are the southern extension of the Hindu Kush Mountain system.
 Suleiman Range is located in the Zabul and towards the west of river Indus. The Suleiman from the
Eastern edge of the Iranian plateau where the Indus River separates it from the subcontinent.
 The highest peak of Suleiman range is takht-e-Suleiman or “throne of Solomon” at 3487 meters(11739
ft) near Quetta city.
 Limestone and sandstone are the main minerals in this area.

Kirthar Range
It is in the south of Sulaiman Range which is high and dry. The maximum height of the Kirthar range is 2150
meters. In its south river Hub and Lyari flow which fall in the Arabian Sea at Karachi.

 The Kirthar mountains are a mountain range located in the Pakistani provinces of Baluchistan and
Sindh.
 The mountains extend southward from the mula river in east central Baluchistan to cape monze on the
Arabian sea.
 The Kirthar mountains form a boundary between the lower Indus plain and southern Baluchistan.

Salt Range
The chain of Salt Range starts from the mountains of Tilla Jogian and Bakrala Hills on the bank of river Jhelum.
These chains run for some distance along the river and then in the West after passing through Bannu meet with
the Suleiman Mountain. the average height of Slat Range is 700 meters. In district Sakesar its height becomes
1,500 meters. The river Swan is the famous river of this area.

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 Features of the Western Mountains
Ranges Location Altitude / highest Passes Relief and drainage Important
peaks features places

Safed Koh South of River Average Altitude Snowcapped peaks Vale of

Kabul 3600 metres Peshawar
Khyber Pass Intermontane
East – west Sikeram [4760 Kohat Valley
direction metres ] [ connects valleys
Peshawar to Parachinar
Kabul in River Kabul joined
Afghanistan] by River Swat

Limestone ridges

Waziristan hills South of Safed Average Altitude Highly mineralized Bannu

Koh between with 35million tones
Kurram and 1500- 3000 metres Kurram [route of copper deposits [East of
Gomal rivers to Afghanistan manganese, chromite Waziristan
] and gold etc. hills ]

Tochi [Gazhni Kurrum , Tochi Dera Ismail

to Bannu] Gomal meet river Khan
Indus in the east
Gomal
[Afghanistan
to Derajats]
Sulaiman Lies between Average Altitude Parallel to sub
Ranges Balochistan parallel curved
plateau in the 1500 metres ranges
west and Indus
plain in the Takht- e- Sulaimn Slope downwards
east. is the highest peak
[3487/ 3383 Barren land
metres]

Kirther Ranges South of

Quetta
[Also known as Syntaxis Up to 2174 metres Bolan Pass Bare of vegetation
nagan range] connects
Run Quetta to Sibbi Drained by Hub and
southwards to plains Lyari River
the Arabian sea

Page 8 of 234
The Plateau
Plateaus are table shape lands that rise at least 300 meters or more above the sea level. They are usually
bounded on one or more sides by steep slopes which drop to lower land or by steep slope rising to a
mountain.
Pakistna has two Plateaus - Potwar Plateau and Balochistan Plateau.

The Potwar [Pothohar] Plateau

Location – [Between Indus and Jhelum Rivers ]

Area - 22,254 km2 (8,592 sq mi)
Population in 2017- 17,464,763 (seventeen million four hundred sixty-four thousand seven hundred sixty-three)

The Potwar Plateau is a plateau in north-eastern Pakistan, forming the north western part of Punjab.
It borders the western parts of Kashmir and the southern part of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
It is located to the south of Hazara between the River Indus and the Jhelum River.
Potwar Plateau is bounded on the east by the Jhelum River, on the west by the Indus River, on the north
by the Kala Chitta Range and the Margalla Hills, and on the south by the Salt Range.
 Kala Chitta Range starts from Margalla Galli. It rises to an average height of 450–900 meters and
extends for about 72 kilometers.
 Salt range stretching from east to west in the south separate Potwar from the Punjab Plain.
 Its average height is 750-900 meters.
 The river Indus breaks through the salt range at Kalabagh.
 Sakaser (1572 meters) is the highest peak of Salt Range. Tilla Jogian in Jhelum is second highest.
 Salt range covers most of the Jhelum and parts of Khushab, Chakwal and Mianwali.
 Namal Lake, Khabikki Lake and Uchhali Lake are lakes in the Salt Range.
 The Swaan [Soan] River starts from nearby Murree and ends near Kalabagh in the Indus River.
 Other small rivers or water bodies include Korang, Haro, Sill, Ling and Dharab
 The Potwar Plateau includes parts of the current four districts of Jhelum, Chakwal, Attock and
Rawalpindi.
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Topography [Relief Features]
The terrain is undulating. Most of the hills and rivers are bordered by dissected ravine belts.
The height of the Potwar plateau varies from 300-600 meters above the sea level. Other features
include:
 Ravines – Deep valleys formed by the rivers due to erosion during rainy season.
 Residual Hills- Mountains that have been eroded by winds, rain, frost and running water leaving
behind only the hard rocks known as the residual mountains.
 Ridges - A ridge is a long, narrow, elevated strip of land or any raised strip or band.
 Troughs and Depressions –holes/ deep or shallow
 Dissected and faulted land- land showing cracks due to the uplift during the mountain building
process.
 Badland Topography – the land showing the features of faulted and dissected land.

Economic Activities
Agriculture is dependent largely on rainfall, which averages 380–500 mm annually; The chief crops
are wheat, barley, sorghum, and legumes, onions, melons, and tobacco are grown in the more fertile
areas near the River Indus.
Mineral Deposits
The plateau is the location of major Pakistani oil fields, the Tut field was discovered in 1968, Missa Keswal
was discovered in 1992 and exploration continued in the area in the 1990s. The oil fields are connected
by pipeline to the Attock Refinery in Rawalpindi.
A major oil reserve has been discovered near Jhelum in Punjab, opening up a new area for exploitation of
hydrocarbon potential (e.g., Meyal Field).
The region is rich in non-metallic minerals such as limestone, marble, rock salt, clay etc. The world’s
second largest salt mines, Khwera Salt mines are located here.
The major cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, and the smaller cities of Choa Saidanshah, Kallar
Syedan, Chakwal, Gujar Khan, Sohawa, Mianwali and Attock are situated on the plateau. All the regions
are accessible by road , railways and air transport. Hence, stimulate trade and commercial activities.

Attraction for tourists.

Ancient Taxila and Rohtas Fort are UNESCO World Heritage Site located on the plateau.
Khewra Mines
Kallar Kahar Lake

Watch This Power Point Presentation

[Link]
[Link]/plateaus-of-pakistan/

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The Balochistan Plateau

Location: Balochistan Plateau lies to west of the Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. Its western boundary is
marked by Iran and Northern by Afghanistan and southern by Arabian Sea.
Total area: 347190 km2
Population: 12.34 million
Altitude: Its altitude varies from, 600 - 3000 meters. [Average altitude of 2,000 ft. (610 m).]

Relief Features:
The physical features of the plateau are very varied, but mountains, plateaus and basins predominate the
scene. The Mountains spread in various directions, attaining height 6,000- 11,000 ft. (1,830-3,335 m). It is
divided into four topographical regions.

1. Northern Basins
2. Western Basins
3. Coastal areas
4. Mountain Ranges

Page 11 of 234
 1. The Northern Basins: Zhob, Bolan and their tributaries have formed two important alluvial basins of
Balochistan, namely, the Loralai basin and Quetta basin. Toba Kakar ranges are located here. Kalat
Plateau at 7,000 -8,000 ft. (2,135-2,440 m), in the centre of Balochistan is the most important plateau.

2. The Western Basins. There are number of basins between Mountains ranges such as Chagai
Hills, Raskoh, Siahan and Central Makran. These areas have no outlet to sea, hence form inland
drainage basins. Hamuns or playa (local name) are formed here.

3. Coastal areas: The coastal areas of Balochistan can be divided into eastern and western parts.
Eastern parts comprise of Lasbela plains and western part is known as Makran coast.

 Lasbela plains are located to the south of Khuzdar Knot. They are drained by Porali River.
The Lasbela plains are largely covered with alluvium but the eastern part is gravelly. Haro,
Pub and Mor ranges are located here.

 Makran Coast covers 500km out of 700km of the total coastline of Pakistan. It extends
from Karachi to the east and Jiwani to the west. It is backed by rock cliff 15 to 65 meters in
height. It includes Clifton hills, Manor, Cape Monze, Ormara , Pasni , Gwadar and Jiwani.

4. Mountain Ranges: Following ranges dominate the topography of Balochistan plateau.

 Toba Kakar ranges are located in extreme north. They rise above 3000 meters. Khojak Pas
near Chaman links Pakistan and Afghanistan.
 Chagai Hills are located at Pak- Afghan border at Chaghi District. They rise up to 2000 meters.
 Raskoh Ranges lie to the south of Chaghi Hills. They rise up to 2000 meters.
 Siahan Ranges are curved shaped and lie between central Makran and Raskoh.
 Central Makran range lies in the south west region of Balochistan. Altitude 1000- 1200
meters.
 Makran coastal Range is the southernmost range with the altitude of just 200 to 600 meters
above the sea level.

Hamuns- Hamuns are temporary lakes (also called playa), which receive water during rain. The largest of
which is Hamun-i-Mashkhel, which is 54 miles long and 22 miles wide. Other Hamuns are Hamun- Lora
and Hamun- e- Murgo. They are salt lakes and when their water evaporates, salty crust is left behind.

Drainage: The Mountains are carved off by innumerable channels and hill torrents which contain water
only after rains. Very little water, however, reaches the basins lying on their foot. Comparatively more
important rivers are Zhob, Bolan and Mulla, located in the north-eastern portion of Balochistan.
Hamun- e- Mashkel, Hamun- Lora and Hamun- e- Murgo drains into inland depressions.

Deserts - The Kharan desert found in western Balochistan.

Page 12 of 234
Importance:

It is the largest province and is blessed with great economic potential.

Minerals

Balochistan is fortunate to have considerable mineral wealth of natural gas, coal, chromite, lead, sulphur
and marble.

 Natural Gas: The reserves of natural gas at Sui are among the largest in the world. The gas is
piped to Karachi, Hyderabad, Sukkur, Multan, Faisalabad, Lahore, Rawalpindi and Quetta for
use as industrial power.
 Gold Mines: Located near Saindak town in Chagai District of Balochistan, Pakistan. The
discovery of gold, copper & silver deposits at Saindak was made in the 1970s.
 Coal Mines: Quetta Coal Fields have huge deposits of coal at different location such as Sor
Range, Musakhel, Dengari, Shairgh.

Agriculture

Main fruits grown are dates, grapes, apples, almonds, apricot, plums, peaches, melons and pomegranates.
About 75% of the total fruit surplus is produced in Balochistan. These fruits are also exported. Livestock
and their products such as hides, wool and goat hair are exported after meeting the domestic
requirement. The climate also encourages the production of vegetable seeds.

Fishing

Makran Coast covers almost 70% of the total coastline. Hence it has a great potential of fishing activity.
Three main fishing centers are Ormara, Pasni and Gwadar. Fish catch is usually brought to the Karachi port
for further processing and selling. However, most of the fish caught in Balochistan ports are exported to
Sri Lanka as dry salted fish.

Gwadar Port

Gwadar is a port city on the southwestern coast of Balochistan, Pakistan’s largest city Karachi connects
with Gwadar through 650 KM long Makran Coastal Highway. Gwadar, is rapidly turning into the main hub
of international trade with everlasting business and commercial activities, which has all the potential to
play a vital role in boosting the economy of Pakistan and the whole region. Gwadar has one of the deepest
sea-port of the world, and the Government of Pakistan has declared it a duty-free port while a free
economic zone has already been established there. This step has not only enhanced its commercial worth
but has also accelerated the pace of development to an incredible speed. The beaches in the Gwadar area
are the finest in the world, offering sunshine round the year. These beaches can be developed and
exploited by the hotel, recreational, and tourist industry to their high prospects.

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Problems:
Climate

The area is known particularly for its constant mirage and sudden severe sand-storms. Being outside the
sphere of monsoon current, Balochistan receives scanty and irregular rainfall (4 inches); the temperature
is very high in summer and very low in winter.

Owing to continuous drought, there is very little vegetation. Most of the people, therefore, lead nomadic
life, raising camels, sheep and goats.

Vegetation

Except for the Toba Kakar Range, which is dotted here and there with juniper, tamarisk and pistachio
trees, all other ranges are naked and bleak.

Water Resources

According to the reports 62% of Balochistan is deprived of safe drinking water and more than 58% of its
land is uncultivable due to water scarcity.

There is no major water resource. Due to few seasonal rivers and scanty rainfall the people face scarcity
of both drinking and irrigation water. However, water schemes such as Karez and tube wells fulfil some of
their needs.

Transport and communication

Roads and highways are constructed but most of them are not connected well. Railway lines cover only a
limited area. There is absence of link roads between producing areas and the main roads. Due to rugged
landscape construction of roads is difficult. Most of the roads are unmetalled.

Population Density

Balochistan makes up less than 6% of the total population of Pakistan and has an average population
density of 35 persons per km2 due to which the government does not start development projects in this
area. Thus the people are deprived of basic facilities such as electricity, medical, education etc.

Poverty

According to an scrutiny organize and carry out by the government of Balochistan which shows that the
half of the province is facing poverty and it is increasing day by day and the population which is earning
their life below the poverty-line in which the people are deprived of basic necessities of life such as
medication, food, shelter, edification and clothing are necessary to live.

Page 14 of 234
The Indus Plain

Location/ area
The Indus River plain is a vast expanse of fertile land, covering about 200,000 square miles (518,000 square km),
with a gentle slope from the Himalayan piedmont in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south.

Parts
It is divisible into two sections, the upper and lower Indus plains, on account of their differing physiographic
features.

Rivers
The upper Indus plain is drained by the Indus together with its tributaries, the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas,
and Sutlej rivers, forming a developed system of interfluves, known locally as doabs, in Punjab province

Important cities
Lahore, Faisalabad, Multan, Sukkur, Ghotki , Hydrabad, Nawabshah

Importance
The Indus provides the key water resources for the economy of Pakistan - especially the breadbasket of Punjab
province, which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh. It also supports many
heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan. Indus plain is the most productive
region of Pakistan. The flat land encourages the growth of settlements, establishment of Industries, construction
of roads, railways and airports. Most of the areas are supplied with electricity and other basic facilities. This
stimulates economic growth of Pakistan. It is the most populated region of Pakistan and provides huge
workforce. The dabs of the plains are excellent areas for farming where large scale faring is done. Wheat, Rice,
cotton, sugarcane and variety of vegetable grow in these areas. Flat land and rivers encourage the construction
of canals thus the areas have huge network of irrigational canals.

Page 15 of 234
Relief features of Upper Indus plain
Doabs (interfluves) are the areas of land between two rivers. They comprise of four distinct landforms namely;
Active Flood plains, Old floodplains, Scarp and scalloped interfluves (also called Bar upland). The largest but
poorest of the doabs is the Sindh Sagar Doab, which is mostly desert and is situated between the Indus and
Jhelum rivers.
The table shows the names of rivers, doabs and Bar upland.

Names of Rivers Doabs Bar upland

Indus – Jhelum Sindh Sagar Doab Non existent
Jhelum- Chenab Chaj Doab Kirana Bar
Chenab – Ravi Rechna Doab Sandal Bar
Ravi and Sutlej Bari Doab Ganji Bar
Nili Bar

The figure shows the Cross Section of a doab

A. Active flood Plain (known locally as a khaddar or bet), lies adjacent to a river, is often called “the summer
bed of rivers,” as it is inundated [flooded] almost every rainy season. It is a narrow strip of land along the
River Indus and its tributaries.

B. Old Flood Plain lies after the active flood plain [Adjoining the active floodplain]. It occupies higher ground
away from the river thus are safe from floods. However, it becomes inundated during heavy flooding once
after seven to years.

C. Levees are protective bunds which can be natural or built artificially at many places on the outer margin
of the bet to contain the river water in the rainy season.

D. The scalloped interfluves, or bars, are the central, higher parts of the doab, with old alluvium of relatively
uniform texture.

Scarp is a cliff or steep slope. The boundaries of the scalloped features are formed by river-cut scarps at
places over 20 feet (6 metres) high.

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A Piedmont plain is a plain situated at the foot of mountains or hills. [gentle slopes leading from the base of
mountains to regions of flat land]. These are formed by the deposition of rivers flowing down the mountains.
In Pakistan these are located on the foothills of the Sulaiman, Kirthar and Himalayan Mountains.
The Sulaiman piedmont plains also known as Derajat are mainly agricultural. Most important features are the
alluvial fans or cones that develop eastwards from Sulaiman & Kirthar ranges.
A number of small piedmont plains have been developed in northern Punjab. Two of them extend south of
Siwalik Mountains.

Relief features of Lower Indus plain

The plain narrows to form a corridor near Mithankot, where the Sulaiman Range comes close to the plain and
the Indus merges with its last major tributary, the Panjnad River.
In the lower plain the Indus River forms a single large river with no significant tributaries.
The lower Indus plain, the course of which goes through Sindh province, is flat, with a gradient as slight as 1 foot
per 3 miles (1 metre per 10 km). The micro relief is quite similar to that of the upper Indus plain such as Active
flood plain, old flood plain, piedmont plains etc.

Difference between upper and Lower Indus plain

Upper Indus Plain Lower Indus Plain
Located in the northern part of Indus plain Located in the southern part of Indus plain
River Indus and its tributaries flow here Indus river flows alone
Tributaries joined and form the river Punjnad which Indus flows in to the Arabian sea through its
joins River Indus at Mithankot distributaries
River Indus is in its middle course River Indus is in its lower course
Both erosion and deposition take place Deposition is the main function

Also watch:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]

Page 17 of 234
 The Indus Delta
Definitions- Relief features
1. Delta – a triangular tract of sediment deposited at the mouth of a river, typically where it diverges into
several outlets.
When rivers drain its water into sea or any other watercourse along with sediment at the mouth of the
river. If these sediments cannot carry away by the waves and tides. It builds up in layers forming a delta.
2. Estuary - the tidal mouth of a large river, where the tide meets the stream.
Estuary is a partially enclosed, coastal water body where freshwater from rivers and streams mixes with
salt water from the ocean. Estuaries, and their surrounding lands, are places of transition from land to
sea.
3. Estuarine deltas - form as a river does not empty directly into the ocean, but instead forms an estuary.
An estuary is a partly enclosed wetland that features a brackish water (part-saltwater, part-freshwater)
habitat.
4. Mouth of the river - The place where a river enters a lake, larger river, or the ocean is called its mouth.

5. Source of the river - The place where a river begins is called its source. River sources are also called
headwaters. .
6. Mudflats form when silt and mud are brought in by seas, oceans, and tributaries.
The mud and the silt are deposited into bays and lagoons when the tide comes in. The water mixes with
the mud and silt, creating the muddy quicksand that occurs in mudflats.
7. Swamps - A swamp is an area of land permanently saturated, or filled, with water. Many swamps are
even covered by water. There are two main types of swamps: freshwater swamps and saltwater
swamps. Swamps are dominated by trees.

8. Creeks – a narrow, sheltered waterway, especially an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh.

9. Marshes - Marshes are a type of wetland ecosystem where water covers the ground for long periods
of time. Marshes are dominated by herbaceous plants, such as grasses, reeds, and sedges.

10. Distributaries - a branch of a river that does not return to the main stream after leaving it (as in a delta).

Watch this video:

[Link]

Page 18 of 234
Location

 Latitude- 24.5° or 24° 30' north

 Longitude- 68° east
 Elevation- 6 metres (20 feet)

The Indus River Delta forms where the Indus River flows into the Arabian Sea [at present at the south of
Thatta], creating a complex system of swamps, streams and mangrove forests.

Originating high on the Tibetan Plateau, the Indus River flows more than 3,000km before emptying into
the Arabian Sea. It is here where the fan-shaped delta forms an extensive system of swamps, mudflats,
creeks, estuaries, marshes and mangroves forests.

 The Indus is the 5th largest delta system in the world and has the 7th largest mangrove forest
system.
 The Indus River flows 3,000km before emptying into the Indus Delta.
 The delta covers an area of about 41,440km2, and is approximately 210 kilometres across where
it meets the sea.

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Importance

 The Indus River Delta is an important region for migrating water birds

 is an area rich in fish- As of 2003, fishing was an important source of revenue. Catches of
mangrove dependent fish were valued at $20 million annually, shrimp at $70 million and mud
crabs at $3 million.
 is the fifth largest in the world and home to the seventh biggest mangrove forest
 The economy of the delta consists of agriculture and fishing.
 As of 2005, more than 140,000 hectares of land were used for agriculture, mostly used to
cultivate rice, followed by sugarcane and wheat. Barley, gram, oil seeds, maize, millet, cotton,
and jowar are other important crops.
 Fruits such as coconut, mango, fig, pomegranate, apple, peach, melon, banana, guava and
papaya are also reportedly grown.
 The delta also used to have large pastures for livestock grazing.

Problems
Reduced river flows are threatening the survival of many species found here, including one of the
world's rarest dolphins.

Dams along the river reduce flows, particularly in lower parts of the Indus River, limiting the transport of
much-needed fertile sediments downstream into the delta.
Water extraction for irrigation, runoff of chemicals into the river and introduced species also threaten
the delta's freshwater species.
WWF works in Pakistan to conserve Indus river dolphin habitat and reduce water pollution. The
international environmental organization also focuses on freshwater scarcity in the coastal areas of the
Indus Delta.
The region of the Indus Delta has very few pure drains and its access to water disposal is further reduced
due to its vicinity to the Indian border.
Flooding in this area is a natural and frequent incidence. The latest attack by a flood happened to be in
2006.
There is scarcity of fresh water and other facilities therefore people migrate to Karachi and other urban
settlements.
Construction of infrastructure such as roads, highways, bridges and buildings is difficult due to marshy
and swampy land.

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 Deserts- A desert is a dry, hot and sandy stretch of land with very little vegetation.

Location
Pakistan hosts five deserts which were historical forests. They include:
1. The Thar Desert in Sindh,
2. The Cholistan Desert in Bahawalpur (Punjab),
3. The Thal Desert in Bhakkar (Punjab),
4. The Kharan Desert in Balochistan,
5. The Katpana Desert in Skardu (Gilgit-Baltistan).
The Thar Desert
Straddling the border between India and Pakistan, Thar Desert, which is also known as the Great Indian
Desert, is one of the largest deserts on earth. It’s a vast, arid region of rolling sandhills, which covers a
quarter of a million square kilometres of the subcontinent. Another incredible fact about Thar is that
despite its harsh natural environments, the desert is inhabited by around 30 million people, making it
one of the most populated, easily accessible and least inhospitable deserts in the world.

Characteristics of a desert:

 The climate is very hot. Summer day time temperatures can exceed 40°C. However, at night the
temperature can drop below 0°C.
 The climate is very dry with less than 125 mm of rainfall a year.
 Hot deserts have two distinct seasons: summer, when the temperature ranges between 35-40°C,
and winter, when the temperature ranges between 20-30°C
 Desert soils are thin, sandy, rocky and generally grey in colour.
 Desert soils are very dry. When it does rain they soak up the water very quickly.
 The surface of the soil may appear crusty. This is due to the lack of rainfall.
 As it is so hot water is drawn up to the surface of the soil by evaporation.
 As the water evaporates, salts are left behind on the surface of the soil.

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Plants and animals
 Hot deserts have distinct characteristics that allow certain species to thrive in such an extreme
environment. Plants and animals have developed adaptations which allow them to survive in hot and
dry conditions such as Camels, Chinkara deer , teeter birds, foxes, Wild Grain Grass Gum Acacia
Mustard Tree

Relief Features:
1. Rolling Sand Dunes/ sand dune - any accumulation of sand grains shaped into a mound or ridge
by the wind under the influence of gravity.
2. Sand plains/ sand Pattis - an area of flat land where the soil [sand] is deposited from elsewhere
by processes such as wind or ocean, rather than direct weathering of bedrock.
3. Bare rock - A rock without any cover like grass or soil.
4. Interdunal valleys – wide valleys formed between the dunes with silt and clay sediments.

Life style and economic Activities

 Nomadic life style – people move from one area to another with their animals in search of food and
water.
 Houses are made of mud, roofs are covered with thatches.
 Water is stored in clay pots/ matka covered with a lid or thick cloth to prevent water loss from
evaporation.
 Small shops or stalls can be seen in some populated/ inhabited areas
 Camels and bullock carts are used as the main source of transportation
 People travel long distance to fetch water from the wells or share the water stored in ponds after
rainfall.
 In some areas of Thar, Cholistan and Thal, agriculture is practiced at subsistence level with the help
of irrigation.

Problems and challenges

 Extreme climate – very hot in summers and very cold in winters.
 Aridity – very little or no rainfall
 Scarcity of water/ clean drinking water
 Lack of vegetation / sparse dry vegetation
 No electricity in most of the areas
 Less market for cottage industries/ craft work
 Absence of roads
 No / limited access to education, health care facilities

Link for further reading:

[Link]/blog/deserts-of-pakistan/

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 Climate of Pakistan

Definitions:
Climate: The weather conditions prevailing in an area in general or over a long period.

Climate is the average weather conditions of a specific area over a long period of time (minimum 30 years) e.g.
maritime climate, tropical climate etc.

Weather: the state of the atmosphere at a particular place and time as regards heat, cloudiness, dryness,
sunshine, wind, rain, etc.

Weather is the combination of the current meteorological components e.g. temperature, wind direction and
speed, amount and type of precipitation, suns shine hours etc. at a particular place over a short period of time
(from one up- to several weeks)

Temperature: the degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object.

Floods: an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry
land.

Droughts: a prolonged period of abnormally low rainfall, leading to a shortage of water.

Air Pressure: air pressure is the force exerted onto a surface by the weight of the air

Components of Climate

1. Temperature
2. Wind speed and direction
3. Air Pressure
4. Humidity
5. Evapo- transpiration
6. Precipitation
7. Condensation
8. Cloud cover
9. Radiation

Pakistan lies in the temperate zone. The climate is generally arid, characterized by hot summers and cool or
cold winters, and wide variations between extremes of temperature at given locations. On the whole, the rainfall
is little and it can be unreliable; sometimes coming early sometimes late. The overall amount may also vary.

Jacobabad may well be the hottest city in Pakistan.

Skardu receives the lowest temperature is recorded minus 21° Celsius.

[Link]

Page 23 of 234
The Map Showing Climatic Zones of Pakistan

Page 24 of 234
 Climatic Zones and their Climate

Climatic Areas Cities / Towns Temperatures Rainfall

Zones
Winter Summer Winter Summer
Highland Northern Gilgit , Murree, very cold – mild-warm 125- 125mm
Mountains Muzafferabad cool 250mm Below
and North Chitral [-5°c to 9°c] [10°c -30°c] Average average
Western Quetta, Kalat ,
Mountains Parachinar
Lowland Whole of Islamabad , Cool –mild Hot 25-125mm 250-500mm
Indus Plain Sialkot , Lahore , [3°c - 20°c] [30°c - 40°c] Below Above
except Faisalabad, average average/
coastal areas Jacobabad, high
Sukkur
Coastal Coastal areas Karachi, Thatta Mild Warm-hot 25mm 125-250mm
of Sindh and Jiwani, Pasni , [10°c - 20°c] [20°c - 40°c] Below Average
Baluchistan Gawader average/
very low
Arid Deserts of Thar, Nara , Cool- mild Hot Very little Less 25mm
Sindh and Cholistan , [3°c -20°c] [30°c - 40°c]
Baluchistan Kharan

Temperature Key

Very Hot 40o C and above

Seasonal Distribution of Months
Hot 31o C - 39o C
1- December – March Winters
Warm 21o C - 30o C 2- April – June Summers
Mild 10o C - 20oC 3- July - September Monsoon
Cool 3o C - 9o C
4- October – Mid December Post Monsoon
Cold -5o C - 2o C

Very Cold -5o C and below

Page 25 of 234
Factors Affecting Temperature: [Link]
1. Latitudinal effect – Latitude affects the amount of solar radiation a place receives. The amount of solar
radiation a place receives is greatest at the equator and lessens toward the poles.

Explanation:
The south of Pakistan which starts at 24o N is closer to the equator so it receives more solar radiation
as compared to the north which ends at 37oN.

2. Altitude – (the higher you go, the lesser the temperature would be)
Usually as altitude increases the weather gets colder. There is also less air as elevation increases.
As altitude decreases on land the climate gets warmer as well as more humid.
The temperatures usually decrease with height by about 6.5°C per 1000 meters or 3.6°F per 1000 ft.

Explanation:
The south of Pakistan is at lower altitude (0 meter above the level) as compared to the North of Pakistan
(upto 8000m above the sea level). Air is denser at lower altitude as it absorbs more solar radiation, water
vapors and dust particles. As the altitude increases, air starts losing its density thus gets cooler.

3. Angle of the sun - Due to the Earth’s tilt [The Earth's axial tilt, also called obliquity] the sun shines on
different latitudes at different angles throughout the year. This causes the seasons.

Explanation: At higher latitudes the angle of solar radiation is smaller causing energy to be spread over
a larger area of the surface and cooler temperatures. As, the north of Pakistan always receives lesser
radiation of the sun due to its low angle, it remains cooler.

4. Maritime influence - Distance from the sea

Oceans heat up and cool down much more slowly than land. This means that coastal locations tend to
be cooler in summer and warmer in winter than places inland even at the same latitude and altitude.

Explanation- The coastal areas of Pakistan are influenced by maritime effect. Due to this the temperature
remains mild during winter and warm to hot during summers. On contrary, the inland areas are
influenced by continental influence and heats up quickly during summer and cools down quickly during
winters therefore their temperatures vary.

5. Cloud Cover - Clouds also act as an “atmospheric blanket” that helps to regulate the temperature at
Earth's surface.
During the day, clouds reflect a portion of the solar energy that reaches Earth, back into space. This
prevents the planet from becoming too warm.
At night, since there is no reflection, instead of cooling temperatures, clouds help to keep them warmer.
This happens when clouds trap the heat and reemit it back towards the planet's surface. With clear skies,
the heat can easily travel into space leading to cooler temperatures.

Page 26 of 234
Types of Rainfall [Causes/ Sources]

Seasonal
1. [Summer] Monsoon: Winds blow during summer. Warm air rising over the land creates low pressure [in
central Pakistan], attracts cool moist air from the sea (Bay of Bengal). After crossing Bangladesh and
northern India, the tail end of the winds enters northern Pakistan [Murree]. Rain bearing winds gradually
pushed farther inland [south] causing heavy rainfall. Karachi receives tail end of monsoon.

Months: July – September

Areas: Northern Punjab, Eastern parts of River Indus, Peshawar, Karachi
Effectiveness: Heavy showers fill in reservoirs of dams, lower temperature in Indus Plain, inundation canals
become active, sub soil water (water table) increases, good for Kharif crops, helpful for barani farming.
However, this rainfall is variable in amount and timings. Crop planning is difficult, torrential rainfall leads to
more surface runoff, flooding occurs.

2. [Winter ] Western Depressions: Cyclones originate in the Mediterranean Sea, travel across Afghanistan
and Iran then reach the western areas of Pakistan. Peshawar gets the maximum of rainfall from this source
but as the winds move towards western and south-western parts of the country, they lose their moisture
already.

Months: December to March

Areas: Western parts of Pakistan, Quetta, Kalat, Peshawar,
Effectiveness: More effective for farmers as comes in light showers. However, mainly rains to the west of
river Indus therefore not dependable.

Regional: [ Areas]
1. Convectional Rainfall: In summer hot air rises up which also contains high moisture content, when it
condenses clouds form and bring heavy rain with lightning and Thunderstorm.
Areas: Northern Punjab, KPK , Murree

2. Relief Rainfall: Wind forces moisture-filled air to rise against a mountain, condensate, and result in
precipitation on the windward side of the mountain, with warm, dry air flowing down on the leeward side,
therefore remain dry or called rain shadow areas like Gilgit, Chitral.
Area: Highlands

3. Tropical Cyclones: Originate over the Arabian Sea, bring few hours of heavy rainfall. Develop often but
rarely reach the coast of Karachi.
Areas: Coastal Areas of Sindh and Makran

Page 27 of 234
 Climatic Hazards
Type of Distribution Causes Effects Preventions
hazard [ areas]
Floods Upper Indus plain Torrential Destroy drainage systems in Raising embankments
especially northern rainfall. cities, causing raw sewage to Placing sandbags along the
Punjab spill out into bodies of water. riverbank to serve as levees
Excessive melting
Southern Punjab from Glaciers Damage buildings, cause Afforestation programs
and upper Sindh millions of dollars worth of
Northern areas of Deforestation damage to a city, both evicting Construction of dams or
Pakistan increases surface people from their homes and Increase the height of dams
run off ruining businesses
Southern Precautions:
Balochistan Urbanization Effects on the environment as
including Makran and concrete many toxic materials such as Flood warnings
coastal belt. structures paint, pesticide and gasoline can Evacuation of people and
be released into the rivers, animals
Discharge of lakes, bays, and ocean, killing Cleaning of sewerage lines
water by India maritime life. and nullah.
from the
headwork of Destroys crops and wash away
river Ravi and animals
Sutlej
Positive impact
Floods spread sediment
containing beneficial nutrients
to topsoil
Increase water table
Activates inundation canals
Replenish ground water
Tropical Coastal areas When warm air Strong winds topple fences,
Cyclones Of Sindh and rises from the sheds, trees, power poles. Pre Cyclone warnings by
seas and tracking their
Balochistan condenses into Coastal flooding /Flash movements
clouds, massive flooding occurs
amounts of chopping down trees
heat are Damage to coastal close to houses
released. The community , loss of homes,
result of this belongings, slums Removing billboards,
mixture of heat signboards etc.
and moisture is Damage to infrastructure
often a Disturbs many urban Cultivation and
collection of activities in secondary and protection of mangroves
thunderstorms, tertiary sectors.
from which a
tropical storm Long after a cyclone has
can develop. passed, road and rail
transport can still be blocked
by floodwaters
Page 28 of 234
Type of Distribution Causes Effects Preventions
hazard [ areas]

Droughts Thar desert, Lack of rainfall Diminished crop growth or Water storage
Umerkot, Nara, for a long period yield productions management like
Cholistan of time reservoirs of dams and
Death of livestock tanks
Deforestation
Kharan desert,
Turbat, Nok kundi, Dust bowls due to soil erosion
Dry and hot
Kalat,Quetta etc winds lining of canals to avoid
Dust storms/ sand storms the wastage
Mismanagement
Desertification Afforestation
of water
resources
Famine due to lack of water
and for irrigation Use of new technology
like desalination of sea
unfair Habitat damage, affecting water, reclaiming waste
distribution of both terrestrial and aquatic water and turning into
water resources. wildlife. clean water,
Overgrazing of Malnutrition, dehydration using drought resistant
land and related diseases varieties of crops.
Global warming Mass migration
Planning and
management of water
Reduced electricity
resources by
production due to reduced
conservation of water to
water flow through
avoid shortage and by
hydroelectric dams
setting priorities of water
for different uses
Shortages of water for
industrial users

Social unrest

Conflicts over water resources

 Dust storms occur during summer months with peak in May and June, They are locally known as Andhi. These
dust storms are quite violent. Dust storms during the early summer indicate the arrival of the monsoons while
dust storms in the autumn indicate the arrival of winter.
 Heat waves occur during May and June, especially in southern Punjab, central Balochistan and Sindh.
 Thunderstorms most commonly occur in northern Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Azad Kashmir.
 Continental air prevails during the period when there is no precipitation in the country.

Page 29 of 234
 Water Resources

Rivers
Indus

Eastern Tributaries
Jhelum
Chenab
Ravi
Sutlej
Beas

Western Tributaries
Kabul
Kurram
Tochi
Gomal

Other Small Rivers

Shyok (North)
Swat

Makran coastal basin

Streams of Malir, Hub, Porali, Hingol,
and Kech

Importance of Rivers

● Add to scenic beauty

● Supply of water to the areas with less rainfall
● Electricity generation
● Increase fertility of land
● Fishing
● Supply of water for domestic and industrial uses
● Irrigation

Sources of water

• Natural • Glaciers
• Rain
• Snowfall • Man Made
• Rivers • Dams
• Lakes ponds streams • Barrages
• Ground water • Wells
• Sea • Hand pumps.
• Snowcapped Mountains • Canals
Page 30 of 234
Ground Water:
Groundwater is the water located beneath the earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock
formations. Ground water is also found in some rain-fed (barani) lands and inter-mountain valleys at depths
varying from 100 to 200 feet.

Uses of water
● Domestic
● Industrial
● Agricultural
● Electricity Generation

Domestic uses
● Sanitation
● Washing
● Cooking
● Watering plants
● Drinking

Most of the rural and urban water is supplied from ground water through tube wells and hand pumps. Net
consumption is normally about 2% of the total water available.

Industrial Uses

As raw material
● Pharmaceutical Industry- for making syrups, injects, drips etc.
● Mineral Water Industry
● Food and beverages – fizzy drinks, juices etc.

Other -
 Hydro-electric Power Stations – [ pressure of water to move the turbines
● Thermal Power Stations [ to produce steam to move the turbines;]
● Iron and Steel Industry for cooling process [to cool down furnaces]
● Textile Industry for used for washing, bleaching, bluing and dying.
● Chemical Industry to dilute chemicals,[ for manufacturing acids/bleach/other solutions]
● Food Processing Industry

For Industrial uses – Also refer to the table given in Huma Naz Sethi

Page 31 of 234
Agricultural uses

● Irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial supply of water to the land to encourage plant growth. About 75% of the cultivated
area is under irrigation.

Irrigation is the method in which a controlled amount of water is supplied to plants at regular intervals for
agriculture. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation
of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.

Why is Irrigation needed?

 Most of the areas of Pakistan experience arid or semi arid conditions

 Water is needed for plant growth.
 It is essential for cells activity and used in photosynthesis.
 Roots need water to absorb mineral nutrients.
 Natural sources of water are not available at many places.
 In some place water is very salty (saline) which is not suitable for plants.
 Ineffective rainfall- Monsoon rainfall brings heavy showers, resulting in flooding
 Long and frequent dry spell after rainy season
 Rainfall is not sufficient and reliable.
 Spells of high temperature- Due to high temperature, there is more evapo-transpiration so plants need
additional water.

Advantages

 Irrigation makes it possible to grow cash crops which give good returns to the cultivators which mean
more income for the farmer.
 It improves the yields of crops which increase of food supply.
 Lessens risk of catastrophic damage caused by drought.
 Increases value of land.
 Domestic and industrial water supply.
 It improves the groundwater storage as water lost due to seepage adds to groundwater storage.

Methods of Irrigation

• Conventional [traditional/ old]

1- Charsa • Modern
2- Shaduf 1- Tube wells
3- Karez 2- Sprinklers
4- Persian wheel 3- Tankers
5- Inundation canal 4- Perennial Canals

Page 32 of 234
Charsa
Animal power is used to pull out water from the well. The animal is tied by rope from one end and the other
end is tied with a bucket. The bucket is submerged in a well and animal power is used to pull it out

Shaduf also spelled as Shadoof, is a hand-operated device for lifting water from the lakes or rivers.

A shaduf is a large pole balanced on a crossbeam, a

rope and bucket on one end and a heavy counter
weight at the other. By pulling the rope it lowers the
bucket into the canal. The farmer then raises the
bucket of water by pulling down on the weight.

Persian Wheel • Usually blindfolded bullocks are used to

rotate a horizontal wheel geared to a vertical
wheel.
• This gear is attached to another vertical
submerged wheel called the Persian wheel,
with buckets attached to it, through a
(wooden) shaft.
• As the animals move they ultimately rotate
the gear which in turn spins the vertical
Persian wheel.
• Buckets are filled and emptied into troughs
• Water is then carried to the fields through
narrow channels.

Page 33 of 234
 Karez

• Horizontal underground tunnels are

constructed at the foothills where aquifer/
mother well exists.
• These tunnels have a gentle slope so when
they reach the aquifer water flows downhill
through these tunnels.
• Vertical shafts are dug to remove any
blockage and for cleaning purposes.

Rainwater harvesting

 Rainwater is collected and stored in tanks

either from the fields or roof of building.
 Water is saved when it is abundant and used
later when it is short in supply.

Flood irrigation – Canals

 This is the most ancient method in which water

is delivered to the field by a soil channel or
making a canal from a river by simply digging
the land.

Page 34 of 234
 Canals

Canals are long channels taken from rivers or from dams and barrages to supply water to the fields.

Types of Canals:

Inundation Canals - flooded canals / seasonal canals

These canals are taken out from rivers. They get water during rainy season or when the river is flooded. These
canals irrigate small area.

Perennial Canals- Continuous / regular / non stop

These canals are taken out from dams and barrages. They supply water throughout the year. These canals
irrigate large areas.

Lined Canals

These canals are lined with cement. Their bed and sides are cemented or made up of concrete. They are
properly constructed. Lining helps to avoid seepage of water this reduces water logging and salinity.

Page 35 of 234
Unlined canals

These canals are made up of natural soil or simply dug out of land. They are not cemented. They are good for
natural ecosystem however lead to more seepage of water.

Link Canals - Transport water from western rivers, Indus, Jhelum and Chenab to the eastern Rivers Ravi and
Sutlej. These are long canals spread from one city to another.

Page 36 of 234
Factors leading to the development of the canal irrigation system in Pakistan
1. Cheap labor and availability of cement reduces the cost of canal construction.
2. Southward slope of the rivers makes construction of canals easier because water flows southwards naturally.
3. Huge quantities of water from monsoon rainfall and melting of snow can be stored in in reservoirs during
summer season.
4. Irregular supply of water in the rivers is then regulated by construction of dams and barrages.
5. Soft soil and level land of the Indus plain makes digging of canal easier than in the rugged lands of Baluchistan.

Conventional versus Modern Irrigational schemes

Conventional [ Traditional ] Modern [New]

Advantages
Cheaper/ inexpensive to construct More efficient / faster / does not need to rest.

No / low running cost Larger area can be irrigated.

Doesn’t need fuel or electricity Regular supply / can be used at any time of year /
continuous.

Easily monitored and maintained by farmers Cleaner water[ tube wells, Sprinklers]
Suitable for subsistence farmers Reduces waterlogging and salinity[tube wells,
[Small farms do not need more water]
Sprinklers]

extends farming seasons/can cultivate all year Less labor required.

round;
Disadvantage/ Problems
Limited areas are irrigated due to less amount of Expensive / cannot be used by poor farmers.
water.
Require manual labour or animal power. Maintenance is difficult / expensive.
More time consuming. Diesel is expensive.
Limited areas are irrigated due to less amount of Spare parts are expensive.
water.

Disputes over canal water among local farmers Reduces groundwater / lower water table.

Cause siltation in Barrages Expensive / cannot be used by poor farmers.

Page 37 of 234
 Water Logging and Salinity
Water logging

The rise of the water table to the surface level is called water logging.

Salinity
The appearance of salty patches on the surface after the water evaporates is called salinity.

Causes Effects Precautions

Water is available all year due to Rising water makes soil soggy/ Lining canals and using canal
closures.
perennial canals wet/ damp, makes land unsuitable
for farming

Crops are given more water than Water table comes closer to roots Installing the tubewells. The
they use it damages crops and reduce yield tubewells pump out water at high
speed and keep the water level
down

Unlined canals leak, more water Soil becomes infertile / toxic Flushing out of salts by water
seepage underground from tubewells surface drains

Water table rises to surface level Salinity makes the land unsuitable Education to improve farming
for farming.
methods.

Fertilizers add to salts in water Makes soil more acidic / changes Planting Eucalyptus trees in
the soil pH
affected areas. There roots
absorbs underground water.

Salts left behind after evaporation Salinity acts as poisons for the Soil reclamation/ replenishment
form a hard crust on surface crop Spreading limestone to reduce
acid.

Page 38 of 234
Indus water treaty - A contract between Pakistan and India that was signed in 1960 under the
supervision of UNO.

Indus water treaty is a water sharing treaty between India and Pakistan brokered by the World Bank (then the
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development). The treaty was signed in Karachi, on September 19,
1960 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and President of Pakistan Muhammad Ayub Khan.

Provisions;

1. The Indus System of Rivers comprises three Western Rivers the Indus, the Jhelum and Chenab and three
Eastern Rivers - the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi.
2. The treaty gives India exclusive use of all of the waters of the Eastern Rivers and their tributaries before
the point where the rivers enter Pakistan.
3. Pakistan has exclusive use of the Western Rivers. Pakistan also received one-time financial compensation
for the loss of water from the Eastern Rivers.

During transitional period till 1973 India agreed to supply water to Pakistan. Pakistan was expected to construct
two storage dams, five barrages, one gated syphon and eight link canals.

History
 After partition in 1947, the headworks of many rivers named Ravi, Beas and Sutlej were left in India at
Firozpur.
 Since Pakistan has unreliable and insufficient rainfall, the water of these rivers was essential for
irrigation.
 In 1948, India stopped the water supply of these rivers to Pakistan and Pakistan had to purchase this
water from India to support its agricultural economy.

Importance of Indus water treaty

Most of the areas of Pakistan experience low and unreliable rainfall so irrigation water form these rivers is
essential for agriculture of Pakistan. Since many of these rivers do not originate from Pakistan but flow to the
country through India, Pakistan fears the threat of drought and famine. Increasing population means more food
is needed.

The treaty clearly spells the do's and don'ts for both countries; as it allows India to use only 20 per cent of the
total water carried by the Indus River.

The Indus Water Treaty saved Pakistan from permanent exploitation by the hands of Indians

Page 39 of 234
 Dams and Barrages

Dams are artificial barriers across a flowing river or any other natural water body that are meant to obstruct,
direct, or slow down the flow of water, thus creating a reservoir or a lake.

Barrage is an artificial obstruction at the mouth of a river that is used to increase its depth to assist in
navigation or for irrigation purposes.

Reservoir is a man-made lake that is primarily used for storing water. They can also be defined as the specific
bodies of water formed by the construction of a dam.

Three basic reservoirs More small reservoirs

1. Khanpur Dam Khanpur on River
1. Mangla dam on River Jhelum reservoir, HaroNari/Bolan Dam on River Bolan
2. Terbela dam on River Indus 2. Rawal Dam River Kurrang
3. Warsek Dam on River Kabul 3. Kurrum Garhi Project
4. Mirani Dam on River Dasht 4. Kinjher Lake
5. Haleji Lake

Dams Barrages
1. There are spillway gates near its top level 1. The entire length across a river is provided
2. The storage of water behind the dam is with gates having their bottom level touching
mainly due to the height of the concrete the river bed level.
2. This implies that the water stored behind a
structure and partially due to the height of
barrage is totally depended upon the height
the gate.
of its gates
3. Dam stores surplus flood water and
distributes it through irrigation tunnels in the 3. In the case of barrages, there is no such
dam or through canals from its reservoir. storage and the canals take water directly
4. A dam is built for storing water in a reservoir from the rivers.
to raise the level of water considerably. 4. Barrage is built for diverting water
5. Dams require mountainous terrain 5. A barrage is usually built where the surface is
6. Involve electricity generation flat across meandering rivers.
6. No power generation

Page 40 of 234
Map of Major Dams and Barrages

Importance of Dams for Pakistan

⚫ Water Reservoirs
⚫ Control flood
⚫ Generate electricity
⚫ Irrigation through canals
⚫ Fishing centers
⚫ Tourist resort

Ideal Location for the construction of a dam

 Suitable place to set up dam should have hilly and mountainous area with a narrow valley which has
steep slopes.
 Impervious (solid) rocks provide strong foundation and prevent water soaking.
 Presence of Perennial River is necessary.
 There should be high precipitation (rain/snowfall) in nearby areas.
 Rate of Evaporation should be low

Advantages Disadvantages
Stores huge amount of water Huge investment is needed so government has to
take loans
Construction of perennial canals Needs technical experts
Hydro Electric Power plant to produce electricity Cost of raw material is too high – such as cement,
steel etc.
Controls flood Long-term projects – does not give quick returns
Reduces water shortage Large areas needs to be evacuated
Tourists attraction Cost to rehabilitate displaced people
Provides employment Large scale deforestation
Stops water supply downstream
Siltation

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Siltation
Siltation is the accumulation and settling down of silt, mud and sand on the bed of the reservoir
(dam/barrage).

Causes
Silt is caused by erosion process of river. During flooding season huge amount of silt is eroded, transported
and then deposited behind the dam by the rivers.

Deforestation in hilly areas especially at the foothills increases erosion process. It increases surface run off
thus more silt is brought downstream either by rain water or by the rivers.

Land sliding and soil creep add to eroded material in rivers.

Effects
Silt brought by river settle down in dam’s bed and reduces its storage capacity.

Siltation shortens the life of dam and weakens its foundation.

It chokes the turbine and damages its blades thus affects electricity generation capacity.

It may block tunnels and damage machinery.

It also blocks perennial canals

Precautions
Fixing of silt trap in dams to stop silt reaching the dam.

Allow free flow of water at low level during flood cleans silt from reservoir.

Raising height of dam also increases storage capacity.

Reforestation at foothills

Cleaning and removing of silt with the help of machines [dredging]

Page 42 of 234
Shortage of water
Now a days Pakistan is facing severe shortage of water. There are two main reasons, one natural due to
prolong drought---which is beyond the control of a man, and the other due to the gross negligence in the
development and miss-management of water resources.

Impact on economy / society:

Less water means less agricultural yields and to fulfill the food requirements of the nation, we will be
dependent on other countries. Due to less production of main crops, which are wheat, cotton, sugar cane and
rice, the Industries related to them will suffer adversely. Less agricultural outputs will compel people to head
towards urban areas for jobs, which will increase the unemployment further. The distribution of water is
controlled from the center by IRSA (Indus river system authority) as per 1991 agreement between the
provinces. Now the shortage of water will cause disputes between the provinces, which may cause harm to
the national integrity.

Who is responsible for the crisis?

A result of natural factors
Inadequate water resources management
Increased pollution of surface & ground water
Environmental degradation
Population explosion
Over exploitation of ground water

What really we can contribute?

Creating awareness on… water resources and its conservation & management
Afforestation activities
Rain water harvesting
Environmental information & education
Prevention & control of water pollution
Recycle of waste water
Participatory natural resources management

The problems faced by the water sector in the country are many, acute and serious. Therefore, building of
more reservoirs and an effective management strategy are the needs of time. Also implementation of the
recommendations will enable the country to meet the challenges, and achieve the objectives of integrated,
efficient, environmentally and financially sustainable development and management of limited water
resources. At the same time it will enable us to utilize every drop of our water for our bright future.

[Link]

Page 43 of 234
Map Work

Study the map of Pakistan showing important rivers and dams. .

Name:

(i) The rivers : E .............................. F ................................ G .........................................[3]

(ii) The dams: H ........................................................ J ........................................................ [2]

Page 44 of 234
Study Fig. 2, which shows the perennial canal system in Pakistan

With reference to Fig 2 only, describe the distribution of the perennial canals in Pakistan. [3]

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________

Page 45 of 234
Fishing Industry – caters to catching fish commercially in
sea, rivers or lakes…

Page 46 of 234
Fishing Industry
Terms Definitions Explanations

1.
Aquaculture2. The rearing of aquatic Aquaculture, also known as aqua farming, is the farming of
animals or the cultivation aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans and aquatic plants.
of aquatic plants for Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater
food. populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted
with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish

1.
Mariculture2. The cultivation of fish or Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the
other marine life for cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in
food. the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in
tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater.

Spawn refers to the process of releasing the eggs and sperm,

Spawning (of a fish, frog, mollusc, also called spawning. Most aquatic animals, apart from aquatic
crustacean, etc.) release mammals, reproduce through a process of spawning.
or deposit eggs.

1.
Fish 2. A fish hatchery is a Hatcheries produce larva and juvenile fish (and shellfish and
hatchery "place for artificial crustaceans) primarily to support the aquaculture industry
breeding, hatching and where they are transferred to on-growing systems i.e. fish farms
rearing through the early to reach harvest size.
life stages of animals,
finfish and shellfish in
particular".

Fish farm It involves A fish farm is a place where fish are bred. In most cases, this is
raising fish commercially done for food. There are two basic types of fish farms:
in tanks or enclosures, Those where the fish are raised in tanks
usually for food. Those where fish are raised in specially prepared areas of
the oceans or of lakes.

1.
Fish Harbour a place where fishing
2. Karachi Fish Harbour is located in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Over
boats are tied up 90 percent of the Pakistan's fish and seafood catch and exports
pass through the harbour.

Page 47 of 234
Fishing Industry in Pakistan Marketing
Fishery and fishing industry plays a significant part Marine fish is marketed as fresh, frozen, canned,
in the national economy of Pakistan. With a cured, reduced to fishmeal, other purposes, and
coastline of about 1,120 km, Pakistan has enough some retained by fishermen for their own use. The
fishery resources that remain to be developed. Most freshwater catch is marketed fresh for local
of the population of the coastal areas consumption. Out of the total marine fish
of Sindh and Balochistan depends on fisheries for production, the percentage for human consumption
livelihood. It is also a major source of export ranged between 65 and 70 percent in 2006.
earnings. Fishing industry is managed by the
following organizations:
Fish Export.
 Fisheries Development Commissioner (FDC) Fish and fishery products are processed and
 Marine Fisheries Department (MFD)
exported to over 50 countries. About 30 – 35% of
Facts and Figures the fish and fishery products are exported to
 Pakistan has a coastline length of 1,120 km. European Union countries. Japan, U. S. A. China,
 Pakistan has a continental shelf area of Saudi Arabia, U. A. E. Malaysia, S. Korea, Hong
50,270 km2 Kong, Sri Lanka and Singapore are other major
 The total maritime zone of Pakistan is over importing countries. The export data is annexed.
30 percent of the land area.
 The coastal belt is characterized by a
meshwork of estuaries and creeks Fishing Tools
with mangrove forestry
 There are about 16,000 fishing boats in Nets, floats, winches, fishing rods, nylon rope and
hooks.
coastal area of Pakistan which operate in
shallow coastal waters as well as in offshore
areas. Benefits
 There are 29 fish processing units in Pakistan
with storage capacity of 10,000 tons, out of  Fishery plays an important role in the national
these 25 units are locate in Karachi economy.
 It provides employment to about 300,000
Harbours
fishermen directly.
In 1958, the first modern fish harbour was  In addition, another 400,000 people are
constructed at the Karachi District. Later, the fleet employed in ancillary industries.
expanded and is now mostly mechanized. It caters  It is also a major source of export earnings.
for the needs of near 75 percent of the local fleet.  Fish is a low-fat high quality protein. Fish is
The major fish harbours of Pakistan are: filled with omega-3 fatty acids and vitamins
 Karachi Fish Harbour handles about 90% of fish such as D and B2
and seafood catch in Pakistan and 95% of fish  Fish is rich in calcium and phosphorus and a
and seafood exports from Pakistan. great source of minerals, such as iron, zinc,
 Karachi Fisheries Harbour is being operated iodine, magnesium, and potassium.
by Provincial Government of Sindh.  A good alternative for crops and other livestock
 Korangi Fish Harbour is being managed by product
Federal Ministry of Ports & Shipping.
 Pasni Fish Harbour being operated by
Provincial Government of Balochistan.
 Gwadar Fish Harbour being operated by
Federal Ministry of Communication.
Page 48 of 234
Uses Development of Fishing Industry
The government of Pakistan has taken various measures
 Source of food / used for direct human
to develop fishing industry.
consumption
 treated fish waste is used for animal feed [  Up-gradation of fishing vessels to control post-
poultry feed / livestock fodder] harvest losses.
 Fish oil is oil derived from the tissues of oily fish
which contains the omega-3 fatty acids.  Provision of modern peeling sheds for providing
 Fish emulsion is a fertilizer emulsion that is raw material to fish processing industry.
produced from the fluid remains of fish
 Flake ice plants on harbours.
processed for fish oil and fish meal industrially.
 Procurement of handling and cleaning
equipment for fish harbours.
Fish Processing – onshore activities
 Construction of coastal highway.
 Gutting- manually removing the organs from
 Regular monitoring of resources and surveys
the abdominal part of the fish. This prevents
fish from spoiling by decomposing  A.D.B.P (Agricultural development bank of
 Scaling – to remove scales of fish- fish scales Pakistan) provides loans to fisher men.
make it unpleasant to eat.
 Slicing or cutting  Provincial fisheries department provide
 Salting and drying –[slice or whole fish] technical help.
 Canning [packed in canned form after
 Government has set up hatcheries to provide
processing] small fish to fish farms.
 Stored in ice storages or refrigerators
 Kept in flake ice temporarily [for few hours]  Human resource development through training
 Fish meat can be frozen. /Fisheries training centers are set up to provide
training to fisher men.
Major fish importers
 Cold storages are setup for fish storage.

 Srilanka  Processing centers are set up for cleaning,

 China preserving and packing fish.
 Hong Kong
 Korea  Government has set up fish ports at Pasni,
 Japan Gawader, Korangi and Karachi.
 United Kingdom  Government has taken steps to improve socio-
 U.S.A economic conditions of the fishermen's
 Germany community.
 France
These countries import only marine fish.  Government has set up Gwadar and Pasni fish
ports with the help of Asian development bank,
ice factories and cold storages are set up for fish
storage.

 Loading, unloading and docking facilities are

provided.

Page 49 of 234
Types of Fishing
1. Marine Fishing done in Arabian Sea at Makran Coast and Sind Coast
2. Inland fishing done in Rivers, lakes and Fish farms

Methods of Fishing
1. Subsistence - done at small scale, to feed family , using old/ traditional methods

2. Commercial – done at large scale, to sell and earn profit using new/ modern methods

Species
Marine - Drum, Ray, Croaker, Shark, Cat fish, Skates, White Pomfret [paplet]

Inland Species: Rahu, Trout, Mahseer, Thalla, Palla

Subsistence fishing [features]

1. Done at small scale

2. For fishermen’s personal use
3. Done by the coastal community
4. Small wooden boats are used
5. Hand woven nets are used
6. Do fishing in shallow water
7. Go in the morning and returned in few hours
8. No storage facilities

Commercial fishing [features]

1. Done at large scale

2. For selling and profit
3. Done by professional fishermen, companies, foreign trawlers
4. Large mechanized boats , ships, ferries
5. Gill netters, dredgers
6. Go in deep sea
7. Stay for 10 , 15 , 30 days
8. Ships have storage facilities
9. Provided all types technical assistance in terms of weather forecast , Tsunami alerts

Page 50 of 234
Marine Fishing

Pasni Ormara
Gwadar
Jiwani Karachi

The Sindh coast makes 30% of the coastline in Pakistan while the Makran coast makes 70% of the coastline in
Pakistan. However, the fish catch on the Sindh catch is greater as compared to the Makran coast mainly because
of the development over there.

Why there is more fish catch in Sindh as Compared to Makran coast …

Sindh Coast Makran Coast

Wide Continental Shelf Continental shelf is deep or non-existing

Shallow sea – easy to catch small fish, crabs , Deep sea - Big fish are mainly found and caught
shrimps which hare in great demand
Numerous creeks , sheltered harbors No creeks

Indus delta forms estuary with lots of mineral Not existing

Mangroves – fish breeding grounds Very less, only on hub delta

Is well developed , all types of port facilities Except Gwadar , others are not developed

More population , more demand Consumed by coastal community only

Page 51 of 234
Problems related to fishing in Pakistan

There are several problems relating to fishing in Pakistan. These are water pollution, threats to mangroves and
overfishing. Let’s take a look at each of them.

Water Pollution
Water pollution is a major problem that the fishing industry in Pakistan faces. The industrial waste, domestic
waste and the oil spillage through ships has severely affected fishing in Pakistan.
Due to the water pollution, the fishes displace, some even die and some are contaminated with harmful
substances such as mercury. These harmful substances are transferred to human beings when they consume
fish [bio magnifications]. Therefore, it is vital to reduce water pollution so that the fishing sector in Pakistan can
thrive.
The reduction of water pollution will increase the scope of fish export for Pakistan. Singapore and Japan are
some of the countries that import fish from Pakistan.

Threat to Mangroves
Mangrove trees are located along the coast and they play a very vital role in fishing. They provide breeding
ground to fishes during the breeding season [July to Sept]. Moreover, shelter, food and protection are also
provided to the fishes.
Over the past few years, the mangrove trees are being rapidly cut in Pakistan. Due to this, the fishes are exposed
to coastal waves and they are losing their breeding ground and shelter. This is resulting in less fish catch over
the past few years. Therefore, the threat to mangroves needs to be reduced on urgent basis or else it might
have a severe impact on the fishing sector in Pakistan.

Over-fishing

This is also a major problem for the fishing sector of Pakistan. Overfishing refers to the excessive fish catch.
Overfishing is catching too many fish at once, so the breeding population becomes too depleted to recover. It
is done due to the following reasons:

● Catching fishes in breeding season

● Illegal fishing by foreign trawlers - in the sea fish are caught in huge amount and sold to these trawlers
● Use of illegal nets – if mesh size is too small then small fish are caught…or may have by catch / unwanted
● Exceeding fish quotas- limits

In any case, it is important to take timely measures. These measures can be to reduce the movement of foreign
trawlers and restrict the catching of fishes during the breeding seasons.

Undeveloped Fish harbours

Most of the fishing ports at Makran coast are undeveloped. Due to lack of electricity supply, they don’t have
fish processing and storage facilities. Therefore, fishermen have to bring their fish catch to Karachi fish harbours.
However, poor roads and no railway line on Makran coast is hurdle in transport of fish products. Moreover, low
living standard of coastal community, lack of training and education also prevent them adopting modern fishing
methods. Unhygienic condition of harbours, lack of clean water for processing and inefficient management at
ports further increase the problems.

Page 52 of 234
Fish Farms in Pakistan: [Inland fishing]

Features/ layout

Fish farms are rectangular man made ponds for breeding fish. They have a concrete or cemented impervious
base to prevent water losses through leakage. The side of the farm is edged with solidified mud. Trees are
normally planted around to provide oxygen, to minimize water losses through evaporation and to keep water
body cool. This facilitates the growth and fertilization of fish.

Rearing/ process - how are fish reared on a fish farm

• Rectangular / man-made ponds;
• Lined / concrete base / cemented endings;
• Fill pond with water;
• Trees planted on farms [to prevent losses from evaporation / for shade];
• Add fish or stock / nursery/ different fry, juveniles, etc.;
• Hatch eggs / buy smelt (small fishes)
• Selective breeding programme;
• Water enriched with nutrients / fertilised with manure / from poultry droppings [for growth of plankton];
• Feed added to water / food provided;
• Water filtered / changed / refilled / health and hygiene checked or maintained / chemicals or medicine to
prevent disease.
• Transfer between ponds by size
• Catch fully grown fish / fish of market size etc.
• By net

Page 53 of 234
Importance:
Fish farming is an ancient practice that can provide many profitable opportunities today. The raising and selling
of fish on a commercial basis has proven to be economically successful. Fish farming is growing in popularity.
Increasing recognition that fish is a healthy food, low in calories and cholesterol levels, but rich in protein has
increased consumer demand in both restaurants and supermarkets. Consumption of fish products is increasing
dramatically. Fish are excellent animals to rear. They can convert feed into body tissue more efficiently than
most farm animals, transforming about 70 percent of their feed into flesh.

Contribution to GDP : 0.9%

Contribution to foreign exchange : 6%

Joint Farming:

Fish can be intensively cultured in relatively small amounts of water. Fish farming turns out to be more
productive if it is combined with livestock and poultry farming. The use of animal waste to fertilize fishponds
leads to greater fish yield. Poultry droppings serve as an excellent fertilizer for fishponds. Cattle, poultry and
ducks can be raised on the embankments or in the vicinity of the ponds. Fish waste is used for making poultry
feed.

Benefits:
Farm-reared fish offer a new alternative agricultural crop that can potentially replace those which are declining
in popularity or profitability. Healthy farm-reared fish, guaranteed free of diseases, pesticides, and other
harmful toxicants, are a more desirable substitute for wild fish from potentially polluted waters. Other socio-
economic benefits include:
● Greater return to fishermen
● Increase employment
● Use of technology and up gradation of skills.
● Favourable impact on foreign exchange
● Reduces burden on crop and livestock

Problems:
Fish farming is, like most other types of farming, a risky business that requires special knowledge, skills, and
careful considerations. There are many problems related to fish farming:
• Sometimes fish can escape. This is only an economic impact if the fish also occur naturally, but can have a
big impact if they do not.
• The fish in the farms need to be fed, for this other (smaller) fish need to be raised.
• Diseases and parasites may be a problem, because they spread much easier in water
• Use of chemical for disinfecting and controlling diseases may lead to pollution.
• Sub soil water is pumped out frequently to fill the farms, thus lowers water table.
• When water evaporates, salt reaches in surrounding tracts. Land becomes useless for farming or other
activities.

Suggested Past Papers for Practice:

Nov. 2010, 2011, Nov 2017, June 2019

Page 54 of 234
 Forests of Pakistan

Definition
A dense growth of trees and underbrush covering a large tract.
A forest is an area of land dominated by trees.

Types of Forest
Productive/Natural vegetation -
Productive forest means a forest used for industry, construction, fuel and for other purposes and that
can be capable for forest production.
Features
• Diverse mixture of plant species grow naturally
• Provide a range of ecological habitat for animals and other species
• High biodiversity
• Grow from natural undisturbed soil
• Usually have closed canopy
• Grow naturally so usually do not have set pattern
• Low commercial value

Protection/Man made plantation – Protection forest means the plantation done as part of afforestation
program to increase forest cover.
Features
• Single species/ monoculture planted closely together
• Habitat to limited species
• Low biodiversity
• Soil pH and other organic components need to be balanced
• Canopy depends on the type of species planted
• Linear plantation – planted in rows with distance
• High commercial value species are planted
• Help in controlling the temperature, soil erosion and provide shade.

Distribution of Forests in Pakistan

• Alpine forests [ highest altitude- above 4000m]

• Coniferous [high altitude- ]
• Sub tropical scrub forest [foot hills of Himalayas ]/subtropical broad-leaf evergreen forests
• Tropical thorn forests [Indus plains]
• Riverain or Bela forest [along the rivers ]
• Desert vegetation/ thorny species
• Mangroves forests [coastal belt]
• Irrigated Plantation

[For features of each type of forest see the book ‘Environment of Pakistan’ by Huma Naz Sethi]

Page 55 of 234
 Map of Distribution of Forests in Pakistan

Key
A international
B province-level boundary
JAMMU &
C disputed boundary KASHMIR
D disputed
E

0 100 200 300

Arabian
k

A. Alpine forests
B. Coniferous
C. Sub-tropical scrub forest
D. Tropical thorn forests
E. Mangroves forests

Page 56 of 234
 Types of Forests

Alpine Forests

They can be found in Northern areas including Chitral, Kohistan, and Dir. The trees found in these forests have
less growth because of low sunlight and low temperature. The trees' roots have a better grip on the ground
because they spread sideways and absorb more nutrients. The branches of trees are upward normally to absorb
more sunlight. The wood from these forests is only used for fuel.

Coniferous Forests

They can be found in Northern Areas including KPK, Balochistan Mountains, Murree, Islamabad, and
Rawalpindi. These forests can survive at low temperatures. The trees are conical in shape and have sloping
branches. The leaves are usually needle-shaped, leathery, small and thick to check excessive transpiration. Less
humus is formed in these forests. They offer timber, environment protection, tourism, wildlife, and beautiful
scenery.
Page 57 of 234
Sub-Tropical Scrub Forests

They can be found in Himalayas’ hills and foothills, Kirthar and Sulaiman Ranges, Makran Coast Range
and Western Mountains. These forests have tropical thorny and sub-tropical broadleaf specifies. They
are used for grazing, watershed protection, and firewood.

Tropical Thorn Forests

They can be found in Punjab Plains, Sindh Plains, and Western & southern Balochistan. They are low in
height, usually 6 meters to 10 meters. They have thorny hardwood mostly; trees have deep roots to
search for water and low vegetation because of less water. The wood from these forests is generally
used for fire only.

Page 58 of 234
Riverain or Bela Forest

They can be found in River Indus and its tributaries. These forests have linear plantations along the
banks of rivers. They have high yielding commercial hardwood species. They provide Shishum and
Babul wood.

Mangrove Forests

They can be found in Sindh and Balochistan’s coastline areas. They have, broad, leathery and drip tips
leaves. The trees there are low in height and shrubs are grown on the flats. The trees can survive in
saltwater. As their roots spread into seawater. In better conditions, the trees can rise to 6 to 8 meters,
but they are generally 3 meters long.
Waste is dumped in the Arabian Sea that has stunted the growth of these trees in the Indus and Hub
Delta. Because of pollution limited species are grown there. They offer firewood, timber, breeding
ground for fish, prevent coastline from erosion and absorbs shocks of tsunami and earthquake.

Page 59 of 234
Irrigated Forests

Changa Manga near Lahore, Wan Bachran near Thal, Chichawatni in Sahiwal are Irrigated forests. In
these forests, economically important species of trees are planted in large [Link] have species
like Shishum, Babul and Eucalyptus. They produce firewood and timber.

Importance of Forests

 Forests produce oxygen - Trees take in the carbon dioxide that we breathe out and, in turn, provide us
with the oxygen we need to live.
One large tree can provide a day’s supply of oxygen for up to four people

 Forests are the world’s largest storehouses of carbon. Forests can help absorb carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.

 Forests keep people cool too by providing shade. Trees also help moderate the air temperature immediately
around them through a process called transpiration.

 Forests influence the weather - Trees take the water from the soil and release it into Earth’s atmosphere.
So, forests that are large can not only create their own micro-climates, they influence atmospheric
conditions that can cause it to rain.

 Forests provide habitats countless species - Shelter for birds and animal, natural habitat and breeding
centers.

 Forests clean the air - Forests do not only take in carbon dioxide, but they also clean the air of carbon
monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide – all huge contributors of air pollution.

 Forests help prevent the loss of topsoil through soil erosion in the ecosystems they’re found in. Trees
reduce the effect of erosive forces, like wind and rain using their root systems and foliage

 Forests can provide medicine - Many plants that are used to make medicine can be found in forests.

 Forests provide food trees provide us with nuts, berries, mushrooms, fruit, sap and seeds. Forests also
support the lives of so many animals that humans consume, such as deer, birds and fish.

 Food for Cattle - Forests also provide the grass, leaves and shrubs for the cattle.

 Checks on Floods Erosion - Forests are very useful in checking and controlling floods. Trees reduce
surface runoff thus minimizing the chances of flooding.

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Economic Benefits of Forests
Forests play very important role in the economic development of our country. The area under forests
in Pakistan is very small. According to experts the area under forests should be at least 25 to 30% of
the total area of the country. In Pakistan the forest area is only 4.5%. Forest is also called green gold of
the country. Its importance can be judged by the following facts:

Source of Raw Material

Forests provide the raw material to the various industries like sports goods industry, paper industry
and furniture industry. It has vital importance for industrial development.

Source of Fuel
Forests are sources of fuel for domestic and commercial consumption. It is cheap source as compared
to oil and electricity.

Source of Foreign Exchange

Forests produce various goods like honey, timber and oil which can be exported to other countries. So
it is also a source of foreign exchange.

Source of Employment
Forests provide employment to a large number of people. There is forest department which look after
forest's affairs.

Attraction for Tourists

Forests attract the tourists from abroad and earn foreign exchange for the country. Hilly area attracts
the tourists because these are full of plants and greenery.

Source of Government Income

The government of Pakistan also earns a lot of income from the forests. The sale of timber products of
forests add to the revenue of the government.

Source of Recreations
Hard working people need recreation in the form of hunting and sightseeing. Forests provide them
recreation for holiday.

Importance for Defence

Forests are also very useful for the defence purpose. In case of war these protect our army from
enemy. They constitute natural boundary of the country.

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 Deforestation
Causes Effects Precautions
Clearing of land for Erosion of soil by water and  Selective cutting that will
farming wind. forbid the cutting of young
trees.
 Terracing and contour
ploughing should be practiced
on mountain slopes
Use of wood for the fire Increase in floods  Fuel wood plantation should
be done on reserved lands
 Natural gas should be supplied
to prevent cutting for
firewood
Use of timber in industries Surface run-off carrying sand  Reforestation must be
and silt. initiated
 Recycling and reusing
discarded material will reduce
the burden on raw materials
i.e. cutting trees for wood.

Construction of roads The generation of electricity  Forestation should be done of

is affected because of hill slopes to prevent silting,
siltation in reservoirs. flooding, erosion, etc.
Mining Destruction and extinction of  Land restoration through
natural habitats. reforestation
Overgrazing of land. Food and crop production  Limited pastures to be
has been affected greatly provided for grazing
Rise of urbanization. Irrigation canals are blocked.  Afforestation

Harmed the fisheries.  Heavy machinery should be

restricted in forests.
Extreme climate change and  Media should be used to
global warming. spread awareness about the
importance of trees and
forests in general

CONCLUSION

Forests are crucial for sustainable development. The earth has suffered so much since the industrial
revolution. The importance of forests can be recognized from this point that forest cover combats air,
water, and land pollution. The growing rate of deforestation is the triggering cause of climate change
and the average surface temperature of the Earth has kept increasing. Now, the world is facing the
consequences of human activities, although no adequate attention has been given to this subject.

Page 62 of 234
The government of Pakistan is trying to increase the area of forest due to its importance in the economic
development. The government has taken control on the other hand fast growing seeds are sown. The
forests are also being grown on the government vacant lands. The plantation development programs on
the road sides, railway sides and canal sides have been transferred to the forests department. Now the
production of wood and other forests is increasing day by day. Promotion of free plantation in private
sector is encouraged in certain areas. In short following measures can be adopted for increasing the
forest area. There should be extensive use of fast growing plants.

Government of Pakistan has also allocated 50000 acres of land for forests in the area of "Thal" keeping
in views its importance. In Abbotabad, Peshawar and in the province of Sindh forests are grown for
protection of soil.
In Hyderabad division one lac acre land was reserved for forests.

Afforestation:

In Pakistan, many afforestation projects have been started:

 In Baltistan, Agha Khan Rural Support Program has been initiated that has planted 80 thousand
plants.
 The Tarbela/Mangla project is planting trees on privately owned badland.
 Rechna Doab Project is planting trees between Ravia and Chenab.

Sustainable Forestry means that we should manage the forest resources in such a way as to ensure
that we will be able to obtain the things that we want from the forests on a regular basis while
conserving the natural environment.

Forestry is sustainable if:

• The cutting rate of trees must not be more than the rate of their growth.
• If a tree is cut, then it must be replaced from a sapling from the nursery.
• If forest areas are cut down, then new forest areas must be planted to accommodate for the loss to
nature.

Page 63 of 234
 Agriculture – Handout
What is agriculture?

It is a system or practice of cultivating crops and animals.

Agriculture, also called farming or husbandry, is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, and other life
forms for food, fiber, biofuel and other products used to sustain life.

Main Types of Farming

1. Commercial Farming – the growing of crops / rearing of animals to make a profit

It is done for selling purposes. The size of land holding is large, more than 150 acres.
Machineries such as tractors are mostly used in such farms. Modern methods of irrigation
are used. Skilled labour and unskilled both labour is hired. Chemicals/ fertilizers are used
for a better crop. This leads to higher crop yield and the crop is sold or exported.

2. Subsistence Farming – where there is just sufficient food produced to provide for the farmer’s own
family

It is done for the farmer’s own use. The size of holding is small, usually less than 10 acres.
Animals or draft power is used on the farms. The labour work is done by the farmer and his
family members. Natural manure (Cow Dung) is used. This results in a low output. And any
Surplus produced is sold.

3. Arable Farming – involves the growing of crops mainly depends on irrigation

4. Barani Farming – involves the growing of crops mainly depends on rainfall
5. Pastoral/livestock Farming – involves the rearing of animals, also called livestock farming
6. Intensive Farming – where the farm size is small in comparison with the large amount of labour and
inputs of capital, fertilizers etc. which are required.

This is a system of agriculture in which relatively large amounts of

capital or labor are applied to relatively smaller areas of land. It is
usually practiced where the population pressure is reducing the size of
landholdings. West Bengal practices intensive commercial farming.

7. Extensive Farming – where the size of a farm is very large in comparison to the inputs of money,
labour etc.. needed
This is a system of agriculture in which relatively small amounts of
capital or labor investment are applied to relatively large areas of land.
At times, the land is left fallow to regain its fertility. It is mostly
mechanized because of the cost and availability of labor. It usually
occurs at the margin of the agricultural system, at a great distance from
market or on poor land of limited potential .

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Main cropping seasons in Pakistan
There are two main cropping seasons

1- Winter – Rabi crop - The crops which are sown in winter and harvested in summer are called Rabi
crops.
Sown in Oct – Nov
Growing period Dec – March
Harvested in April – June
Wheat, barley, mustard and green peas are some of the major Rabi crops.

2- Summer – Kharif Crops - The crops which are sown in summer and harvested in winter are called
Kharif crops.
Sown in April – June
Growing period – June – September
Harvested in Oct – Nov
Rice, maize, bajra, soybean, groundnut, cotton are all Kharif crops.

3- Zaid crops - There is a short season between Kharif and Rabi season in the months of March to July.
In general, Zaid crops are crops that grow in this season. Also, these grow on irrigated lands. So we do
not have to wait for monsoons to grow them.

Some examples of Zaid crops are pumpkin, cucumber, bitter groud, watermelon and fodder crops.

System of Farming

A farm is a system in that it has inputs, processes and outputs.

Input Process Output

•Natural/ Physical •PLoghuing •Rice , wheat ,
•Land, Soil, climate •Sowing sugarcane
•Irrigation •cotton
•Human/Economic •Weeding •vegetables
•Labour, Machines, •Harvesting •pulses
tools, Fertilizers, •Threshing •fruits
HYVs, Irrigational
Schemes etc.

Page 65 of 234
 Topic- Agriculture
Major Crops

Crops Months and Rainfall / irrigation Type of HYV By- Major

Temperature Soil / Seeds products Areas
land and their
uses

Sowing Period Rainfall Soil

Oct-Dec Moderate upto Stiff Maxi Pak, Chaff Sialkot
250 mm during loamy Shah Used as Gujrat
Sowing growing season and clay Khan 95 animal Gujranwala
Temperature feed, fuel, Shiekhopur
10-20 o C Irrigation roofing in a
25-30⁰C for One month after villages Faisalabad
Wheat –
ripening sowing Bahawalnag
Rabi Crop One month before Land ar
Harvesting harvesting Flat Bhawalpur
From March in Undulati Noshero
South ng Nawabshah
From April in
Punjab
Continues till
July
Temperature :
20o C – 30oC

Sowing Period Rainfall Soil Irri-Pak, Husk Sialkot

April-June Heavy up to 1270 Loamy Basmati Animal Gujrat
mm. Clay super, fodder Gujranwala
Sowing 2000 mm is ideal Irri-6, Chip Shiekhopur
Temperature – Rechna board a
20⁰C -30⁰C Irrigation Land Poultry Larkana
(no cold Done frequently Flat/ bedding Badin
season) Field is drained Leveled Thatta
Rice-Kharif
before harvesting (done on
Crop Harvesting - terraces
Oct-Nov in the
(warm dry north)
period for
harvesting)

Page 66 of 234
 Crops Months and Rainfall / irrigation Type of HYV By- Major
Temperature Soil / Seeds products Areas
land and their
uses

Sowing Period Rainfall Soil Nayyab

April –May 1000mm with Medium 78, Cotton Sahiwal
sunny period loam B-557, seeds Khanewal
Sowing between Sarmast Oil is Vehari
Temperature Qalandari extracted Bahawalnagar
25o C – 35o C Irrigation Bhawalpur
One month after Land Rahim yar
Cotton khan
sowing Level
Harvesting Second irrigation land Multan
Oct-Nov after two months Nawabshah
25o C – 35o C Sanghar

Sowing Period Rainfall Soil JN88-1to

April- May 3. Bagasse Charsadda
Plenty upto Loam Thatta 10 Peshawar
Sowing 1520mm Clay Animal Faisalabad
Temperature fodder Sahiwal
25o C – 35o C Firewood Bahawalnagar
Irrigation. Land Chipboard Noshero
If the rainfall is less Level Feroz
than 500mm than land Nawabshah
Sugarcane
Harvesting 15-20 times Molasses Hyderabad
Oct – Nov Liquid left Badin
20⁰C -30⁰C If the rainfall is after juice
more than 500mm extraction
than 8 – 10 times Baker’s
yeast ,
synthetic
fiber

Page 67 of 234
 Cultivation Processes

Wheat
Ploughing- Fields are prepared/ ploughing starts in the months of Oct – Nov.
Sowing- Seeds are sown directly in the .
Irrigation is done twice. One month after sowing and one month before harvesting.
Processes like weeding, bird scaring are carried out fertilizer and insecticides are used.
Harvesting : Wheat is harvested in April – / after 90 to 120 days, manually or by the help of combine
harvesters .

Rice
Ploughing - fields are prepared in the months of April- May
Flooding- [irrigation] fields are irrigated to keep them flooded to make paddy fields. Mud bunds are made
to stop / retain water along the fields.
Sowing- rice seeds are sown in a separate field/ nursery or beds
Transplanting - when the plant reaches 9” inches tall then it is transplanted into paddy fields
Irrigation - fields are kept flooded throughout the cultivation period.
Harvesting: mud bunds are broken and water is drained. Then rice is harvested.

Cotton
Ploughing- Field is prepared by ploughing in April/May.
Sowing is done. Cotton seeds are sown at distance of 135mm to 150mm.[30-45cm]
First irrigation is done after one month of sowing and second after further two months.
Fertilizer and insecticides are used.
Harvesting - Picking is done in Oct/Nov.

Sugarcane
Ploughing - Field is prepared by ploughing in April/May.
Sowing – 30 cm piece of sugarcane stalk is planted at distance of 30 cm in April/May.
Fertilizer especially potash is provided.
Crop is irrigated 25 to 30 times till ripening.
Harvesting is done manually. Crop can be rattooned for next two to three years.

Page 68 of 234
Other Crops

 Food Crops – Potatoes, Onions,

 Grain Crops – Pulses
 Fodder Crops – Maize , Millets
 Fruits – Mango , Apple, Banana, Oranges etc.
 Oil seeds
 Tobacco

Pulses
Pulses are the most important source of vegetable protein in Pakistan. They are cultivated on 5% of the
total cropped area. Their use ranges from baby food to delicacies of the rich and the poor. Hence they are
quite rightly called poor man’s meat” Due to the population growth, demand for pulses is increasing day
by day. There is a need to develop varieties with higher yield potential that respond to improved
management practices so as to meet the increasing demand of pulses.

Major Pulse Crops in Pakistan Kharif pulses:

Rabi Pulses: Moong
Chickpea [gram pulse] Mash
Lentil [Masoor] Arhar

Problems
Production of pulses is affected by many biotic and abiotic stresses which hamper the realization of actual
yield potential.
Drought
Diseases (Blight, rust, root rot-wilt complex)
Weeds
Cold, Drought (High lands)
Insect pest (Hairy caterpillar, white fly, thrips, tobacco caterpillar)

Improvements
Establishment of improved seed and its dissemination systems.
Encouragement of private sector in seed production business.
Implementation of price intervention for major pulse crop and procurement of produce by the
Government.
Timely availability of quality inputs especially pesticides.
Increase the area under pulses & maintain the plant population.

Oil seeds
Edible oil is one of the important commodities of everyday use. Pakistan has been constantly and
chronically deficient in its production to meet requirement of ever increasing population. About 70% of
the domestic requirements are met through imports and its import increased at the rate of 12.5% annually
which is huge threat to our economy. However, efforts have been made to increase its local production.
Currently, 0.754 million ha of the total cropped area are under oilseed crops:

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Maize – Corn

Corn is the third largest plant-based food source in the [Link] is one of the world’s most productive and
dominant crops. It is grown extensively as food for both humans and livestock. Most of the crop is used as
the main energy ingredient in livestock feed. Corn is also processed into a multitude of food and industrial
products including starch, sweeteners, corn oil, beverage and industrial alcohol, and fuel ethanol.

Millets – Bajra and Jawar

Bajra refers to the edible seeds of pearl millet plants. They grow in various shades of white, yellow, gray,
brown, and bluish-purple. The seeds are typically cooked as a cereal grain or sometimes finely ground and
used as a flour. Cooked millet is a good source of protein and carbs and a decent source of fiber. It’s also
a good source of vitamins and minerals. It’s also gluten-free and a suitable choice for people with celiac
disease. Also used as animal feed.

Tobacco

Most of the agricultural cultivation is based in Charsadda District, Mardan District, Nowshera District, and
Swabi District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Tobacco is grown on 0.25 percent of irrigated land in Pakistan. As
of 2016, 34,000 hectares were under cultivation which fell from 43,000 hectares a few years ago. The
predominant use of tobacco is by smoke inhalation of cigarettes, pipes, and [Link] forms of
tobacco, such as paan, ghutka and naswar. Smoking causes cancer, heart disease, stroke, lung diseases,
diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Exports In 2020, Pakistan exported $32.9M in Raw Tobacco, making it the 38th largest exporter of Raw
Tobacco in the world.

Fruits in Pakistan -the production of fruits in farms and orchards is called Pomology.

• majority of horticulture produce in Pakistan is consumed domestically.

• The local demand for fruits increases proportionally with the increase in population and their
standard of living.
• Approximately 91% of the fruit is consumed domestically and 6% is exported.
• The remaining 3% is processed into value-added products such as pulps, juice, concentrates,
frozen, and preserved items like beverages, jams, jellies, and pickles.
• The top five commodities now exported from Pakistan are citrus, dates, mango, potato, and
tomato, which account for nearly 80% of the horticulture sector’s overall exports.

Page 70 of 234
 Topic: Agriculture - Other Crops
Crops Geographical requirements Uses / importance Areas
Pulses Mainly Barani Crop important source of cultivated on 5% of the
vegetable protein total cropped area
Cultivated in Kharif, Rabi and Fix nitrogen in the soil Punjab 70% [Sialkot]
*Zaid seasons Help fertilize the crop Sindh 18%
Bannu, Mianwali
Maize Kharif Crop Primarily fodder crop Swat
Sown in: June – July Food grain Mansehra
Harvested in : Oct – nov Raw material for edible Mardan
Barani Crop [rainfall 50-50mm] oil
Requires high temperature up to 35° Corn flour , custard
C powder
Millets Temperature: 30° C - 35° C Eaten by poor families Thar [Bajra]
(Bajra) Require less water than wheat The seeds are typically Kohat
Jowar Can be grown in dry areas cooked as a cereal grain Attock
(Sorghum) Drought resistant or sometimes finely Rawalpindi [Jowar]
Barley ground and used as a Bahawalpur
flour.
Fodder

Tobacco Dry and warm Total production

(20° to 30° C). Making cigarettes KPK 70% [ Mardan
Cold and frost will affect crop yield. Exported to other Peshawer ]
too much rain or water weaken the countries Punjab 25% [Sialkot ,
plant Gujranwala Multan]
Balochistan 5% [Pishin]
Oil seeds Mustard and rape seeds grown in Vegetable ghee [grown all over the
similar condition to wheat Edible oil country]
Animal fodder Attock
Sialkot
Bahawalpur

Fruits Climatic conditions differ from crop Constitutes about 3 % of Punjab 54%
to crop the total cultivated area. Balochistan 22%
Sindh 16% [Khiarpur
Hydrabad ]
KPK 8% [Swat
Hunza ]
Vegetables Climatic conditions differ from crop Food crop Grown mainly in Punjab
to crop Sialkot
Gujranwala
Kasur
Okara [ mainly urbanized
parts]

Page 71 of 234
 Factors Affecting Agriculture
Factors which affect agriculture are both natural and man-made.

Physical [ Natural] Factors include:

 Topography
 Climate
 Soil
 Pests , insects , Diseases
 Floods and droughts

Human/ man made factors include:

 High Yielding Variety [HYV] Seeds
 Mechanization
 Chemical fertilizers
 Irrigation Facilities
 Marketing
 Plant Protection Programs
 Land Reforms
 Training of Labour

Topography

Agriculture Farming requires level topography so that:

 the fields can be ploughed easily
 water (both from rain and irrigation) does not flow away rapidly
 soil is also not washed away
 ploughing becomes easy
 machines can be used
The land needs to be flatter for better output. The output decreases as land gets steeper and
higher.

Climate
Temperature and rainfall are the two most important climatic elements affecting the agriculture of any
place.
Temperature-wise it is possible to grow crops almost all over Pakistan except a small area perpetually
covered with snow.
Rainfall is the limiting factor. About 50 per cent of the country is arid, 40 per cent is semi-arid and only 10
per cent is humid. The whole of Sindh, most of Balochistan and a large part of Punjab, south of Sahiwal, is
arid. North of the arid region, a large part of northern Punjab, southern NWFP and northern Balochistan
experience semi-arid conditions.
In the arid and semi-arid areas irrigation is necessary for successful farming.

Page 72 of 234
Soil
Soil and agriculture are closely related. Soil supports the plants and acts as an agent which supplies, wholly or
partly, nutrients, water, air and heat. Crops thrive in rich, loamy soils with proper drainage. Crops absorb food an
water through their roots from soil. They also enjoy plant support. Soils with poor texture and harsh chemicals ar
low in productivity. Therefore, poor soils inhibit plant growth and development.

Soil in Pakistan is essentially of three types:

1. Soil of the Western Highlands
2. Alluvial soil of the Indus Plains
3. Desert soil

1. Soil of the Western Highlands

In the Western Highlands large areas are covered with bare rocks or rock fragments where essentially no soil
formation has taken place. Fertile alluvial soil is found in narrow valleys and at the foot-hills where soils have
crept along the slopes and deposited at the foot-hills.

2. Alluvial Soil of the Indus Plains

The Indus Plains are covered with deep alluvial soil, which is good for agriculture but suffers from deficiency of
humus for which manuring is essential.

3. Desert soil
Desert areas of Pakistan are essentially covered with sand with minimum development of soil. The soil is poor
but can be turned into good soil if water for irrigation is made available.

Alluvial soil
It is mixture of silt, loam and sediments deposited by flooding in rivers. It is rich in nutrients and
minerals. It is mixture of nutrients like nitrate, potash and phosphate so suitable for crop cultivation.
Alluvial soil is fine textured for drainage so not prone to water logging, keep hold of moisture, its layer is
deep.

Page 73 of 234
 Types and properties of Soil

Type of soil How it looks Properties Advantages Disadvantages

Sand Rough and dry Light and easy to Dry

Large air spaces plough Lack organic
Drains /absorbs water content
quickly Not suitable for
crop farming
Clay Made from fine High water Becomes hard
particles holding capacity and compacted
Not much spaces Good for rice when dry so
between the farming difficult to
particles[almost non High mineral plough.
porous] content Becomes sticky
Does not drain well Provide a strong when wet.
foundation for Lacks organic
plants by content
anchoring roots
securely in the
soil.
Slit Generally brownish Rich in mineral Washes away
gray, with soft and nutrients easily
creamy texture, Rich in organic
Powdery when dry matter
smooth when wet Good for crop
Moderate space cultivation
between particles
Loam Mixture of sand, silt and Better drainage easily
clay compared to dispersible in
Mouldable but not clay and silt soil. water
sticky Right water Dries out
Contains more holding capacity quickly
moisture, nutrients and needed for the
humus growth of plants.
Drains well so
that sufficient air
can reach the
roots.

Page 74 of 234
Pests and Diseases:

Pest – An animal that attacks crops, food, livestock, etc. Some common pests that attack crops are locust
Aphids, beetles, weevils

Insects- a small arthropod animal that has six legs and generally one or two pairs of wings such as
worms, moth etc.

Pathogen - A variety of microorganisms can cause disease such as viruses, bacteria and fungi.

Pest and diseases need to be controlled because:

• They reduce crop yield, leading to low food production
• Pests also destroy the habitat of other organisms
• increase in soil erosion and degradation of land
• Cause destruction of native plants that provide food and shelter to native species
If the preventive measures are not taken, then crops can be attacked by diseases and pests. They can
reduce agricultural output.

Weeds - Plants that grow in an inappropriate place.

Weeds are considered as organisms that compete with the main crop because:

• They consume water , light and nutrients

• Reduce the quality of the seed or grain
• Might be poisonous
• Make cultivation tangling up tolls and machines
• can be source of pest and diseases attack

Page 75 of 234
Human Factors

Irrigation Facilities:

• Irrigation facilities help in cultivation if there is not enough rainfall.

• Using the irrigation system, the deserts of Thar and Thal have been reclaimed for cultivation.
• However, canal irrigation can cause waterlogging and salinity issues.

Fertilizers:
• They can increase agricultural productions by providing essential mineral nutrient to the soil.

Mechanization:
• Machines have also made farming easy e.g. threshers, tillers, tractors, etc.
• Mechanization can reduce farmers' costs by preventing losses.

HYVs (High-Yielding Seed Varieties):

• They can also increase the output by 10 to 20 %.
• These are used widely in commercial farms.

Marketing:
• If proper marketing is done, it will increase profit.
• It will include processing, storage, and transport, wholesale and retail.

Plant Protection Programs:

• Aerial and ground spraying of pesticides can prevent pests and diseases attack.
• The Plant Protection Department is also producing treated seeds.

Land Reforms:
Over time, several governments came up with land reforms to:
 Break the holdings of big landlords.
 To make land distribution equitable.
 To protect the rights of tenants.
 For the consolidation of holding.

Government’s Efforts to Improve Agricultural Production

Following are the steps were taken by the government:

• Encouraging the use of fertilizers by increasing its production.

• Regulations are introduced for the quality of seeds.
• Distribution of improved seeds.
• Initiation of the Plant Protection Department responsible for regular checks for pests, giving
guidance and conducting aerial pesticide sprays.
• Providing financial aid to farming communities.

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High Yielding Varieties [seeds]
Hybrid seeds (created by crossing two different varieties of the same plant) that have been selected and
developed to give high productivity with using more chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Crops HYVs

Wheat Maxipak, Shahkhan 95, Wadnak 95, Kohsan 95

Rice Basmati Super , Irri -6 Rechna , Pajhal

Cotton JN-88 1to 3, Thatta 10

Sugarcane Nayyab 78, B-557, Sarmast Qalandari , CIM-70

Advantages

• Yields increased/increased output/higher Disadvantages

yields; • Seeds have to be bought every year/cannot
• Allows double/multi-cropping/can use sow seeds produced from crops grown;
smaller/less land so more productive/crops • Exhausts soil/can cause soil to lose its
grow faster/faster growth; fertility/soil infertile;
• Increased income/can sell surplus for • Expensive/poor farmers cannot afford them;
profit/higher profits; • Extra named input required, e.g.
• Consistent quality of crops/better water/fertilisers;
quality/healthy growth; • Not seen as a healthy
• Meets requirements of international crop/artificial/genetically modified;
standards; • Lowers species diversity;
• Protects against/more resistant to pests; • Shortfall in skills/knowledge to use
• Protects against/more resistant to disease; them/needs training.
• HYV crops, shorter/stronger and can
withstand strong winds (therefore less damage);
•Drought resistant.

Page 77 of 234
Size of Farm
Size of land holding greatly affects the agriculture. The size of subsistence farm is small [*less than 10
acres]. Secondly, in Pakistan due to law of inheritance land is divided and sub-divided after death of owner
which has led to the breakup of farms into small cultivation units. Rapid population growth demands more
land for settlements which reduces the size of commercial farms. These small fragmented farms are
uneconomic. The output of these farms is small so profits are low due to several reasons:

 Machinery cannot be used

 Are difficult to supervise due to fragmentation
 Loans cannot be obtained on small holding
 Irrigation ids difficult on small and discontinuous farms
 Experiment cannot be carried out for increasing production
 Due to low profit owners of the farms cannot reinvest to improve their farms
*1 acre = 4840 square yards / 0.404686 hectares

The solution lies in consolidation of holdings less than a minimum size.

Land reforms refer to a process in which the government takes scalable measures throughout the country to
redefine the landscape and systematically redistribute the land as per the population and projected production.
The main reason for land reforms is to increase the production of commodities and reduce the inequalities among
people so that each individual could participate in national growth and economy.

The major reforms, however, came in three stages: the first during Ayub Khan's martial law in 1959; the
second and third during Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's rule in the 1970s.

Ayub Khan’s land reforms in 1959 limited landholding up to 1000 acres for non-irrigated and 500 acres for
irrigated land. Moreover, the Green Revolution and the adoption of tractors in agriculture paved the way
for farmers to improve their socioeconomic status and well-being

Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s land reforms in 1972 reduced the area of irrigated and non-irrigated land to 150 and 300 acres
respectively.

By 1977, the country had an elected parliament. It passed the last major piece of legislation dealing with land
reforms; The most important and relevant change it made was that individual holdings in excess of 100 acres of
irrigated land or 200 acres of unirrigated land was further reduced.

However, the end of the Bhutto era also signalled the end of the era of statutory land reform in Pakistan. On the
orders of the Supreme Court most of the sections of the Land Reforms were declared unconstitutional and their
main provisions were struck down and the 1959 regulations have been repealed.

Reasons for Failures

 Influence of landlords in politics
 Halfhearted implementation
 Incomplete land records and paper work
 Manipulation and corruption

Page 78 of 234
Chemical Fertilizers

Types

1. DAP fertilizer- Produced from the reaction of ammonia and phosphoric acid- Di-Ammonium
phosphate (DAP) is one of the most widely used phosphate fertilizer in agriculture across the
world today. DAP is composed of 18% Nitrogen and 46% Phosphorus. DAP is alkaline with a high
pH, exceeding 7.5.
2. NPK stands for Nitrogen, Phosphorous, K for Potassium or Potash.
3. Urea is the most important nitrogenous fertilizer in the market, with the highest Nitrogen
content (about 46 percent).
It is a white crystalline organic chemical compound.
The main function of Urea fertilizer is to provide the plants with nitrogen to promote green leafy
growth and make the plants look lush.

Advantages/ importance

 increase agricultural output/healthy crop growth;

 overcome food shortages/ more food supply
 increases soil fertility/balance soil pH level
 enable quick growth of crop
 reduce imports/as an export to bring in revenue;
 provide employment opportunities;
 make use of Pakistan’s mineral resources;
 to develop the formal sector;

Disadvantages/Problems

 chemicals drain into rivers; causing Eutrophication/pollutes water/growth of algae/reduced

oxygen/fish die;
 increased toxicity in rivers/pollutes rivers; threat to livestock/human health;
 can weaken the human immune system; increased risk of diseases/gastro-intestinal
disease/tuberculosis;
 damage ecosystems; break down food-chains;
 loss of/destruction of habitats/harmful to animals; animals move away or die out; Etc.

Page 79 of 234
Mechanization

Farm mechanization implies the use of mechanical technology in the varied farming operations such as
sowing, harvesting, threshing, leveling, watering, spraying, weeding and similar other farm operations.

Machines that are commonly used in farming acties incluse:

Tractor
Rice transplanter
Combine Harvester

Advantages- faster work, more efficient [cultivates more land in less time], better preparation, can
thresh and harvest, ‘does not need to rest’

Disadvantages- expensive, farmers have to take loan, need maintenance, cannot be used in difficult
topography, run on fuel so create pollution, lead to unemployment in farms, encourage rural urban
migration

Sustainable Agricultural Development:

For sustainability following steps can be taken:

• Environmentally friendly technologies and the system must be developed.

• Waterlogging salinity issues must be addressed.
• The soil fertility measure must be taken seriously e.g. afforestation.
• Cutting of forests must be stopped to prevent soil erosion.
• Over cropping and multi-cropping should be prevented as it can exhaust soil nutrients.
• Organic farming should be encouraged as it can make the soil more productive.
• Irrigation systems must be used to reclaim desert areas to agriculture.
• Crop rotation can be practiced

Page 80 of 234
 Livestock Farming

1- Livestock is commonly defined as domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to

produce labor and commodities such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool.

2- husbandry or Livestock Farming is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are
raised for meat , fiber, milk, eggs or other products.

Types of Livestock Farming

 Subsistence  Commercial
 Done for farmer’s own use  Done for selling purpose
 Less animals  More animals
 Family members work  Specialized workers are hired
 Natural grazing ground Workers are hired
 Animals live in open space  Fodder is bought
 Water from ponds and lakes  Proper sheds are made
 Traditional knowledge  New scientific methods of breeding
 Primitive/ natural breeding methods  Veterinary facilities

Subsistence Livestock Farming

1- Nomadic- Nomadic people move from place to place with their animals in search of food and water.
Areas: Balochistan , Desert areas of Punjab and Sindh
Type of Livestock: Goats, sheep, camels

2- Transhumance- Animals are kept at high pastures during summers and brought down to lower
pastures in winter.
Areas: Northern and western Mountains.
Type of Livestock: Goat, Sheep, Cattle, Yak, dzu

3- Settled- Animals are kept in open spaces in homes or fields

Areas: Plains of Sindh and Punjab
Type of Livestock:
Cattle, buffaloes, goats, hens

Importance of livestock farming

• Source of natural manure
• Used for transportation
• Supply of food
• Provides alternative to crop
• Raw material for domestic industry
• Contributes to export
• Contributing 11.7 % to the GDP
• Used as draft power

Page 81 of 234
Main Livestock resources Problems of Livestock
 Cattle (Bullocks and Cows)  Inadequate storage facility
 Buffaloes  Difference in price of livestock product in
 Sheep and Goats rural and urban areas
 Poultry  Insufficient breeding quality
 Primitive breeding methods
Facts and Figures  Unhygienic conditions
 As of 2020, there were approximately  Overgrazing
 41.2 million buffaloes,  Lack of veterinary facilities
 49.6 million cattle,  High prices of animal fodder
 5.4 million donkeys,
 78.2 million goats and Development strategies
 30.9 million sheep in Pakistan  Selective breeding and cross breeding
 Commercial poultry numbered 170.1  Programmes to fatten cows for milk and
million broilers and 10.36 million layers meat
in 1999.  Control of diseases and better husbandry
 There were also 108 million poultry kept practices
and tamed by people.  Improvement in vaccination
 Sheep differ widely throughout the  Cultivation of fodder crop.
grazing lands of cent

How can livestock farming be improved in Pakistan?

 Capital/investment/loans/subsidies for – named purpose
 Selective/cross breeding, breeding on scientific lines – for better animals etc.
 Better feed/fodder – for stronger, bigger, animals etc.
 More grazing land – by irrigation, drainage, fertilizer etc.
 Control of disease – e.g.
 Research – disease, breeding, feed etc.
 Vaccination – to improve health
 More medicines/more vets to treat animals
 Education/training in named modern methods
 Better hygiene/care/living conditions etc.
 Mechanization e.g. milking machines for hygiene, speed

Definitions -

 Breeding- the mating and production of offspring by animals.

 Selective breeding- involves choosing parents with particular characteristics to breed together and
produce offspring with more desirable characteristics.
 Shearing - cut the wool off (a sheep or other animal)
 Slaughtering - killing or butchering of cattle, sheep, etc., especially for food.
 Pastoral farming -farming aimed at producing livestock, rather than growing crops.

Page 82 of 234
Commercial Poultry Farming

 Started in 1964 by PIA in collaboration with Shaver Poultry Farms of Canada in Karachi
 Poultry feed mill was started by Lever Brothers of Pakistan at Rahimyar Khan
 KFC started poultry farming on scientific lines in Raiwind, south of Lahore.
 This sector generates employment and income for about 1.5 million people
 Poultry meat contributes 19% of the total meat production in the country.
 There are over 20000 poultry farms spread deep into the rural areas across the country from
Karachi to Peshawar .
 High demand for white meat and eggs in urban areas.

Problems
 Huge capital- It needs huge investment not less than 4 to 5 million.
 Diseases outbreaks- several hundred chicken die daily due to hot or cold weather, bird flu and
other diseases.
 Feed cost - Price of feed keeps on rising
 Unreliable profit- The sale price changes daily and is determined in the market so farmers cannot
estimate their profit.
 Inefficient husbandry practices – overcrowded enclosures, unhygienic conditions, lack of
veterinary facilities

June 2018

The government has encouraged the growth of commercial poultry farming since 1964. Therehave been
some challenges but different strategies have been introduced to further developthis type of farming in
Pakistan.

Evaluate the extent to which commercial poultry farming in Pakistan has overcome itschallenges and
developed further. Give reasons to support your judgement and refer toexamples you have studied. You
should consider the challenges and the strategies used inyour answer.

Challenges
Increased demand for poultry products – Strategies
reasons for this, e.g. increased Government help through;
population / preference for white meat; Improving power supply;
Diseases; Legislation / guidelines for rearing poultry;
Air pollution / methane; Securing international markets / free trade
High production costs / feed; agreements;
High prices of meat / falling demand; Vaccination programmes to prevent disease;
Power shortages; Incentives for farmers;
Closure of farms; Lowering price of feed;
Ban on poultry export to Afghanistan. Use of poultry manure for fertiliser / in fish
farms.
Etc.

Page 83 of 234
Agricultural Universities in Pakistan

1. University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Punjab Pakistan established in 1906

Sub-campuses at: Dera Ghazi Khan, Toba Tek Singh, Vehari

2. Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Sindh Pakistan established in 1977

3. University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan established in 1981

4. University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Punjab Pakistan established in 1982

5. University of Sargodha established in 2002

6. Lasbela University of Agriculture, Marine and Water Sciences, Lasbela, Balochistan Pakistan
established in 2005

Agricultural Banks
Today, fifty-two institutions including five major banks, two specialized banks (ZTBL & PPCBL), 14
domestic private banks, 11 microfinance banks, five Islamic banks and 15 microfinance institutions are
directly providing finance to the agricultural community of the country.
 Allied Bank Limited.
 Habib Bank Limited.
 JS Bank.
 Muslim Commercial Bank.
 National Bank of Pakistan.
 Soneri Bank Limited.
 The Punjab Provincial Cooperative Bank Ltd [The Bank of Punjab.]
 Zarai Taraqiati Bank Limited.

Page 84 of 234
 MINERAL RESOURCES
Chapter Summary
 Difference between Metallic and non- metallic
minerals
 Methods of Mining
 Process of making cement
 Names of important metallic minerals and uses
 Names of important non- metallic minerals and uses
each
 Distribution/Areas
 Advantages of developing mining Industries
 Problems [refer the book]
 Environmental degradation[refer the book]

What are minerals?

Any naturally occurring substance with a definite structure and shape.

Definitions

 Exploration: to find any mineral

 Exploitation: the use of explored mineral
 Extraction: to extract mineral by digging/ mining / quarrying
 Quarrying: to break the minerals into small pieces when minerals are exposed to surface

Difference between metallic and non-metallic minerals

Metallic Minerals Non- Metallic Minerals

Hard, tough and Shiny Soft , rough and may not shine
Economically more valuable Economically less valuable except coal oil and
natural gas
Can change shape without breaking Breaks away when shape is changed [except oil
and gas]
Can be stretched and compressed Can be stretched and compressed
Many are good thermal and electrical Poor thermal and electrical conductors
conductors
More reactive with water and acids less reactive with water and acids [except
limestone and salt]

Page 85 of 234
Top Ten Minerals of Pakistan

1. Coal: Pakistan has significant coal reserves, mainly found in the Thar Desert region. Thar
coal reserves are among the largest in the world and have the potential to meet the
country's energy needs for several decades.

2. Gypsum: Pakistan is one of the largest producers of gypsum, used in the construction
industry as a building material and for making plaster of Paris.

3. Salt: The country is known for its vast salt reserves, including rock salt deposits in Khewra,
which is one of the largest salt mines in the world.

4. Limestone: Pakistan has extensive limestone deposits used in the cement industry and for
various construction purposes.

5. Chromite: Pakistan is one of the major producers of chromite, which is used in metallurgy,
refractory applications, and the production of chromium compounds.

6. Iron Ore: Pakistan has sizeable iron ore deposits, primarily located in Balochistan and
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa provinces.

7. Copper: Copper deposits are found in various areas of Balochistan, and the Saindak Copper-
Gold Project is one of the significant mining projects in the region.

8. Gold: There are gold deposits in Balochistan and northern areas of Pakistan, though the full
potential of the reserves is yet to be explored.

9. Marble: Pakistan has high-quality marble deposits, which are used in construction,
sculpture, and decorative items.

10. Bauxite: Bauxite deposits, used in the production of aluminum, are found in Balochistan.

Page 86 of 234
Mining
Mining is the process of removing coal or any other mineral from the ground.

Methods of Mining

1. Surface Mining
2. Underground Mining
I. Adit Mining
II. Shaft Mining

 When the coal seam is fewer than 125 feet under the surface, it is mined by surface mining.
 Coal that is deeper than 125 feet is removed from the ground by underground mining.

Surface mining
 Survey is done and the site is selected
 land is cleared, vegetation is removed by using heavy machines
 Holes are drilled explosives are placed in these holes.
 The explosion breaks up the dirt and rock called overburden.
 Overburden is removed
 When the coal is uncovered, bulldozers and shovels scoop up the coal
 Surface mining is done carefully by making tiers and benches
 Coal is loaded into large trucks sent to end users

Page 87 of 234
Underground Mining

Underground mines look like a system of tunnels. The horizontal tunnels are used for traveling
throughout the mine, moving coal from place to place and vertical tunnels allowing air to
circulate in the mine.

Adit mining
Adit means an opening or a passage .If the coal is near the foot hill or less than 125ft then
horizontal tunnel is made. This tunnel is usually downward sloping. Miners go inside the tunnel,
extract coal and bring it to the surface. Coal is brought to the surface on trolleys run on the
tracks or on donkey/ cart/ back of miners.

Shaft mining

Shaft is the vertical opening which takes the miners to the coal seam .Then horizontal passage
or tunnels are made to reach the coal seam and to extract coal. Coal is brought to the surface
through a lift. This method is difficult and expensive

Cement Manufacturing Process

Limestone / chalk and clay /shale are crushed, ground and blended
The mixture is sent to kiln/ rotary kiln.
Powdered coal is used to heat kiln
Gypsum/ calcium sulphate is added to prevent it from setting quickly after water is added.

Page 88 of 234
Advantages of Mining Industry

1. Industrial development
Provides raw material to numerous industries, used in development of infrastructure such as
roads, bridges, buildings, electricity etc. Boosts industrial growth as many metallic minerals
are used in producing high value goods such as engineering tools and automobiles.

2. Agricultural Development
Limestone is insecticide painted on the barks of tress and is also used to reclaim saline land.
Natural gas is a raw material for chemical fertilizers. Metallic minerals are used in making
tractors, carts, tools etc. Cement is used for lining canals.

3. Employment
Opens employment opportunities for miners, experts, engineers and other staff needed in
mining and other processes such as transportation, loading, managerial work etc.

4. Construction of dams and barrages

Provides raw material for the construction of dams and barrages which bring enormous
benefits to the country.

5. Electricity generation
Enables thermal power stations to produce electricity, also lead to rural electrification. Hydel
Power is generated in dams. This reduces energy crisis.

6. Locally available so it is cheap. Prevent the need of import hence reduces import bill.

7. GDP per capita

Provides employment directly and generate employment in other sectors which increases
GDP per capita.

8. Urbanization
Leads to the development of rural areas as most minerals are found in these areas.
Government construct roads and develop other infrastructure facilities there. Mining
companies also set up housing schemes for their employees.

9. Export Earning
Many minerals can be exported to increase export earnings

Page 89 of 234
Disadvantages

Environmental Impact: Mining operations can lead to deforestation, habitat destruction, and
loss of biodiversity. Open-pit mining, in particular, can leave large scars on the landscape, disrupt
ecosystems, and contaminate soil and water with toxic chemicals.

Water Pollution: Mining activities often require the use of large amounts of water, and the runoff
from mines can contaminate nearby water sources with chemicals and heavy metals, impacting
both human and aquatic life.

Air Pollution: Dust and particulate matter generated during mining operations can contribute to
air pollution, affecting air quality and potentially causing health issues for nearby communities.

Noise Pollution: Use of explosives, drillings, cracking creates a lot of noise which disturbs the
residents. Animals also leave the areas and are under a threat of extinction.

Soil Erosion: Mining can disturb the soil structure, leading to increased erosion and
sedimentation in nearby water bodies, further exacerbating water pollution issues.

Land degradation: Troughs and depressions are formed which changes the landscape. Also
depressions may become flooded during rain.

Health and Safety Hazards: Miners are often exposed to various health and safety risks, including
respiratory problems due to dust exposure, injuries from accidents, and exposure to toxic
substances.

Social Impacts: Mining projects can lead to the displacement of local communities, loss of
livelihoods, and social conflicts over resource ownership and benefits distribution.

Resource Depletion: Mining depletes finite resources from the earth, leading to their eventual
exhaustion. Overexploitation of resources can also lead to economic and social challenges in
mining-dependent regions when reserves are exhausted.

Energy Intensive: Some mining operations, particularly those involving deep underground
mining or extraction of low-grade ores, can be energy-intensive and contribute to greenhouse
gas emissions.

Tailings and Waste Management: Mining produces a significant amount of waste, including
tailings, which are often stored in large tailings ponds. If not properly managed, tailings can pose
environmental risks, such as the potential for dam failures or leaks that release toxic materials
into the environment.

Long-term Environmental Legacy: Abandoned mines can leave behind long-term environmental
legacies, such as acid mine drainage, which continues to pollute water sources and affect
ecosystems long after mining operations have ceased.

Page 90 of 234
 POWER RESOURCES

Summary
1. Non- Renewable [coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel]
● Areas [ Distribution on map]
● Methods of extraction
● Transportation
● Uses [benefits]
● Disadvantages

2. Renewable- [ Hydel, solar, wind, biomass]

● Areas [ Distribution on map]
● Uses [benefits]
● Disadvantages

3. Rural Electrification- Advantages and Disadvantages

4. National Grid system

Page 91 of 234
Introduction
Pakistan’s energy resources consist of non-renewablwe and fossil fuels (), uranium and
renewable energy (, etc).
Definitions

Non- renewable energy resources

Finite resources that exist in limited quantities and cannot be naturally replenished or restored
within a human timescale. These sources are typically formed over millions of years and have a
significant environmental impact. Examples - coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fuel [uranium]

Renewable energy resources

Natural resources that can be replenished or naturally restored over a relatively short period of
time. These sources are considered sustainable and have a minimal impact on the environment.
Examples Hydropower, wind, solar, wood, geothermal etc.

Difference between Non-Renewable and Renewable Energy resources

Page 92 of 234
 COAL

Coal is a black or brownish-black sedimentary rock that is primarily composed of carbon, along
with various other elements such as hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.

Formation
It is formed from the remains of ancient plants that lived and died millions of years ago. Over
time, the plant matter underwent a process called coalification, where it was subjected to heat,
pressure, and geological processes, resulting in the formation of coal.

Types of Coal /layers of Coal

Page 93 of 234
Table 1.1

Type of coal Photograph Features

Peat  high moisture content,

Partially decomposed plant usually ranging from 75% to
material, with a high moisture 90%.
content. It has a fibrous and  A lower carbon content
spongy texture.  brown or dark brown in
color.
 Can be burnt after drying

Lignite is primarily composed of  high moisture content typically

carbon, along with varying ranging from 25% to 40% or
amounts of volatile matter, even higher.
moisture, and ash.  low carbon content, typically
ranging from 25% to 35%.
 releases a significant amount of
heat when burned.
 Turns into ashes quickly

Bituminous coal is composed  has high carbon typically

primarily of carbon, along with ranging from 45% to 86%.
varying amounts of volatile  highly combustible and
matter, moisture, and ash. releases a significant amount
of heat when burned.
 Does not turn into ashes
quickly

Anthracite is formed through  is composed almost entirely of

the metamorphism of carbon, from 86% to 98%. with
bituminous coal over millions very low moisture
of years.  has excellent combustion
Anthracite is characterized by properties, including high
its hard, glossy appearance and heat output, long burning
a metallic luster. times, and low emissions.

Page 94 of 234
Table 1.2

Type of coal Distribution Advantages [uses and Disadvantages Organizations

[Areas] importance] [problems]
Peat Azad Kashmir Peatlands are valuable peatland WWF-Pakistan,
Gilgit Baltistan ecosystems, provide degradation
biodiversity, grazing overgrazing
grounds and domestic low value coal
fuel
Lignite Lower Sindh In Electricity generation produces more Pakistan
Coalfields – for heating boilers. greenhouse gas Mineral
Lakhra heat production emissions and Development
Jhimpir pollutants, such as Corporation –
Sondha sulfur dioxide and (PMDC)
particulate matter Lakhra Coal
less efficient Development
poor quality Company

Sub- Salt Range Coal Used in Brick kilns Highly volatile Punjab Mineral
bituminous fields Deteriorate during Development
to lignite [Punjab] storage Corporation
Low quality
Sub- Quetta Coal Used in Brick kiln and produces carbon PMDC
Bituminous Fields – briquetting [a process of dioxide, sulfur Habibullah
Sor range compressing loose dioxide, nitrogen Mines
Shahrig biomass or other oxides, and
Mach materials into compact, particulate matter,
solid, and uniform-shaped contributing to air
blocks] pollution and
greenhouse gas
Supplied to Pakistan steel emissions.
mill after converting into
coking coal
Sub- Makerwal Coal Used in ceramic industry Seams are slightly Private
Bituminous fields thicker Companies
[KPK] Better quality than
Salt Range Coalfields

Lignite Thar Coalfields One of the largest coal Lignite is a lower- The Thar Block
Thar Desert of reserves in the world. grade coal with high II Coal Mine
Sindh Utilize indigenous coal moisture content and Power
resources for energy and lower energy Plant, operated
generation, reduce content compared by Sindh Engro
dependence on imported to other coal types. Coal Mining
fuel, and stimulate Company
economic growth in the (SECMC) and
region. Engro
Powergen Thar
Limited (EPTL)

Page 95 of 234
Map of Coal Mines
1. Lower Sindh Coalfields 4
3
2. Quetta Coalfields
3. Salt Range Coalfields
2
4. Makerwal Coalfields

Methods of Extraction [for explanation see Mineral Resources]

1. Surface/ Open Cast Mining
2. Underground Mining [Adit and Shaft ]

Transportation
 After mining /extraction coal is brought to the surface by donkeys, trolleys run on tracks
or by workers on their back
 Piles of coals are formed
 Qualities of coal are separated and sold to middlemen
 Middlemen load them into trucks and send to end users
 Rail transport is also used wherever feasible

Advantages Disadvantages
● Locally available / cheap / easily  Air Pollution
available  Non – Renewable so will run
● Reduces import bills / less imports. out/deplete soon/ not sustainable
● Improves balance of Payment.  Heavy and bulky commodity to transport
● Increase employment opportunity from mine to end users
● Development of infrastructure such  Low quality coal / Lignite / thin coal
as roads, electricity, water supply seams
etc.  Mining hazards

Page 96 of 234
 CRUDE OIL
Definition
Crude oil, also known as petroleum, is a naturally occurring,
unrefined fossil fuel that is extracted from underground
reservoirs. It is a thick blacksubstance with lots of impurities.

Formation
Crude oil is formed over millions of years from the remains of ancient marine plants and animals that
accumulated at the bottom of oceans or lakes. Over time, the organic matter undergoes heat and
pressure, transforming into hydrocarbon-rich deposits.
Watch this video:
[Link]

Oil Fields/Deposits / Reserves

1. Potwar Plateau, Attock, Morgah
2. Sindh , Badin

Oil Refineries:
1. National Oil Refinery (NRL)
2. Pakistan Refinery (PRL)
3. Attock Oil Refinery
4. Hub Oil Refinery
5. BYCO has been rebranded to Cnergyico Pk Limited
6. PARCO - Pak Arab oil Refinery Company
7. Mid Country oil refinery, at Mehmood Kot, near Multan.

Transportation of Oil
By sea - Crude oil is transported from UAE and Saudi Arabia to port of Karachi.
By road - From oil refineries through oil tankers to end users
By railways - Rail tanks carry oil from one the city to another.
By Pipelines - internally / within the country/ from Iran

Page 97 of 234
Oil Trap
Oil and gas, formed deep within the Earth's crust
over millions of years. During this process they pass
through permeable layers until they encounter an
anticline trap. As they encounter the crest or highest
point of the anticline, they are unable to continue
upward due to the impermeable cap rock above. This
creates a situation where the hydrocarbons
accumulate and become trapped within the reservoir rock of the anticline. The oil is trapped in
the anticline with gas above and water below oil.

Process of oil extraction

Surveying is done. Geological data is studied by geologists. Final location of oil exploration is
decided. Oil Rig is set up and finally drilling starts.
A hole is drilled vertically or at an angle into the earth's crust using a rotating drill bit.
Once the desired depth is reached, the well is completed by installing production casing and
other equipment. Oil extraction process begins. Then it is sent to refinery for purification

Page 98 of 234
Uses

1. Indispensable motor fuel

 Used as petrol, diesel in cars, buses, trucks , airplanes etc.
 Also used as lubricant

2. Source of Power
 For heating boilers in thermal; power statins
 For heating in other industries
 Furnace oil

3. By products
 Wax
 Plastic
 Synthetic rubber
 Detergents
 Paints

Advantages

 Fulfils local demand of oil/ petrol

 Encourages industrialization
 New projects create employment opportunities
 Power supply reduces energy crisis
 provides a large amount of energy

Disadvantages

 Non- renewable
 Highly flammable
 Air pollution through combustion releases carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Oil spills or leakage lead to water pollution
 Expensive to import so have negative impact on BOP
 High Oil Prices in the world market leads to inflation.

Page 99 of 234
 NATURAL GAS
Distribution and location
Baluchistan - Sui, Pirkoh, Zin
Lower Sindh - Mari
Potwar – Meyal, Dhurnal

Distribution of gas pipeline throughout

Pakistan
From Sui, a pipeline goes to Karachi, controlled by Sui
Southern Gas Company) (SSGC). From Karachi it is
extended to Hyderabad, Nawabshah and Khairpur and
then the line goes to Quetta. Another line extends to the
north From Sui to Multan onto Faisalabad. From there
one line goes to Lahore and Sialkot and other goes
Islamabad and Peshawar. There is no gas pipeline in the
northern areas.

Transportation
Through gas pipelines
In cylinders in the form of LPG Liquid petroleum
In gas tanks
CNG-Compressed Natural Gas.

Uses
1. In homes for cooking, heating, generators, etc.
2. In thermal power stations for producing electricity
3. As raw material in chemical and fertilizer Industry
4. Transportation as fuel.
5. Heating furnace (steel and cement)

Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to use, can be controlled /  Limited supply / ash renewable
Low/high  Flammable
 Easy to extract and transport  Pipelines burst / leakages
 Environmentally friendly  Pipelines cannot be laid in the
 Safe to use northern areas/high louds
 Cheap  Press we at gas becomes Low at high
altitude
 starts cooling / Freezing at low
temperature

Page 100 of 234

 Nuclear Power
Definition
The energy released by a chain reaction, especially by atomic fission or fusion. Nuclear energy
uses Fuel made from mined and processed uranium to make steam and generate electricity.

Nuclear Power plants in Pakistan

1) KANUPP - Karachi Nuclear Power Plant [Hawks bay, 1971]
2) Chashma Nuclear Power Plant [Punjab, 1999]

Advantages
 Boosts economy, lessens the burden of imports / reduces import bill.
 Can bridge the gap with Energy shortage deficiencies in oil and gas.
 Helps speed up the process of industrialization
 Provides Jobs.
 Nuclear power contributes less to the greenhouse effect and acid rain compared to fossil
fuels etc.
 Can be used near the coast to provide energy to nearby industries;
 Assists development; / roads, electricity supply
 A small quantity of uranium can generate a large amount of energy;
 The chances of accidents in nuclear power stations is low
 Nuclear power contributes less to the greenhouse effect and acid rain compared to fossil
fuels Etc.

Disadvantages
 Expensive to build so may have to borrow money / burdened on economy.
 Valuable land space needed.
 Renewable energy schemes such as so solar, wind power are more appropriate.
 Nuclear waste remains radioactive for many years.
 Will take up valuable land space needed for more important development projects / or
example;
 Only provides jobs in the short term whilst building them;
 Fuel rods in reactors produce dangerous rays which are cancer
 causing;
 Finding suitable locations for storing radioactive waste is a problem

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Process of Electricity Generation in a Nuclear Power Plant

Electricity generation in a nuclear power plant is based on the process of nuclear fission
1. The nuclear reactor contains fuel rods made of enriched uranium.
2. Process of nuclear fission [Splitting of atoms] releases a tremendous amount of energy in the form
of heat.
3. The heat generated by the nuclear fission reactions heats up water.
4. The hot coolant from the reactor is used to produce steam in a heat exchanger.
5. The high-pressure steam is directed to a turbine, causing its blades to spin rapidly.
6. The turbine is connected to a generator. As the turbine spins, it drives the generator, which
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy through electromagnetic induction.

Power distribution: The electricity generated by the generator is sent to transformers, which step up
the voltage for efficient transmission over power lines. The electricity is then fed into the power grid,
where it is distributed to homes, businesses, and industries for consumption

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 Thermal Power
The term "thermal power" refers to the process of generating electricity using heat energy from
the combustion of fossil fuels. In a thermal power plant, heat is used to produce steam, which
drives a turbine connected to an electricity generator, ultimately generating electrical power.

Process of Electricity Generation in a Thermal Power Plant

1. Fuel Combustion: Coal, oil or natural gas [fossil fuel] is burned and the heat energy is released
during combustion. This heat is used to convert water into steam in boilers.

2. Steam Turbine: The high-pressure steam is directed into a steam turbine. As the high-
pressure steam passes over the blades, it causes the turbine and shaft to rotate.

3. Generator: The rotating shaft of the steam turbine is connected to a generator. Inside the
generator, coils of wire rotate within a magnetic field, creating an electric current.

4. Transformer: The electricity generated by the generator is in the form of high-voltage

alternating current (AC). This high-voltage AC is sent to a transformer, which steps up the
voltage to facilitate efficient long-distance transmission through power lines.

5. Grid Connection: The electricity from the transformer is then fed into the electrical grid,
which is an interconnected network of transmission lines and substations

6. Cooling System: Cooling towers or water from nearby sources, is used to cool the steam and
condense it into water, which is then recycled back into the boiler for reuse.

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Renewable Energy Resources
1) Hydropower
2) Wind
3) Solar
4) Biomass
5) Geothermal
6) Waves and tides

Hydro-electric power generations

Hydropower, also known as hydroelectric
power, is a renewable energy technology that
harnesses the energy of flowing or falling water
to generate electricity.

Process of Electricity Generation in HEP

1. A dam is constructed across the river to
create a reservoir, which stores a large amount of water.
2. Water is drawn from the reservoir or the river and directed to the power plant through intake
structures [called inlet].
3. The water is then channeled through a large pipe called a penstock, which leads it to the
turbines.
4. The high-pressure water strikes the blades of the turbines, causing them to rotate.
5. The turbines are connected to generators with a shaft. As the turbines rotate, the connected
generators produce electricity.
(The generators contain coils of wire that rotate within a magnetic field, creating an electric
current)
6. After passing through the turbines, the water exits the power plant through a tailrace and is
released back into the river downstream.

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HEP Stations in Pakistan
1. Tarbela Dam - Located on the Indus River in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Tarbela Dam is
one of the largest earth-filled dams in the world. It was completed in 1971.
2. Mangla Dam is located on the Jhelum River in the Mirpur District of Azad Jammu and
Kashmir. It was constructed in the early 1960s and completed in 1965.
3. Warsak Dam – The Warsak Dam is located on the Kabul River, near the town of Warsak, in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, Pakistan. The dam was completed in 1960, and its primary
purpose is to generate hydroelectric power and provide irrigation water to the surrounding
agricultural areas.
4. Ghazi Barotha Completed in 2003, the project was sponsored by the government-owned
Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA).
5. Diamer-Bhasha Dam is under construction on the River Indus between Kohistan district in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Diamer district in Gilgit Baltistan.

Advantages
1. Renewable Energy: It relies on the natural water cycle, which is continuously replenished by
precipitation.
2. Zero Emissions: does not produce direct greenhouse gas emissions during electricity
generation, making it an environmentally friendly. that helps mitigate climate change.
3. Reliable and Consistent: provides a stable and predictable electricity supply since water flow
can be regulated and adjusted to meet demand
4. Long Lifespan: Hydroelectric power plants have long operational lifespans, often exceeding
50 years
5. Multipurpose Projects: Many large dams used for hydropower also serve other purposes,
such as flood control, irrigation, water supply, and recreation (tourism) , maximizing the value
of the infrastructure.
6. Cost-Effective: Once a hydroelectric power plant is built, the operational costs are relatively
low compared to fossil fuel-based power plants, making it economically viable over the long
term.

Disadvantages
1) Environmental Impact: large area is cleared by cutting trees [deforestation] which leads
to environmental impacts such as habitat destruction, alteration of river ecosystems, and
displacement or extinction of species.
2) Need Specific Physical features: Not all locations are suitable for hydropower plants.
Special Sites are selected.
3) High Initial Investment: require significant upfront investment so loans are taken which
take a country in debts.
4) Geopolitical Concerns: can lead to conflicts between neighboring areas or provinces over
water usage and downstream impacts.

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 Wind Power
Wind power is a form of renewable energy that harnesses the kinetic energy of the wind and
converts it into electricity.

Examples of Wind Power projects in Pakistan

 Jhampir Wind Power project, Thatta, Sindh province,
is one of the first wind power projects in Pakistan.
 Gharo Wind Power project, Thatta
 Sachal Wind Power Project, Located in Jhimpir,
Sindh
 Master Wind Energy Limited: This project is located
in Balochistan

Process of Electricity Generation through Wind

Power
 Wind turbines, which consist of large blades mounted on a
tall tower are installed
 As the wind blows, it causes the turbine blades to rotate.
 The rotating motion of the turbine's blades is connected to
a generator through a shaft.
 Inside the generator, the mechanical energy is converted
into electricity through electromagnetic induction.
 the voltage produced by the generator need to be converted to a higher level for more
efficient transmission over long distances. This is done using transformers.
 The electricity generated is collected and connected to a substation. From there, it is
integrated into the power grid, where it can be distributed to homes, businesses, and
industries for consumption.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Wind is renewable. 1. Expensive to build.
2. Does not pollute the atmosphere. 2. Intermittency- Wind is not
constantly blowing.
3. Plenty of wind available.
3. Stop working during storms.
4. Wind is free.
4. Low output individually.
5. Can be deployed locally
5. Noise Pollution.
6. Tourist attraction site.
6. Can kill birds.
7. Land and Water Conservation

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 Solar Power
Solar power is a form of renewable energy that
harnesses the energy of the sun and converts it into
electricity or thermal energy.

Process of Electricity Generation through

Solar Power
Photovoltaic solar power involves the use of solar
panels, also known as solar photovoltaic cells. These
panels are made of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, that can generate electricity when
exposed to sunlight. When sunlight strikes the surface of the solar panels, photons from the
sunlight knock electrons loose from the atoms within the semiconductor material. This generates
a flow of electricity, creating direct current (DC) electricity. An inverter then converts this DC
electricity into alternating current (AC), which is the type of electricity used in homes and
businesses.

Advantages:
1. Renewable and Sustainable - As long as the sun exists, we can harness solar power for
energy needs.
2. Limitless - The most abundant sources of energy available on Earth.
3. Portable- can be easily carried or move
4. Flexible – can be setup on small scale as well as large scale
5. No need to be connected to national power grid
6. Environmentally friendly- produces no greenhouse gas emissions or air pollutants

Disadvantages:
1. Intermittency- depends on sunlight so cannot work in cloudy weather or night
2. For large scale energy, huge number of Panels to be installed
3. Panels are costly

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 Bio Mass
Biomass refers to organic matter
derived from living or recently living
organisms, such as plants, trees,
crops, agricultural and forestry
residues, organic waste, and even
certain types of animal waste.
Biomass is a renewable energy
source that can be used to produce
various forms of energy, including
heat, electricity, and biofuels.

Sources of Biomass energy

Combustion: Biomass can be burned directly to produce heat.
Biomass gasification is a process where biomass is heated in an oxygen-limited environment to
produce a gas called "syngas" (synthesis gas). Syngas can be used as a fuel for electricity
generation
Anaerobic digestion is a biological process that breaks down organic materials in the absence of
oxygen, resulting in biogas production.
Biogas primarily contains methane and can be used for electricity generation or as a renewable
natural gas substitute.
The residue left after digestion, can be used as a nutrient-rich (organic) fertilizer.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Renewable - plants and organic 1. Not completely clean energy
waste can be regrown or
2. Economically inefficient
continuously generated
3. Can lead to deforestation
2. Carbon neutrality - the carbon
dioxide released during combustion 4. Requires Water
or conversion is reabsorbed by new
plant growth 5. Low energy density

3. Waste Reduction
4. Less dependency on fossil fuel
5. Can be produced domestically

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 Geo Thermal
Geothermal energy is a form of renewable
energy derived from the heat stored within
the Earth's crust. It involves utilizing the
natural heat from the Earth's interior to
generate electricity and provide heating
and cooling for various applications.

Areas with geothermal potential in

Pakistan
Balochistan – Raskoh, Chagai Hills
Lower Sindh – Lakhra, Badin

Process of Electricity Generation in Geo Thermal Power Plant

1. A production well is drilled into a known geothermal reservoir.

2. Typically, an injection well is also drilled to return used geothermal fluids to the
geothermal reservoir.
3. Hot geothermal fluids (water) flow through pipes to a power plant for use in generating
electricity.
4. Hot, pressurized geothermal fluid is allowed to expand rapidly and provide energy to
turn the turbine blades on a shaft.
5. The turning turbine shaft is used directly to spin magnets inside a large coil and create
electrical current.
6. The turbine and generator are the primary pieces of equipment used to convert
geothermal energy to electrical energy.
Electrical current from the generator is sent to a step-up transformer outside the power
plant. Voltage is increased in the transformer and electrical current is transmitted over
power lines to homes, buildings, and businesses.

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 Rural Electrification
Supply or provision of electricity in Rural (villages) areas. This can be done through National
grid system/ transmission lines from HEP, Thermal Power stations, Solar Panel Installation or
Wind power / turbines.

Efforts and initiatives for rural electrification in Pakistan

 The government of Pakistan has launched the National Rural Electrification Program
(NREP) to expand electricity access to remote and underserved areas. Under this program,
various electrification projects have been undertaken to connect rural villages to the
national power grid.
 Renewable Energy Projects: To overcome the challenges of extending the national grid to
remote rural areas, Pakistan has also been focusing on decentralized renewable energy
solutions. Solar energy, in particular, has been widely adopted for off-grid electrification,
providing electricity to communities that are far from the main power grid.
 Microfinance and Community-Based Initiatives: NGOs, development organizations, and
government agencies have implemented microfinance programs and community-based
initiatives to support the installation of solar home systems and small-scale renewable
energy projects in rural areas.
 Grid Extension and Upgrades: Alongside off-grid solutions, the government continues to
extend the national power grid to reach remote rural areas. Additionally, upgrading the
existing distribution infrastructure is essential to improve the reliability and stability of
electricity supply in these regions.

Challenges to Rural Electrification in Pakistan

 Geographic Barriers: Pakistan's challenging terrain and remote geographical locations
make it difficult and expensive to extend the grid to some rural areas.
 Financial Constraints: Funding and financing rural electrification projects can be a
significant challenge, especially in areas with low income and limited revenue-generating
potential.
 Operational and Maintenance Issues: Ensuring the long-term sustainability of rural
electrification projects requires proper maintenance and operation, which can be
challenging in remote areas with limited resources and skilled personnel.
 Community Awareness and Engagement: Raising awareness about the benefits of
electrification and fostering community engagement are essential for the successful
implementation and sustainability of rural electrification initiatives.

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Advantages
Improved Quality of Life
Can use household appliances, such as refrigerators, fans, and electric cookstoves, making daily chores
more convenient and efficient.
Better lighting at night increases safety and reduces accidents.
Enhanced Economic Opportunities
Enables the establishment of small businesses and cottage industries, leading to job creation and
income generation
Farmers can access modern equipment and technologies, improving agricultural productivity
and boosting the local economy.

Agricultural development
Farmers can use lights, fans in their farms and can work comfortably
Tube wells can be installed
Many farming activities can be mechanized by the use of Threshers, cutters and other
machines which improves efficiency
Farmers can use telecommunication devices to upgrade themselves
Can preserve vegetables fruits/ godowns/ cold
Livestock farming will get a boost

Healthcare Advancements
Use of lights, fans, refrigerators for vaccines and medicines,
Can operate many medical devices such as X-Rays machines, Scanners and other
communication tools.
Can significantly improve healthcare services and emergency response capabilities.
Doctors will be encouraged to serve in rural areas

Education and Learning

Electrification in rural schools enables the use of computers, projectors, and other
educational technology tools, enhancing the learning experience for students.
It also opens up opportunities for online courses and distance learning programs.
It encourages teachers and students to attend schools as lights and fans are available.

Communication and Connectivity

Electricity is a prerequisite for establishing and maintaining communication infrastructure,
such as cell phone towers and internet connectivity. This allows rural residents to stay
connected with the rest of the world, access information, and participate in the digital
economy.
Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels
Rural electrification can lead to a shift away from traditional fossil fuels, like kerosene lamps
and diesel generators, which are often expensive and environmentally harmful. Electricity
provides a cleaner and more sustainable energy source.

Environmental Benefits
By promoting renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, or hydropower, rural
electrification can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and contribute to combating climate
change.

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Social Empowerment
Electricity brings empowerment to rural communities, as it enables access to information,
entertainment, and various modern amenities. This can lead to improved social cohesion and
a sense of connectedness with the broader society.

Urban Migration Control

Rural electrification can help reduce the influx of people migrating to urban areas in search
of better living conditions. Improved amenities and economic opportunities in rural areas can
encourage people to stay and invest in their local communities.

Overall Development
Access to electricity is a foundational aspect of socio-economic development. When rural
areas have reliable power, it can attract investment and infrastructure development,
fostering overall growth in the region.

Disadvantages
Cost and Affordability
Huge sum of money is needed for laying long power lines and setting up distribution
networks.
Increases the burden of electricity bills on villagers which they cannot afford
Renewable energy resources such as wind turbines and solar panels are very expensive

Technical Challenges
Difficult terrain, long distances between households, and issues with power distribution leads
to low voltage or less reliable electricity supply and more frequent outages.

Environmental Impact
Fossil fuels are used, particularly in regions heavily reliant on coal or other non-renewable
sources. This can have negative environmental impacts, such as increased greenhouse gas
emissions and air pollution.

Potential Overconsumption
There is a risk of overconsumption and wastage, especially if people are not educated about
energy conservation practices.

Land Use and Environmental Concerns

The construction of infrastructure for rural electrification, such as power lines and
substations, may require land acquisition, potentially leading to land-use conflicts and
environmental concerns.

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 National Grid System

The national grid system, often referred to simply as "the grid," is a large-scale interconnected
network of electricity transmission and distribution infrastructure that spans an entire
country or a significant geographical region. It facilitates the efficient transfer of electricity
from power generation sources (such as power plants) to end-users (residential, commercial,
and industrial consumers) across the country.

National Transmission & Despatch Company (NTDC) is a government-owned company in

Pakistan, responsible for the transmission and dispatch of electric power across the country,
under ministry of Energy. Its present headquarter is located at WAPDA House, Lahore,
Pakistan.

The key responsibilities of NTDC include:

 Power Transmission
 Grid Operation and Management
 Expansion and Upgradation of Transmission Infrastructure
 Integration of Renewable Energy

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Key features of a National Grid System include

Transmission Network
The National Grid System consists of a network of high-voltage transmission lines that carry
electricity over long distances from power generation facilities (such as power plants,
hydroelectric dams, wind farms, and solar farms) to various substations.

Substations
Along the transmission network, there are
substations that step up or step down the voltage
levels of electricity for efficient transmission and
distribution. Substations help maintain grid
stability and control the flow of electricity.

Grid Management
The National Grid System is managed and
operated by a central entity responsible for
maintaining the stability and reliability of the grid.
This entity monitors power flow, frequency, and
voltage levels to ensure a continuous and balanced
supply of electricity.

Distribution Networks
At the lower voltage levels, electricity is distributed to homes, businesses, and industries
through a network of distribution lines and local substations.

Importance
The National Grid System plays a critical role in the overall functioning of the electricity supply
chain, enabling electricity to be generated at power plants and transmitted over long
distances to reach consumers in various locations. It allows for the efficient use of resources,
enhances grid resilience, and enables the integration of diverse power sources, including
renewable energy, into the electricity mix.

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 Industrial Development

Secondary and Tertiary Industries

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Definitions
1. Primary industry - an industry that is concerned with extracting the natural resources (raw
material) on the earth so that they can be converted into consumable products. Example:
mining of natural resources, agriculture industry, forestry and even fisheries.

2. Primary products - all goods obtained from nature which are unmanufactured such as
fishes, fruits, vegetables, wood, minerals….

3. Secondary Industry - Manufactures goods by using natural resources extracted from nature
as raw material. Example cotton textile , sugar mills ,flour mills etc.

4. Manufactured Products - Goods made from the raw material using other factors of
productions which can be used directly or indirectly by consumers.

5. Processed goods – semi finished goods obtained from raw material which can be used for
making another good. Eg. flour from wheat used for making bread.

6. Raw Material – basic commodity that is transformed into semi finished or finished goods.
Such as iron ore, wheat , timber etc.

7. Consumer goods – products bought for consumption by the average consumer.

Alternatively called final goods, consumer goods are the end result of production and
manufacturing that are available for consumption.

8. By product / waste product – a secondary product derived from a production process,

manufacturing process or chemical reaction as a waste.

9. Capital goods- physical assets that a company uses in the production process to
manufacture products and services that consumers will later use. Capital goods include
buildings, machinery, equipment, vehicles, and tools. A durable goods/ tools /machines/ oil
that is used in the production of goods or services.

10. Value added goods - any product or action that helps you raise the value of products. Value
added products are the products that have been altered, added to, or otherwise enhanced
during the production process to add value to have a higher market value.

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Types of Industries

1. Large scale Industries are referred to as those industries that have huge infrastructure, raw
material, high manpower requirements and large capital requirements. Those organizations
having a fixed asset of more than 10 crore rupees are considered to be large scale
industries. Examples: Cotton textile, engineering industries, automobile industry etc.

2. Small Scale Industries are small units with capital investment less than 10 million excluding
loan, land and building. Beside family members about 20 hired labours can also be
employed. Examples: Sports goods, surgical instruments, brick kiln etc.

3. Cottage industries are small industrial units in which the owner and his family members
work and usually no hired labour is employed. Examples: Blacksmith, carpenters, potters
etc..

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Factors that influence the Industrial Location [refer to table 9.3 in the book]
Physical Factors Human Factors

 Land – Site  Raw material [secondary goods]

 Natural Routes  Labour
 Raw material [primary goods]  Capital
 Machines
 Power supply
 Market

Large Scale Industries in Pakistan

1. Cotton textile
2. Sugar mills
3. Iron and steel industry
4. Chemical fertilizers
5. Cement industries

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 Large Scale Industries
Name Raw material Process Areas [Main Advantages /Importance Disadvantages/problems
Centers]
Cotton Textile Raw Cotton 1-Cotton is sent to ginning mills Karachi Largest sector of the economy Lack of research and
where lint is separated from Lahore 4th Major Producer Of development
cotton bolls and pressed to form Faisalabad Cotton in the World. Lack of modernize equipment
bales. Peshawar 38% Of Pakistani Workforce Energy crisis
2- spinning mills bales of cotton Sialkot Depends On Textile Sector. Heavily depends on agriculture
are flattened under heavy Quetta Contributing 57% -60To The for raw material
rollers to make yarn Country Exports Cotton plant is vulnerable to pest
3-At weaving cloth is produced Contributes approx. 7% to attacks, leaf curl virus
by yarn. 11% of GDP;
[*see Ms June 2018] [*see Ms June 2018]

Sugar Mills Sugarcane 1- transported to sugar mills 89 functional sugar Fulfils local demand for sugar Depends on agriculture for raw
immediately after harvesting. mills [sugar production 6.5 million material
2-It is scrubbed with limestone tones – consumption 5.4 Bulky commodity too heavy to
or chalk to remove dust and dirt. 45 in Punjab million tones – 2019] transport
3-Crushed under heavy rollers to Lahore, Okara, Employment to 1.2 million Loses moisture if delayed
extract juice. Bahawalpur, people Provides seasonal employment.
4-Sugar is obtained after Bahawalnagar, Brings prosperity to areas with Low prices in the international
crystallization Faisalabad , the development of market has not encouraged
Rahim Yar Khan infrastructure. exports
Contribution to GDP 7%
37 in Sindh By products such as baggase
Thatta, Nawabshah, and molasses are useful
Badin, Hyderabad (i) molasses is also used in the
production of pharmaceutical
7 in KPK and fuel grade ethanol while
Dera Ismail Khan , (ii) bagasse is used in
Peshawer, Mardan electricity generation and
paper/chip board

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 Large Scale Industries

Name Raw material Process Areas [Main Centers] Advantages Disadvantages/problems

/Importance
Chemical Fertilizer Sulphur , Phosphate , Not required Faislabad , Daud Khel , It is reliable and Addition of extra mineral
Gypsum, natural gas Multan , Haripur, Sukkur predictable so farmers nutrient cannot impact soil
, Dharki can easily depend on if soil has already reached
them. its maximum mineral
Easy to use nutrient level.
Provides essential Chemicals wash away
mineral nutrient(N), (runs-off) or soaks through
Phosphorous(P) and the soil (leach) if it rains
Potassium(K) to the heavily
soil Large quantities can alter
Improves soil ph the soil pH. and make soil
Ensures healthy plant toxic.
growth Chemical enter humans
Increases crop yield through food.
Faster growth of plant Also causes Eutrophication
when drains into rivers and
lakes and causes marine
pollution.
Cement Industry Limestone/chalk, Raw materials are Nooriabad, Karachi, Provides employment
Clay/shale crushed, ground and Thatta, Hydrabad to 3% of the workforce Most plants are located in
Gypsum mixed. Dera Ghazi Khan The cement industry of northern areas, making it
They are heated in a Daud Khel Pakistan generates expensive to transport to
rotary kiln where coal Attock , Rawalpindi significant revenue of port city.
or oil is used as a fuel. Nowshera Rs. 30 billion.
Kiln product are Kohat Helps improve Spreads air pollution from
ground with calcium infrastructure burning fossil fuel
sulphate (gypsum) to (building, bridges,
make cement which dams etc.)
prevents it from Used in construction
setting too quickly industry
after water is added.
(*see fig 5.3 in
Mineral Resources)

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Name Raw material Process Areas [Main Advantages /Importance Disadvantages/problems
Centers]
1- Iron ore, coke, and Pipri, Port \Qasim, Provides raw material to local Imported raw material such
Iron and steel Iron ore, coking coal, lime are melted in a blast Karachi steel producing industries, as coal and iron ore
industry limestone furnace. surgical instrument, increases burden on
Gujranwala , construction and engineering economy
2- Air which is heated to Lahore industries.
about 1200°C is blown Taxila Requires well developed
into the furnace. Rawalpindi Cheaper than import so infrastructure causing
Reduces import bill burden on economy
3- The air causes the
coke to burn, producing Encourages industrialization Needs more investment
carbon monoxide which and economic development
reacts with the iron ore, Environmental pollution
as well as heat to melt Heavy Mechanical Complex due to industrial waste.
the iron. (HMC) in Taxila uses iron and
steel as raw material for Requires power supply
4- Finally, the tap hole at designing and manufacturing
the bottom of the of industrial plants and Lack of technical experts
furnace is opened and machines. and skilled labour.
molten iron and slag
(impurities) are drained
off.

5- Iron is then cast into

large blocks called
blooms.

6- These are then taken

to other vessels for
further steel making.

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 Small Scale Industries

INDUSTRIES RAW MATERIALS AREAS ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

SPORTS GOODS Wood, wood pulp Sialkot  Employment  Some of the raw materials are
INDUSTRY Rubber Lahore  Contribution to GDP imported
Cotton  Export revenue  Most of the work is done manually
Thread or by traditional machineries
 Child Labour/ ban on exports

SURGICAL GOODS Steel Sialkot  Used in Surgery and  Raw Materials are expensive
INDUSTRY Gujranwala dentistry  Work is done manually/primitive
 Knives, spoons methods
 95% of production is  Child Labour
exported  Inappropriate working conditions

BRICK KILN INDUSTRY Clay, water Outskirts of  Used in construction of  Land degradation, clay is dug out
(Process on page # Sindh and homes/buildings.  Forms troughs/depressions
169) Punjab  Spread for protection of  Smoke from kiln produces carbon
underground electric and monoxide
telephone lines  Smoke and dust inhaled by
people/ workers face health
problems such as asthma, lung
cancer or respiratory problems
 Child labour
 Very low paid jobs

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 COTTAGE INDUSTRY Thread/ Yarn Northern areas  Self-employment  Child Labour
Yarn wool Desert areas  Need low investments  No/less profits
NAMES : Clay, water Small villages in  Require less legal  Lack of govt support
Sindh and formalities  Labour intensive
Embroidery , Punjab  Fulfils local demand  Traditional methods used
carpet weaving,  Provides cheap products  Time consuming
pottery making,  Can be set up easily in  Hard and tiring job
jewellery small areas/homes/  Poor working conditions
crafts work  Rooms/Courtyards  Most profit earned by middlemen
 These goods provide 30%  Lack of standardization
of the export receipts of  Less export volume
the manufacturing sector.  Lack of technology
 Poor infrastructure

Government policy towards Small-scale and cottage industries

The government is fully aware of the potential of cottage and small-scale industries for industrial development. The following organizations
have been established to develop this sector of economy.

 Pakistan Small Industries Corporation (PSIC)

 Punjab Small Industries Corporation (PSIC)
 Sindh Small Industries Corporation (SSIC)
 The Small Industries Development Board NWFP (SIDB)
 The Directorate of Small Industries Baluchistan (DSIB)

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 The above organizations are taking the following measures:

 Establishment of industrial estates.

 Providing marketing facilities.
 Setting up of technical service centres.
 Establishing handicraft development centres and carpet centres.
 Providing per-investment counseling and guidance to newcomers.
 Providing local and foreign loans to small industry owners on easy instalments.

An industrial park (also known as industrial estate, trading estate) is an area zoned and planned for the purpose of industrial development.
An industrial park can be thought of as a more "heavyweight" version of a business park or office park, which has offices and light industry,
rather than heavy industry.
Industrial parks are usually located on the edges of, or outside the main residential area of a city, and normally provided with good
transportation access, including road and rail.
Purpose... To promote Industrial activities
Features of Industrial Estates...
1- Large vacant land
2- Infrastructure facilities are provided by the govt..... roads, bridges, underpasses, water supply, electricity , etc...
3- Drainage system, sewerage system....
4- Land is provided on ownership
5- Mostly large scale industries
6- Residential settlement
7- Tax exemptions are provided/ govt policies
8- Ancillary industries..... small units to support large industries...... workshops.. to repair, colouring...

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 Sindh Industrial Trading Estate (SITE) is located in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Designated as an Industrial Area in 1963, S.I.T.E is the oldest
and the largest designated Industrial Area of Pakistan, encompassing 4700 acres (19 km²) of land. It contains approximately 2,400 factories.

 SITE Town- SITE: Sindh Industrial & Trading Estate

 Bin Qasim Industrial Zone
 Federal B Industrial Area
 Korangi Creek Industrial Park
 Korangi Industrial Area- KITE
 North Karachi Industrial Area
 Pakistan Textile City
 West Wharf Industrial Area

Industrial Zone – Specified areas, areas selected for Industrial Purposes to develop the area...
1- Smaller than the Industrial Estates
2- Infrastructure partly provided by the govt , partly by the industrialist....
3- Residential settlements
4- Usually connected with highways and motorways

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 Formal and Informal Sectors of Economy
Formal Sector Informal Sector
Features  Registered and regularized by the government  Non registered and unrecognized /private entrepreneurs
 Has to fulfill all legal formalities and procedures  Self employment
 Employed by institution  Mainly labour intensive / less machinery is used
 Regular / fixed working hours, wages/ salaries  Work done at homes or on streets
 Generally capital intensive  Mostly females and children
 Main workforce depends on males  Use traditional knowledge or inherited skills
 Work is located in offices and factories

Advantages  Organized and systematic  Meets the demand of local population

 Have set goals and targets  Supplies Cheap or low priced goods
 Work is systematically divided among various  Provides job to the downtrodden people and reduces
departments and employees. unemployment,
 Ensures job security  Makes use of local raw material thus no burden on imports
 Provides fringe benefits  industrial waste can be utilized
 No threat of illegal activities or production of  provides door to door supply of everyday items
goods  no dependency on others/ owner
 free to work as per convenience
 70% of the women work at home fall in this sector is they are
generally not allowed to go out to earn wages.
Problems/  Social and psychological needs are often ignored  Low paid jobs and lack job security.
Disadvantages  Decision delayed due to chain of command/  Greater risk of loss to the owner
cannot be taken by an individuals  Child labour
 Rules and regulation need to be followed strictly  Poor working conditions
 Dependency on others employer  Health problems for workers
 Have to pay taxes  Production of illegal goods
 Decreasing demands of handicrafts / handmade products
 increasing interest rates and prices are major challenges
 face production challenges such as lack of modern
equipment, no easy access to micro credit schemes
 seasonal work/ employment
 most of the profits earned by middle men.

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Tourism means people traveling for fun. It includes activities such as sightseeing and camping.
People who travel for fun are called "tourists".

Definition: traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than
one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purpose.

Tourism industry therefore can be defined as the set of industries which facilitate by providing
infrastructure and products and services and make possible travelling for different purposes
and travelling to places of leisure and business interests.

Tourist is a person who is travelling or visiting a place for pleasure.

Factors affecting tourism

Physical/ natural

1- Climate / rainfall/ snowfall /temperature tolerable

2- Topography…. Mountains, rivers, glaciers, valleys / scenic beauty

3- Natural routes … land, air

Human factors

1- Cultures…. Different languages, lifestyle, food, festivals, [polo , spring festivals, mela , basant

2- Infrastructure …. Water, electricity supply , gas supply , telephone

3- accommodation --- resorts, hotels, guest houses

4- Travel agents, transport,

5- Attractions…. Historical places… Shahi Qila, Minar e pakistan, museum,,

Building, parks, shopping malls, mall roads, liberty, hyper star

6- Security … safe environment.

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 Advantages

 Tourism can stimulate GDP growth of the country. Travel and tourism currently contribute
7.4 % to the GDP of Pakistan
 Tourism increases international trade and commerce.
 In terms of foreign direct investment, tourism and hospitality are the second fastest
growing industries. Investment of Rs.410 billion was made in this sector in 2017.
 Infrastructure development like roads, railways, airports, water & energy supply and
medical services takes place to encourage tourism.
 Low income economies are largely supported with the arrival of international tourists.
 Tourism is one of the largest sources to generate employment opportunities.
 Due to its wider supply chain, tourism promotes inclusive growth as it has the potential to
reach and benefit a larger proportion of the population.
 Rural communities are strengthened by the tourism that alleviates poverty.
 With the courtesy of tourism, urban areas are revitalized with the improvement of
infrastructure and the attraction of investment.
 Handicrafts of artisans have opened up to global market with tourism
 Tourism raises climate change awareness and makes realize the conservation of nature.
 It is very effective source of promoting inter-cultural harmony.

The Disadvantages of Tourism

 Environmental. Tourism can often cause environmental damage with risks like erosion,
pollution, the loss of natural habitats, and forest fires. Even if tourists behave responsibly, the
sheer number of them can cause damage. Ancient buildings, monuments, and temples often
struggle to cope with increased traffic and suffer inevitable wear-and-tear. Reefs and other
natural tourist attractions can suffer permanent damage.
 Cultural. The commercialization of culture can undermine the soul of a tourist destination.
Local traditions that have a rich cultural heritage are reduced to wearing costumes and putting
on acts for the tourists in return for money.
 Culture Clashes. Tourists often lack respect for local traditions and culture, refuse to follow
local dress standards, get drunk in public, or behave rudely or inappropriately towards locals.
 Service Economy. Although jobs are created by tourism, most are relatively low-level such as
bar work, hotel service, restaurant serving, and so forth. These low-wage, low-skill workers
have little prospect for advancement or promotion.
 Seasonal Fluctuations. Tourism jobs are quite commonly seasonal and insecure, with no extra
benefits such as pensions, sick pay, or healthcare. Some areas can be inundated with visitors
during busy times, and then virtually deserted for many months.

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 Imbalanced Funding. Money can end up being directed to tourist areas when it could be used
more effectively elsewhere in a country. The locals who don’t live in specific tourist areas miss
out and suffer relative decline.
 Foreign Poaching. Oftentimes, most of the tourism industry in a developing country is owned
by big foreign companies. They make the major profits, leaving local businesses with relatively
little benefit.
 Tourism Dependence. Sometimes, tourism becomes so focal that other forms of income-
generation are neglected and an economic dependence on tourism forms. This is fine in good
times, but it can leave the country vulnerable to economic ruin in the long run and can
contribute to political upheaval or natural disasters.

Sustainable tourism is a way of traveling that leaves a minimum negative impact on the places
visited and preferably rather leaves a positive impact on society. To make it easy, I will divide
the term sustainable travel into three main areas; human welfare, animal welfare, and nature
preservation.

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Past Paper Questions with Marking Schemes – Nov 2019

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June
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Nov 2015

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June 2019

4 (a) (i) Define ‘tertiary industry’.

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [1]

(ii) Study Fig. 4.1, which shows the percentage share of people employed in each economic

sector in Pakistan.

What is the percentage of people employed in tertiary activities in Pakistan?

.....................................................................% [1]

(iii) Name three different job types in the tertiary sector.

1 ..................................................................

2 ..................................................................

3 .................................................................. [3]

(b) (i) Describe the difference between domestic and foreign tourism.

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................... [2]

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(ii) Study Table 4.1, which shows the source of foreign tourists to Pakistan from selected countries in 2007.

A Which country is the main source of foreign tourists?

..............................................................

B Suggest two reasons for this.

1 ....................................................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................................................

2 ....................................................................................................................................................................

.................................................................................................................................................................. [3]

(c) (i) Explain two advantages of tourism to Pakistan. You should develop your answer.

.........................................................................................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................................

..........................................................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................................................................... [4]

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(ii) Study Figs. 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5 and 4.6 (Insert), photographs of some natural and cultural attractions of
Pakistan. Use the photographs and your own knowledge to suggest how each is a tourist attraction.

Fig. 4.2 .................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................

Fig. 4.3 .................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................

Fig. 4.4 ..................................................................................................................................................................

...............................................................................................................................................................................

Fig. 4.5 ..................................................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................................................................................

Fig. 4.6 ...................................................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................................................. [5]

(d) Tourism is an important and growing activity in Pakistan contributing 7.4 per cent to Gross Domestic
Product in 2017.

To what extent is further development of Pakistan’s tourism industry possible? Give reasons

to support your judgement. You should support different points of view in your answer.

...................................................................................................................................................

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Nov 2015

(b) (i) State two characteristics of employment in the informal sector of industry.

1 ........................................................................................................................................

2 ....................................................................................................................................[2]
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(ii) Give an example of a job in the informal sector.

.......................................................................................................................................[1]

To what extent can the work in informal sector improve the lives of those living in urban areas .

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 (b) Explain why the Pakistan Steelworks is called ‘a large scale industry’. [4] (features of a large scale
industry)

(c) Study Fig. 3 showing imports of steel

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(i) What is the value of imports in 2008? [1]
(ii) By how much has this increased since 1998? [1]
(iii) Suggest one reason for this increase and explain this. [3]

(d) Read the extract below.

Imports of steel increased by 37% from 2004 to 2005 as a growing amount of machinery and industrial steel
products flowed in. This is more than any government predictions.

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of increasing steel production in Pakistan.

Q2- (i) What are the advantages and disadvantages of building large industrial developments such as cement
works, close to major cities? [6]

(ii) What are the advantages and disadvantages of developing the cotton manufacturing industry in Pakistan?
[6]

(iii) What are the benefits of increasing fertilizer production for the people and the economy of Pakistan? [4]

(b) (i) Study Fig. 3 , a map showing the location of selected textile industries in Pakistan.

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Name the three major textile centers labeled X, Y and Z on Fig.3 [3]
(ii) Describe the location of the major textile centre labelled Y on Fig.3 [2]
(iii) State three reasons for the location of the cotton textile industries in Pakistan.[3]

2 (a) (i) Study Fig. 2, which is a flow diagram of the cement industry.

On Fig. 2, insert the name of a raw material used to make cement in the space provided.[1]
(ii) Give one example of primary, secondary and tertiary employment in the cement industry. [3]
Nov 2019- Q3

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Nov 2014

Coal, coke , limestone

Slag

Steel

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4 (a) Study Fig. 6.

Name on the map

(i) A the port where iron ore and coal are imported,
(Port) Qasim

(ii) B the site of the Pakistan Steelworks,

Pipri

(iii) C the lake that supplies water to the Pakistan Steelworks,

Haleji

(iv) D the destination of the motorway from Karachi.

Hyderabad [4]

(b) Explain why the Pakistan Steelworks is called ‘a large scale industry’. [4]
(features of a large scale industry)
 handles large quantities of raw materials

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  large production / large output / generates large income
 large area / site
 large electricity use / local power station
 large gas use / large pipeline
 large workforce
 higher output per worker
 large capital / investment
 mechanised / automated
 standardisation of products

(c) Study Fig. 7 showing imports of steel

(i) What is the value of imports in 2008? [1] 105000 million Rs

(ii) By how much has this increased since 1998? [1]
Suggest one reason for this increase and explain this.

(i) What is the value of imports in 2008? [1]

 105000 million Rs
(ii) By how much has this increased since 1998? [1]
 85–88000 million Rs.
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(iii) Suggest one reason for this increase and explain this. [3]
Named reason (1 mark)
 Industrialisation / growth of industry
 Named use eg. construction, machinery,
 Increase in cost of steel
 Devaluation of Pakistan currency
 Growing population

Explanation of that reason (2 marks)

Needs machinery
Needs raw materials
Building of new houses / industrial estates
Road and rail repair
Better agriculture
Shortage of world steel supplies
Devaluation of Pakistan currency
Any reason from the first section above can be credited as an explanation

(d) WATER ELECTRICITY GAS PIPES TELEPHONE ROADS

Choose two types of infrastructure from the list above and for each explain their importance
to businesses on an industrial estate.
(Res. 2 for each type)

Water – for washing, cooling, cleaning, food processing, chemicals, dyeing / bleaching

Electricity – for power / energy / machinery, light, heat, ventilation, computers, faster / better / more efficient
work

Gas – for power, heat, light, cooking food, raw material for fertiliser / chemical industry

Telephone – (for contact with) suppliers and buyers, quick response, may be in other places, for sales, orders,
marketing, advertising, line to computer

Roads – (for transport of), inputs, outputs, people,

less breakage / damage of valuable goods, quick travel, attracts investors

(e) What are the benefits and problems of developing new industrial estates? (6)
Benefits (res.2)
 Employment / jobs / raise incomes
 Goods for local needs
 Goods for export / more trade
 Increase GNP / GDP / increases national income / economic growth
 Reduce imports
 Attracts more investors / entrepreneurs
 Development of named infrastructure e.g. roads, power, telecomm
 Reduces emigration / if in rural areas reduces rural-urban migration
 More competition improves quality
 Stimulates growth of service industries
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Problems (res.2)
 Cost
 Lack of skilled labour
 Loss of agricultural land / trees
 Depletion of named natural resources eg. water, gas
 Lack of named infrastructure e.g. electricity, roads, water
 Lack of government support
 Named pollution (max 2) e.g. water, air, land
 Need for more imports with e.g. machinery, raw materials, oil
 (Increases) rural-urban migration

May/June 2010

(c) Study Fig. 4, which shows the location of Pipri steelworks.

(i) Name three raw materials used in production of steel.
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  Coal/coke
 Iron ore / scrap iron
 Manganese
 Limestone,
 Oxygen / air
 Chromite [3]

(ii) With reference to Fig. 4, explain why the steel mills were located here.
 coastal site/ Port (Bin) Qasim for imports
 berths by creek for unloading
 widened channel for effluent / shipping
 railway /road – for supply of limestone / workers /for distribution of finished products township /
houses for workers
 large /open site for waste disposal, storage, building etc. [6]

(d) Read the extract below.

Imports of steel increased by 37% from 2004 to 2005 as a growing amount of machinery and industrial steel
products flowed in. This is more than any government predictions.

Explain the advantages and disadvantages of increasing steel production in Pakistan.

Advantages (res. 2)
 Cheaper supplies (than imports)
 Saves foreign currency / improves balance of payments / reduce imports
 Can be used for development / industrialisation e.g. construction, machinery
 (max 2 examples of use)
 Larger GNP / GDP / national income
 Independence from other countries
 More work / employment
Disadvantages
 Lack of raw materials/imported
 High cost of imported iron / other raw materials
 Burden on economy / less development
 Cost / Lack of machinery / technology / set-up costs
 Cost / Lack of infrastructure / power supplies / roads etc.
 Lack of skilled labour
 More waste / named pollution (max 2.)
 May encourage rural-urban migration
 Accept ‘increases balance of payments’ if opposite not given in advantages [6]
[Total: 25]

June 2011

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Q3 (iii) What are the advantages and disadvantages of building large industrial developments such as cement
works, close to major cities? [6]

Allow advantages and disadvantages to industries and / or city / citizens but do not double mark.
Advantages (res. 2)

To city and citizens

 Cheaper transport costs to work
 Readily available / quicker supply
 Employment

To cement company
 Supply of labour
 Good infrastructure e.g. port, roads, electricity, water (up to 2)
 Market / near demand
 Cheaper delivery costs

Disadvantages (res. 2)
 Air pollution / dust / smoke
 Noise
 Visual pollution / quarries pollution (max 2)
 Water pollution
 Dumping of waste
 Traffic congestion
 Loss of farmland
 Loss of other land uses e.g. housing, roads, industry (max. 1)
 Population growth / rural-urban migration
 Squatters / Kacha Abadi / slums
 May be distance from raw materials
 NB. Answers may refer to industrial estates (EPZ)or other industries.
[Total: 25]

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June 2010

Q.4 b (i) What features show that this is a modern, developed industrial estate?
 Good / pucca / metalled / wide
 Street lighting
 Electricity supply
 Trees/ greenery
 Modern / good quality buildings
 Planned / straight roads [4]

(ii) Explain the importance of Export Processing Zones.

 Good quality goods / export quality / to International standards
 Can increase economy / income / exports / foreign exchange
 Better infrastructure / power / water supply / road etc. (max. 2)
 Good working conditions (max 2)
 Modern buildings
 Incentives e.g. tax breaks, cheap loans
 Attracts investors / entrepreneurs
 Aids growth of small-scale / cottage industries
 Employment / jobs
 Government helps with marketing events / trade fairs [4]

Q 4 c (ii) To what extent would the building of more motorways such as that between Lahore and Islamabad
help the development of industry in Pakistan?
Advantages/ Potential (res. 2)
 Better movement of finished products FROM industry to ports and other towns
 Better movement of raw materials / machinery TO industry
 Stimulates industrial development near motorway / opens up undeveloped areas
 Helps development of dry ports
 Better movement of businessmen / tourists / experts
 Faster travel
 Better road surface / wider for large vehicles / lorries / well-maintained
 Shorter / by-passes towns and villages / short cut
 Relieves other roads / relieves congestion
Disadvantages / Problems (res. 2)
 Expensive
 Takes long time to build
 Needs maintenance
 Cost to economy / increase debt
 Only connects large centres
 Will not go to many small towns / rural areas / anywhere
 Not only motorways help development / other factors influence industrial development [6]

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 Nov 2011
(d) What are the advantages and disadvantages of developing the cotton manufacturing industry in
Pakistan? [6]
Advantages (res. 2)
 Established industry / good reputation worldwide
 Creates jobs / employment / develops skills
 Traditional skills / cheap labour available
 Value-added export / export of named product or to named area/ large scaleexport/ main
 export
 Higher price (because it is processed) / value added
 Farmers can increase income
 Better named infrastructure
 Less imports / can meet demands of population
 Can compete with other countries
Disadvantages (res. 2)
 Lack of modern skills / education
 Lack of money to invest / investors
 Competition from other countries
 Old machinery, breakdowns, slow, old products / need to import machinery
 Water shortage for manufacturing / conflict with other users
 Power shortage / power breakdown,
 Poor roads and railways / transport to ports,
 Government policy / changing policies
 Less land for growing food other crops
 Problems of poor harvest / pest attack / climate problems
 Effects of increase in urban population (max 1)
 Named pollution linked to cotton manufacture (max 1)
 Machines will replace manpower / loss of unskilled jobs
 Lack of investment in other industries / services
 [Total: 25]

(c) What are the benefits of increasing fertiliser production for the people and the
economy of Pakistan? [4]
 Higher yields
 More food production
 More agricultural exports, or improved balance of payments (max1)
 Reduced imports of fertiliser, or improved balance of payments (max1)
 Higher GNP
 Less debt
 Higher farm incomes / profits
 More jobs
 Cheaper cost of fertiliser
 More industrial goods (e.g. cotton)

(iii) Explain the importance of mechanisation to the craft industry and other small scale industries of Pakistan. 4
 Faster
 Larger production
 Lower labour costs / cheaper
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  Less work / easy / less tiring
 Standardised product / better quality
 Can replace child labour
 New skills learned
 Allow development, e.g.
 Faster so thatmore income can be made because more production
 Standardised product so thatit is more attractive to buyers
 Allow problems, e.g.
 Unemployment, loss of traditional skills

Nov 2010

(a) Study Fig. 9, which shows an advertisement for a big company.

(i) State four ways of contacting this company. [2]
2 ways = 1 mark
 Telephone (number)
 Fax
 E-mail / web site / internet
 Letter / address
 Visit

(ii) Which is the slowest way of contact? [1]

This depends on the answer to (i).
Order of speed: e-mail – fax - telephone – letter – visit
(iii) Why does the company advertise many different ways of contacting it? [1]
 Easy
 Choice
 Depends on distance
 To attract foreign interest
 Visit is more personal

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(b) (i) Explain two of the reasons given in the advertisement for using this tractor on a
farm? [2]
(1 mark for each line)
 Big and powerful - Replaces several animals, reduces labour force, faster, larger farms
 Quick and efficient- Saves time, better cultivation
 Higher yield,
 better than manual labour
 Many tasks Only one machine needed, can plough and harvest, reduces labour force

(ii) Why are tractors not used by many small-scale farmers? [4]
 Too expensive to buy
 High cost of leasing / fuel / maintenance etc.
 Farmers are subsistence farmers
 Little profit / low yields
 Small fields / farms
 Lack training / skills / education
 Plenty of family / cheap labour / cause family unemployment
 Cannot take loans
(iii) In what ways can the government help small-scale farmers to mechanise their farms? [4]
 Loans
 Leasing / hiring
 Subsidies / reduced costs / cheap / goods affordable (not ‘free’ or ‘give’)
 Training / education Advertising / leaflets / use of media Land reform / consolidation so that –
Promote co-operatives

Give an example of self-employment. [1]

Farmer, shopkeeper, lorry driver etc.

State two jobs that may be done on a farm by unpaid family workers. [2]
Sowing, harvesting, threshing, weeding, bird-scare, feeding animals etc

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Cotton Textile Industry

Sugar Mills

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Sports Goods

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Cottage Industry

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Insert Past Paper June 2019 – Q4

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TRADE
Definition - Exchange of goods and services

Summary
⚫ Trade – Definition
⚫ Types - Domestic and foreign trade
⚫ Importance/ benefits
⚫ Main imports and exports of Pakistan
⚫ Main trading partners –[ Map Work]
⚫ Balance of payment and balance of trade
⚫ Reasons for negative balance of payment an how to correct it
⚫ GDP and GNP
⚫ Trade routes
⚫ Trading bloc

Types of Trade
1. Internal/ Domestic - Within a country

2. Foreign - With other countries

• Import – to buy goods and services from other countries
• Export – to sell goods and services to other countries

Benefits of trade

• Specialization of goods and services- Pakistan is specializes in cotton production and its export
• Utilization of domestic resources to produce goods for export- such as raw material
• Creates employment
• Transfer of information technology
• Production of value added goods
• Economies of scale on large scale production
• Promotes industrialization
• Increases GDP and GNP

Main Imports and exports of Pakistan

Imports - Primary goods Imports - Secondary goods

1- Wheat 1- Edible oil
2- Sugar 2-Tea
3- Mineral Oil 3- Machinery 4- Electrical appliances
4- Coal , 5- Fertilizer
5- Iron ore 6- Chemicals

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Exports - Primary Goods Exports -Secondary
1- Raw cotton 1-Textile
2- Rice 2-Sports goods
3- Fish 3- Surgical instruments
4- Fruits 4- Leather products
5- Livestock 5- Products of cottage industries

Advantages of imports.
1- Vast variety of goods
2- hi-tech
3- capital goods
4- high quality products
5- increases competition in domestic market
6- reduction in of domestic goods. prices

Disadvantages of imports
1- Out flow of foreign exchange
2-Negative balance of payment
3- Lessens the demand of local goods
4- Loss of jobs in domestic market
5- High dependence on foreign goods
6- Discourages local production.

Advantages of exports
1- Standardization and specialization
2- Inflow of foreign exchange
3- Increase revenues and improve balance of payment
4- Lead to Industrialization and development of infrastructure
5- Establishment of Industrial estates, Industrial Zones, EPZs increases Employment
6-production of value added goods
7- Promotion of cottage industry
8- International recognition
9- Availability of wider market
10- Economies of scale
11- Compensate for Seasonal Demands
12- New knowledge and technology

Disadvantages of exports
1- Takes more time to develop extra markets,
2-pay back periods are longer,
3- Administrative costs strain the meager financial resources of small and medium size
companies
4-need to modify products to meet foreign country safety and security codes
5- Have to sell goods at competitive prices

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Problems and Challenges of Exporting
 Export Licenses and Documentation—
 Market Information— finding reliable information on foreign markets
 Trade barriers
 Strong competition
 Child Labour
 Membership of regional organizations
 Devaluing Pakistan rupee
 Distances involve greater risk , Up gradation of technology
The balance of payments
 The balance of payments tracks international transactions.
 When funds go into a country, a credit is added to the balance of payments (“BOP”).
 When funds leave a country, a deduction is made.
 For example, when a country exports 20 shiny red convertibles to another country, a credit
is made in the balance of payments. [Google]

The difference between the value of goods imported and exported by a country OR
 the value of imports subtracted from exports OR
 the value of exports minus imports. [Past Paper June 2017]
 Exports… $ +20000
 Import…. $ - 10000
 BOP … -10000 [Negative / Deficit]

Difference between Balance of Payment and Balance of Trade

 Balance of Payment is the difference between the value of import and export of goods and
services during a given period of time.
 However, services are not included in the calculation of Balance of trade.

Reasons of negative BOP

 More imports than exports
 Imports of High value goods and export of low value / primary goods.
 Lack of standardization / low quality of goods
 Import of Consumer/ luxury goods
 Devaluation of Currency /Pak Rupee
 Restriction / Embargo on certain exports

Effects of negative BOP

 Increases debts
 Loans paid back with interest
 Discourages local investors
 Increases dependence on foreign investments
 Foreign countries will own more domestic assets
 Devaluation/ depreciation of currency

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  Consumers prefer to buy imported goods
How to Correct BOP?
 By reducing imports of luxury and consumer’s goods
 By encouraging people to use more domestic goods
 By motivating people to save and invest through various schemes
 By curtailing the import of services.
 By imposing trade barriers

Trade Barriers
Trade Barriers are restrictions imposed by the country usually on imports to control the outflow
of foreign exchange. Following are some common Trade barriers.
1. Tariffs /taxes
2. Trade Embargo
3. Quotas
4. Duties

Advantages
 Self sufficiency
 Reducing foreign dependency
 Protect local industries
 create employment opportunities
 Improves BOP
 Creates demands for domestic goods
 Greater exploitation of local resources

Disadvantages
 Less imports lead to lesser variety of goods
 Limited consumer choices / Consumers have to rely on available domestic products.
 low quality products can be produced domestically due to less competition in international
market
 Industries become complacent
 Some high value products with very high prices need to be produced

Gross Domestic Products

 The total value of goods and services produced within a country in a year.
 This includes domestic and foreign firms working within the borders.
 Income earned by overseas Pakistanis is not included.

Gross National Products

 The total value of goods and services produced by the country's resources in a year.
 This includes Pakistani nationals working in and outside Pakistan
 Foreign firms working in Pakistan are not included.

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Trading Partners

Page 185 of 234

A map outline of Pakistan

Page 186 of 234

Trading Partners

Page 187 of 234

A map of the road network in Pakistan in 2002. Also see June 2009 Q.3

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Transport and communication

Transport and communication are a way for humans to overcome the barrier of physical distance.

Modes of Transportation
Natural and man-made ways of transportation or for transporting people and goods. Such as Land
[ roads , railways] Air[aviation] , water [ sea / navigation]

Means of Transportation
Motorized vehicles necessary for transport according to the chosen mode such as car, airplane,
ship, truck and rail etc.
Economic importance
It promotes the internal and external trade, utilization of natural resources, mobility of labour,
reduction in unemployment, increase in agricultural production, reduction in population pressure
and elimination of starvation and hunger etc.

Political importance
It creates the political awareness in people, maintenance of law and order in society etc. It also
helps bringing out the opinion of the masses.
Social importance
Linkage of people develops brotherhood and sense of unity, and this can stimulate economic
activity within the country. It promotes the education across the country and provides the modern
information by TV, Internet, radio

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Land Routes
Major land transport in Pakistan is comprised of:
1. roads, highways, motorways
2. railways
3. Dry ports

Road transport is most popular and it carries about 90% of the total passenger traffic. The country
has about 248,340 kilometers of roads, of which more than 50 percent are paved. The rest are
graveled or unimproved tracks. Road traffic is increasing to nearly overwhelming proportions, with
mixtures of animal carts, high-speed cars, buses, and trucks.

Major Highways
• National Highway – N5
• Indus Highway – Super Highway
• RCD Highway
• Route 50- Lahore – Quetta
• Route 65- Sukkur – Quetta
• Karakoram Highway
• Coastal Highway- Karachi- Gwadar

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National Highway – N5
• Connects Karachi to Torkham in FATA
• Mainly runs to the East of river Indus
• From Lahore to Peshawar the Road is called Grand Trunk (GT) Road-
• The N-5 is the longest national highway in Pakistan
• Starting point is Karachi. Shahrah-e- Faisal Star Gate , Jinnah International Airport.

Question- Describe the distribution of National Highway N-5 .

N-5 starts from Karachi extends through Thatta and Hyderabad , Nawabshah and Sukkur in Sindh
before crossing into Punjab province in Rahim Yar Khan. From where it passes through Multan onto
Lahore. From Lahore it extends to Peshawar via Rawalpindi and Attock crossing river Indus and
reaches the border town of Torkham in the FATA where it ends.
Route 50 Lahore –Quetta
Route 50 from Lahore passes through Faisalabad and crosses the Indus by a bridge at Dera Ismail
Khan. The road then passes through Derajat in KPK , crosses Suleman ranges in to Balochistan and
reaches Quetta.
Route 65- Sukkur – Quetta
The National Highway 65 or the N-65 is one of Pakistan National highways running from Sukkur
in Sindh to Quetta in Baluchistan. It is a two lane highways with total length of 385 km. It links
Sukkur on N5 to Shikarpur on Indus Highway and onto Quetta via Sibi and Bolan pass.

The Indus Highway

The Indus Highway also known as Super Highway (N-55) is a 1264 km long two to four-lane national
Highway that runs along the Indus River connecting the port city of Karachi with the northwestern
city of Peshawar via Dera Ghazi khan
Question- Describe the distribution of Indus Highway N-55 .

Indus Highway starts from Karachi and extends to Peshawar . This highway runs to the west of River
Indus. From Karachi it extends to Kotri and then moves to west passes through Dadu, Larkana,
Jacobabad in Sindh. It enters Punjab from Dera Ghazi Khan and extends to Peshawar via Bannu and
Kohat .

RCD Highway N-25

The RCD highway connects Pakistan, Iran and Turkey. It starts from Shershah Karachi goes to Bela
in Balochistan. It crosses Khuzdar, Kalat and reaches Quetta. From there it branches out in to two
routes. One extends to Chaman in Afghanistan the other goes to Zahidan, Iran.

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Other Highways
1. Karakorum Highway N-35 connects Pakistan to China. It starts from Islamabad [Hasan
Abdal] , crosses Chillas and Gilgit and enters China through Khunjerab pass.

2. Coastal Highway [N-10] also called Makran Coastal Highway connects Karachi to Gwadar.
It runs along the coastline of Makran coast covering Ormara and Pasni .

Motorways
The M1 motorway 1 or M1, is an east west Motorway, connecting Peshawar to Islamabad. The
motorway was constructed by President Pervez Musharraf .
The M-2 motorway is a north–south motorway in Pakistan, connecting Rawalpindi /Islamabad to
Lahore. The motorway is 375 km long and located entirely in Punjab. bn., and was opened on
October, 2007.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Roads

Advantages Disadvantages
Provides door to door Services Time Consuming /relatively slow as
compared to Railways and air.

Preferable for short distances Loss to environment/ pollution

Easy to access More chances of accidents, theft
Cheapest / inexpensive Delays due to traffic congestion.
Can transport heavy / bulky goods Bad conditions of roads
/perishable goods

Easy to maintain and construct Absence of linking roads

Well connected highway, motorway, Construction material is expensive
industrial estates [concrete]

More flexible in terms of route and timings.

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Railways
Pakistan's railways cover roughly 7,791 kilometers. Most are in the Indus Valley, from Karachi to
the Punjab, with a few lines into the North-West Frontier and one westward across northern
Baluchistan to the Iranian border.

Question- Describe the distribution of Rail network throughout Pakistan.

The railway network is well distributed throughout Pakistan. It extends from Karachi to Peshawar.
It mainly runs to the east of Pakistan. It starts from Karachi to Kotri and extends to Hyderabad,
Nawabshah crosses Sukkur and Rohri in Sindh before entering Rahim Yar Khan in Punjab. It further
extends to Bahawalpur, Multan onto Lahore. From Lahore the line goes to Rawalpindi and extends
to Peshawar in KPK.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Railways

Advantages Disadvantages

Covers long distances Stops at specific location/ does not

provide door to door services
Stops at convenient stations Not preferred for short distances
Fast as compared to roads Requires huge investment for
construction of railway tracks and trains
Cheaper as compared to air routes. Creates pollution
Carries heavy and bulky goods More chances of accidents / trains
derail
Transport huge quantities Delays due to weather conditions.
Provides comfortable journey to Stops at specific location/ does not
passengers provide door to door services
Linked to industrial estates , sea and Not preferred for short distances
dry ports

Problems
• Lack of investment
• Corruption in railway department
• Bad conditions of compartments/boggies
• Old locomotives/ engines
• Operational inefficiencies in timings
• Uneconomic / underused stations
• Not connected to the northern areas
• Risk of theft
• Inefficient system of booking/ reservations

Recent Developments
• Introduction of new fast trains such as Green line train
• Purchase of new locomotives from China
• Online booking and reservation system/ E -ticketing
• plan to construct new line from Karachi to Gwadar
• CPEC railway route

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Air routes

Pakistan is served by numerous international airlines as well as its own Pakistan International Airlines,
which provides both international and domestic service.

Major international airports are situated in Karachi, Islamabad and Lahore.

Other international airports are situated in Peshawar Multan , Sialkot , Faisalabad, Quetta, Rahim
Yar Khan, Turbat, Gwadar and [Link].
International airports with names:
• Islamabad International Airport
• Karachi Jinnah International
• Lahore Allama Iqbal International
• Peshawar Bacha Khan International Airport
• Quetta International Airport
• Shaikh Zayed International Airport [RYK]

Advantages and Disadvantages of Airways

Advantages Disadvantages

Fastest Suitable for long distances only

Connects to other countries /covers Expensive
long distances
Carries perishable, fragile and valuable Carry limited luggage or cargo
goods
Low chances of accidents Airports need specific physical
conditions
Secure and comfortable journey Delays in flights due to fog
Connects to northern areas where Contributes to air pollution
railways are not present

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Past paper question- Nov 2020
Suggest two disadvantages of air transport for people and two disadvantages of air transport for
the movement of goods.
people:
• expensive tickets/cannot afford to pay/compared with other transport;
• limited luggage allowance/items allowed onboard are restricted;
• not a door to door service – money spent to transfer to/from airport;
• limited number of flights per day compared with trains/buses;
• luggage can be lost/damaged;
• flights cancelled/delayed/late due to bad weather;
• likely increased taxes for people (long term investment with little benefit for many people)/cost
of maintaining airports is expensive;
• noise pollution near to runways/airports;
• air pollution near to runways/airports
goods:
• expensive to transport goods internally and internationally;
• difficult to transport bulky goods/can only transport small or perishable goods;
• fragile goods damaged when loading/unloading or due to turbulence;
• not all cities/locations have an airport within Pakistan so some areas cannot be reached;
• not a door to door service – money spent to transfer to/from airport;
• limited number of flights per day compared with trains/buses;
• flights cancelled/delayed/late due to bad weather.
Note: Max 1 for list, some relevant description must be provided

Describe three factors that encourage the location and development of

airports in Pakistan.

 availability of flat/wide/open land/plain (needed for runways/for building);

 near to/in large cities/areas of large population (for employees/customers/trade);
 near to industry (to encourage international trade/business);
 need for faster/efficient transport for cargo (especially for perishable goods or named
examples);
 air routes to areas (like Gilgit and Skardu) makes otherwise inaccessible areas more
accessible;
 rise in living standards/more disposable income (has led to more people using air transport);
 government policies/funding (to encourage growth of air transport or
 examples);
 security (to encourage international investment/so tourists feel safe);
 increased tourism;
 links to (other infrastructure) roads and railways;

Note: Max 1 for list, some relevant description must be provided

3 @ 1 mark
[see table 11.23 in Huma Naz Sethi]

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Sea Ports in Pakistan

A port is a maritime facility that connect land to the sea for cargo handling and passengers’
transportation. Ports are vital transportation hubs that provide facilities for the movement of goods
from local markets to worldwide markets.
Pakistan is blessed with the 1046 kilometer coastline along the Arabian Sea. The coastline is divided
into Makran Coast spreading over 800 kilometers and Sindh Coast extending up to 246 kilometers.
Pakistan, so far, has developed three big ports namely Karachi port, Gwadar port and Muhammad
Bin Qasim port.
Importance
Ports are considered vital for supporting the economic life of any country. Economy of a country
relies heavily on seamless trade and cargo facilitated through ports which serve as gateways for
domestic and international trade. Ports also create job opportunities for local people and
supplement infrastructure development in the vicinity that also add up to more job and business
opportunities. Therefore, ports have an important role to play in a nation’s economic growth.
Features and facilities of a sea port
Ports are completely different commercial water facilities comprising warehouses, docks and cranes that
connect land to the sea for cargo handling and passengers’ transportation. However, harbors are mooring
places for safe anchorage of ships and other waterborne vessels. Infrastructure facilities describe the features
of a sea port.

 wharves where ships are docked for cargo loading and unloading and disembarking of passengers
 Services of berthing or anchoring ships [berth is a ship’s allotted place at a wharf or dock.]
 Gears, cranes, lifters for moving the cargo from ship to shore or shore to ship.
 Road and rail links connecting to Industrial areas
 Storage and warehouses
 logistic network and packaging unit for Repacking, labeling, sorting, assembling, cleaning and preparing
cargo
 Administrative Control facilities such as Police, immigration, customs, health, water, provision supply,
telephone, repairs, Hospital, waste control, Fire control & port state control

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Karachi Port – Kemari is one of South Asia's largest and busiest deep-water seaport handling about
60% of the nation's cargo (25 million tons per annum) located in Karachi, Pakistan. The port is
divided into two main dockyards and eight sub waterfronts. The two main dockyards of Karachi
Port are known as West Wharf & East Wharf. Presently about 1600 ships are visiting Karachi Port
annually and the berth occupancy is about 45%, which shows that there is enough capacity in the
port to handle more cargo. Size of harbor: 32 km (20 mi).
Port Qasim- The Port Muhammad Bin Qasim also known as Port Qasim, is a deep water seaport in
Karachi under the administrative control of the Secretary to the Government of Pakistan for
Maritime Affairs. It is Pakistan's second busiest port, handling about 35% of the nation's cargo (17
million tons per annum). The port encompasses a total area of 12,000 acres (49 km2) wherein many
industrial zones operate. In addition to the Pakistan Steel Mills (PSM) and Bin Qasim Power Plant,
around 80% of the Pakistan's automotive industry is located at Port Qasim.
Opened: September 1980

Keti Bander Port is located in the Thatta district of Sindh. This port is around 150 kilometers away
from Karachi and is yet to be developed into a major port under the Pakistan China Economic
Corridor project. Keti Bander is facing decreased water level in the Indus River and thus the residents
are completely dependent on fishing for living.

The Gwadar Port is the deepest sea port in the world, situated on the Arabian Sea at Gwadar in
Balochistan province - Size: 2,292 Acre [9.27 km] lies at the distance of 400 kilometers from the
Strait of Hormuz and 120 kilometers from Iran’s border. The Strait of Hormuz is one of the primary
channels in the world for global trade and oil supply. Thus being strategically important for both
China and Pakistan, Gwadar port is undergoing rapid development as part of the China Pakistan
Economic Corridor.
Ormara Port is located on Makran coastline in Baluchistan. This port is also considered strategically
important as one of the most strategically important naval bases of Pakistan – Jinnah naval base –
is located there. This port is also considered rich for fishing and has also been linked with the China
Pakistan Economic Corridor through the coastal highway of Makran.

Pasni Port is also located along the coastline of Makran in Baluchistan at a distance of around 300
kilometers away from Karachi. This port is also under development following the decision of the
Pakistan government to augment cargo activities there by connecting it with China Pakistan
Economic Corridor to make it fully commercial. Pasni has a fully operational airfield which is used by
Pakistan Air Force, Pakistan Navy and Civil Aviation.

Jiwani Port is strategically very important as it adjoins the delivery lanes from and to the Persian
Gulf. Owing to its strategic location, this town hosts an airport which has a 5600-foot runway and a
small naval base.

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sea Ports
Advantages Disadvantages
Connect to other countries Suitable for long distances only
Cover long distances Expensive
Carry bulky goods Slow/ reach destinations in several weeks
Ship large volumes at low costs Heavy custom/ import duties
Low chances of accidents Delays in loading and unloading due to
congestion
Shipping containers can also be used for further Cannot operate in harsh weather/ storms/
transportation by road or rail cyclones
Large Storage Capacity Difficult to track progress
Cheap/ cost about five times less than air  .
freight,
Support the defense and security of a country
[military ports]

Past paper question-

Study Fig. 2.2 (Insert), a photograph of a seaport in Pakistan. Using Fig. 2.2 only, describe the features of
the seaport shown.[ Nov 2020]
next to/near to the sea; tower/watch tower/flood lights;
a large area of flat land/lot of space; railway line;
cranes/machinery, containers/girders; (large) lorries/trucks;
ship(s)/tugs; refinery/round containers
wharf/dock/piers; cabins/flat roofed buildings/temporary buildings.
deep water/sheltered;

Explain the importance of the development of seaports to Pakistan.

You should develop your answer.
 makes use of deep water/sheltered harbours to facilitate container ships/large ships/cruise ships (dev);
 improves the national economy , makes use of the long coastline in the south of the country (dev);
 provides economic opportunities ; especially for the largest province of Balochistan (dev);
 provides opportunities for international links/trade; other countries can import/export through the
ports of Pakistan/named examples e.g. Afghanistan/China/Middle East countries (dev);
 Pakistan can export goods abroad; bulky goods can be moved relatively cheaply e.g. minerals/earns
foreign exchange (dev);
 provides employment opportunities; in areas usually reliant on traditional activities or named examples
e.g. fishing (dev);
 seaports handle most international trade ; increasing trade (dev);
 infrastructure development like roads/railways near the sea (1) boosts the local economy/allows
nearby area to be developed and modernized (dev);
 increase trade (1); so can pay off debts (dev);
 increased transportation of goods (1); boosts the economy (dev);
 increase GDP (1); through more exports (dev);
 links to other countries (named examples) (1); so improves trade/relations (dev);
 to develop tourism (1); to facilitate cruise ships etc. (dev);
 encourage industrialisation (1); to provide employment (dev).

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Dry Ports

It is an inland terminal connected to a seaport by road or rail; Operates as a centre for the
transhipment of sea cargo to inland destinations;

Lahore Dry Port was the first dry port in Pakistan and originally opened in Mughalpura, Lahore.
The dry port was constructed and managed by Pakistan Railways since 1973.

Features of a dry port

 Large well-constructed area with proper sheds and open areas

 Warehouses and godowns with cold storage facilities
 Lifters, cranes and machines to load and unload goods
 Railways and roads
 Security and other managerial staff
[see past paper Nov 2019]

At present, there are six dry ports running under the management of Pakistan Railways;

 Lahore Dry Port Established in 1973.

 Karachi Dry Port Established in 1974.
 Quetta Dry Port Established in 1984.
 Peshawar Dry Port Established in 1986.
 Multan Dry Port Established in 1988.
 Rawalpindi Dry Port Established in 1990.

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In addition to the above, there are four Dry Ports established and running under the management
of private sector;
 Sialkot [Sambrial] Dry Port Established in 1986
 Faisalabad Dry Port Established in 1994
 Pak-China Sust Dry Port
 NLC Dry Port at Thokar Niaz Beg Lahore
 NLC Dry Port at Quetta
 QICT Dry port at Prem Nagar Railway station Established in 2010
 Sialkot International Container Terminal [SICTL] New Multi modal Dry

Why dry ports have been established?

 Increasing industrial activities

 To facilitate exporters – saves their time, transportation cost, etc.
 To minimize the workload of seaports at Karachi
 To reduce the pressure on exporters and importers by providing hassle free transportation of
cargo form production point to the sea port directly
 To promote foreign trade activities in the cities which are away from the seaport

Advantages and Disadvantages of Dry Ports

Advantages Disadvantages /Problems

relieve a major seaport of workload and Occupies more land

congestion
Provides port facilities to inland areas Increases govt. outlays
Saves time of traders Mismanagement and corruption
Reduces transportation cost and risks Used as smuggling dens
Refrigeration facilities provided for
perishable items
Employment opportunities
Large Storage Capacity

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Communication
Communication plays an important role in the economic and cultural development of a country.
Pakistan has following means of communication.

Postal Service
The Post office is a Federal Government entity which provides postal facilities through a network of
post offices across the country. The department is providing various traditional postal services to
the consumers at a reasonable price. It also provides the facility of life insurance, payment of military
pensions, collection of motor vehicle tax, renewal of arms and driving licences etc.
Radio
Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation (PBC) has played a pivotal role in promoting national interest
by providing information, entertainment and education to audiences at home and abroad in 35
languages.
Television
First television station was introduced in Pakistan by a private television company, in November 26,
1964. In June 1967, it was converted into private limited company named as Pakistan Television
Corporation Limited, with prime objectives to establish a Television Network in Pakistan for the
provision of broadcasting news, documentaries, education and entertainment. There are two
channels in the country namely PTV Home and PTV News. There are also operating 22 private TV
channels across the country.
Telecommunication
The Telegraph and Telephone department was converted into Pakistan Telecommunication
Corporation on 15th December 1990 for better telecommunication system in the country. On 1st
January 1996, the corporation was recognized by establishing the Pakistan Telecommunication
Authority (PTA), the National Telecommunication Operation (NTC) and Pakistan Telecommunication
Company Limited (PTCL). PTCL has issued 60,000 telephone connections to its customers. 6 Mobile
companies are operating their network in Pakistan under PTA. There are at least six crore people are using
mobile phone in Pakistan.

Information Technology (IT)

IT has assumed unprecedented importance in the global economy. Government has accorded a very
high priority to this sector. IT is one of the key determinants of competitiveness and growth of
economy. For promotion of IT, above than 400 cities have been provided internet facility. Pakistan
has established Software Technology Park at Lahore, Karachi and Peshawar
Pakistan enjoys good international telecommunications links via satellite. The availability of
domestic telephone service improved in the 1990s as the utility was privatized. Cellular telephone
service and Internet connections are available though not widespread. Radio and television are
controlled largely by the government.

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Telecommunication

Telecommunication systems allow distant communication using electrical signals or

electromagnetic waves and some basic components to support the system.

Examples of telecommunications systems are the telephone network, the radio broadcasting
system, computer networks and the Internet. The nodes in the system are the devices we use to
communicate with, such as a telephone or a computer.

PTCL is the largest telecommunications provider in Pakistan

Recent liberalization of the telecom sector has made telecommunications one of Pakistan’s most
promising sectors. Today, four cellular companies are operating in the country with a customer base
approaching 182 million subscribers compared to 167 million last year, showing a growth of 8.6
percent.

Use of Telecommunication
 Mobile Phones allow instant voice calls and text messaging, enabling people to communicate
quickly regardless of their location.
 Email and Messaging Apps facilitate the exchange of emails, instant messages, and multimedia
messages, fostering communication in both personal and professional settings.
 Provide high-speed internet access, enabling individuals, businesses, and institutions to connect
to the internet for research, education, entertainment, and online services.
 Support video conferencing tools, allowing people to conduct virtual meetings, collaborate
remotely, and reduce the need for travel.
 Social media platforms, enabling users to share text, images, and videos, fostering social
connections and disseminating information.
 Streaming of movies, music, and other multimedia content, providing entertainment options on-
demand.

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Economic Impact
E-commerce: Telecommunication facilitates online shopping and financial transactions, driving the
growth of e-commerce platforms and expanding business opportunities globally.
Financial Services: Telecommunication networks support mobile banking and online financial
services, providing convenient and secure methods for banking and transactions.

Healthcare and Telemedicine

Telemedicine: Telecommunication enables remote consultation between patients and healthcare
professionals, improving access to medical advice, diagnosis, and treatment, especially in remote or
underserved areas.
Health Monitoring: Telecommunication technology supports wearable devices and sensors,
allowing continuous monitoring of patients' health parameters and transmitting data to healthcare
providers.

Education
E-Learning: Telecommunication supports online education platforms and virtual classrooms, making
education accessible to learners worldwide and facilitating distance learning programs.
Educational Resources: Telecommunication networks provide access to vast educational resources,
including online libraries, research articles, and educational videos.

International Communication:
Telecommunication enables international calls, video conferencing, and data exchange, fostering
global collaborations, diplomacy, and cultural exchange.
Global Business: Businesses use telecommunication for international trade, negotiations, and supply
chain management, connecting global markets and fostering economic growth.

In summary, telecommunication serves as the backbone of the modern digital world, connecting
people, businesses, and communities, and driving innovation and progress in various fields. Its
applications are diverse and continue to expand, shaping the way we communicate, collaborate,
and interact in the digital age.

Practice past paper questions – Nov 2021

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 Population of Pakistan
Definitions
1. Birth Rate
Number of live births per 1,000 individuals in a given population within a specific time
period, (usually a year)
Birth rate is calculated as follows:

Birth Rate = (Number of Live Births / Total Population) × 1,000

For instance, if a country with a population of 100,000 people experiences 2,000 live
births in a year, the birth rate would be:
Birth Rate = (2,000 / 100,000) × 1,000 = 20 per 1,000 individuals
2. Death Rate
Also known as mortality rate, is a demographic term that represents the number of
deaths per 1,000 individuals in a given population within a specific time period (usually a
year )
The death rate is calculated using the following formula:

Death Rate = (Number of Deaths / Total Population) × 1,000

For example, if a country with a population of 200,000 people experiences 3,000 deaths
in a year, the death rate would be:

Death Rate = (3,000 / 200,000) × 1,000 = 15 per 1,000 individuals

3. Natural Increase
Natural increase, also known as natural population growth or natural population
increase, refers to the difference between the number of births and the number of
deaths in a given population over a specific time period.
The formula to calculate natural increase is as follows:
Natural Increase = Number of Births - Number of Deaths

4. Natural Decrease
Refers to the situation when the number of deaths exceeds the number of births in a
given population over a specific time period.

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5. Infant mortality rate
Infant mortality rate (IMR) measures the number of deaths of infants under the age of
one year per 1,000 live births in a given population within a specific time period, usually
calculated annually.

The formula to calculate the infant mortality rate is as follows:

Infant Mortality Rate = (Number of Infant Deaths / Number of Live Births) × 1,000

6. Life expectancy
The average number of years a person is expected to live, based on statistical calculations
and mortality data.

7. Population Distribution
Refers to the pattern or arrangement of people across a region. It shows how the
population is spread out and distributed in terms of density and concentration.

8. Population Density
Refers to the number of people living in a specific area or region, typically expressed as
the number of individuals per unit of land area.
The formula to calculate population density is as follows:

Population Density = Total Population / Land Area

9. Demography
Demography is the scientific study of human populations, including their size, structure,
distribution, composition, and dynamics over time.

10. Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

It is a conceptual framework used in demography to explain and understand the
historical and projected population changes in different countries and regions.

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Reasons for High death Rate

 Limited access to healthcare and inadequate disease prevention measures, infectious

diseases such as malaria, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS, and respiratory infections.
 Limited access to quality healthcare services, including medical facilities, trained healthcare
professionals, and essential medicines and vaccines
 Inadequate nutrition and lack of access to sufficient food can weaken immune systems and
make individuals more susceptible to infections and diseases.
 Poor Sanitation and Hygiene facilities lead to the spread of waterborne diseases and other
illnesses.
 Armed conflicts, natural disasters, and humanitarian crises can result in loss of lives,
destruction of infrastructure, and disruption of healthcare services.
 Extreme weather events, climate-related health risks, and exposure to environmental
pollutants
 Lack of Education and Awareness about health and hygiene practices can hinder disease
prevention and health-seeking behaviors.

Reasons for Low Death rate

 access to clean water contributes to lower rates of waterborne and hygiene-related diseases
 covered drains, introduction of sewage systems, well-built toilets improve sanitation
conditions
 improved housing, well-constructed homes with the facilities of electricity, water supply
have made life easier and tension free
 improvements in diet/food intake,
 safer food storage/better access to food, e.g. shops/markets
 More food supply and availability of vast variety of food products reduces malnutrition
 improved/more access to healthcare/medical facilities, such as more hospitals, clinics, mobile
clinics etc.
 more educated and skilled healthcare professionals, specialized doctors, surgeons perform
successful operations and medical procedures
 advanced medical technologies, such as Ultrasound, CT scan, ECG, etc. help in timely diagnosis
and treatments
 improved access to medical workers , trained para medical staff, ambulances etc. timely
responses to medical emergencies and can save lives
 pharmaceuticals, vaccinations, life saving drugs, and public health initiatives help reduce the
incidence and mortality of infectious diseases.
 fewer people doing dangerous jobs/improved working conditions
 education and awareness among common people about health make them conscious
towards healthier lifestyle e.g. exercise/not smoking/ eating healthy food/ following diet
plans [Nov 22]

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Reasons for High Birth Rate
 Cultural and religious norms and beliefs encourage larger families
 strong desire for sons to carry on the family name and support for parents in future/ in old
age
 need for large families to provide labour/work on farms, or in informal sectors to bring in
extra income
 lack of knowledge about family planning, use of contraceptives / fewer options for controlling
family size,
 lack of/high cost of contraceptives so people cannot afford them
 early marriages increases the span for reproductivity and fertility rate
 low / limited economic status of women, females usually stay at home and look after their
children
 high infant mortality rate; so people have more children
 unsuccessful population welfare projects; limited success in tackling high birth rates/so fewer
people benefit/fewer people are educated by such projects [nov 22]

Reasons for Low Birth Rate

 more people want/have/are choosing to have fewer children
 more people are educated/literate .
 more people have a career/job
 people are having children later in life
 reduced reproductivity span
 having a legal age for marriage/women are marrying later
 government and NGOs are raising awareness/educating about of the benefits of having
smaller families
 promoting/funding/investing in family planning projects methods/ services across the
country/in rural/urban areas
 examples of projects, e.g. Greenstar/Sabz Sitara clinics
 providing better access to/awareness of using (free/cheap) contraceptives/making family
planning socially acceptable
 banning child labour/reducing dependence on children for income [nov 22]

Reasons for high population growth rate

 High / increasing Birth rates
 Low/ decreasing death rates
 international migration/ immigration
 internal migration between provinces/districts
 rural to urban migration
 displaced people/refugees
 push or pull factors such as jobs/education/healthcare, etc.
 fleeing war/conflict/disaster/hazards, etc.
 people are living longer/longer life expectancy
 people having larger numbers of children

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Measures to reduce high population growth rate

 Comprehensive Family Planning Services: Expanding access to family planning services and
contraceptives is a crucial step in allowing individuals and couples to make informed choices
about family size and spacing of births.

 Promotion of Education: Improving access to education, especially for girls and women, has
been linked to lower birth rates. Educated individuals tend to have better knowledge about
family planning and tend to have fewer children.

 Healthcare and Maternal Care: Enhancing healthcare services, including maternal and child
health care, can lead to better reproductive health outcomes and reduce child mortality,
which, in turn, can influence family size.

 Economic Incentives and Support: Providing financial incentives or support to families with
fewer children can encourage smaller family sizes and reduce the financial burden associated
with raising children.

 Public Awareness and Education: Conducting public awareness campaigns about family
planning, reproductive health, and the benefits of smaller family sizes can help change
societal norms and attitudes.

 Empowering Women: Promoting gender equality and empowering women to have control
over their reproductive choices can lead to lower birth rates.

 Improved Healthcare Infrastructure: Expanding healthcare infrastructure, particularly in rural

and underserved areas, can lead to better access to family planning services and healthcare,
contributing to lower birth rate.

[Also see table 12.3 in Environment of Pakistan by Huma Naz Sethi ]

Practice Past Paper Question June 2018 – Q 5

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Population Pyramid

Definition
The population pyramid represents the population structure of a country. It shows the
population of males and females in different age groups.

Practice Past Paper Questions June 2020 – Q 5

Map showing Population Distribution and Density

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Physical / Natural Factors affecting population distribution/ density

Physical Factors Features Areas Population

Density
Natural Topography Difficult terrain Highlands , Deserts Low
Plains , Undulating Indus Plain High
Land, Doabs
Climate Highlands , Deserts Low
Extreme Climate , Low Indus Plain , Coasts High
Rainfall , Droughts

Natural Vegetation Moderate , Tolerable Highlands Low

Climate, sufficient
rainfall
Deserts Very low

Water Supply More areas covered Indus Plain High

with forests
Barren Land Balochistan Plateau Very Low

Natural routes Indus Plain Very High

Rivers , Lakes Coast [ Karachi] Very High

Soil No major Rivers , Deserts Very low

Lakes
Indus Plain High

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Human / Economic Factors affecting population distribution/ density

Human Factors Features Areas Population

Density
Economic Job Opportunities , Karachi, Lahore , Faisalabad High
Industrialization, Trade
Lack of Industrial South western Balochistan, Low
development, only small Northern Mountains, Deserts
scale/cottage industries
Tourism Murree , Swat, Kaghan Relatively High
Port Facilities Karachi Very High
Electricity supply Karachi , Lahore, Islamabad, Very High
Peshawar
Unreliable power Supply Rural Areas of KPK , Sindh , Low
Balochistan
Efficient Transport System Karachi, Lahore , Faisalabad Very High

Political Federal or Provincial Capitals Islamabad, Karachi , Lahore, Quetta High

Peshawar
Favorable Government Islamabad, Karachi , Lahore, Quetta High
policies for urbanization and Peshawar , Faisalabad
Industrialization
Lack of Government planning, Balochistan Plateau, deserts Very low
investment and attention

Social Better Housing and Islamabad, Karachi , Lahore, Very High

accommodation Faisalabad
Availability of health , Islamabad, Karachi , Lahore, Quetta High
education and other basic Peshawar , Faisalabad
facilities
Limited access to basic Balochistan Plateau, deserts Low
facilities
Rural Urban Migration Karachi , Hyderabad, Lahore High

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Problems due High Population Density/ Rural Urban Migration

Housing and Infrastructure: There may be inadequate housing options, leading to slums and
informal settlements with poor living conditions. Additionally, the existing infrastructure, such as
roads, water supply, and sanitation systems, may be overburdened and unable to meet the needs
of the growing population. This will lead to load shedding or power cut offs.

Traffic Congestion: Insufficient road capacity, coupled with a large number of vehicles, can result
in frequent traffic jams, longer commuting times, and increased air pollution.

Environmental Degradation: Waste generation becomes a significant issue, and waste

management systems may struggle to cope with the volume of garbage produced. This cause air,
water and land pollution. Dumping of untreated industrial and municipal waste cause
contamination of surface and ground water sources and threaten marine life.

Limited Green Spaces: High population density areas often lack sufficient green spaces due to
deforestation and recreational areas. This can negatively impact the physical and mental well-
being of residents, as access to nature and recreational activities becomes limited.

Pressure on Healthcare and Education: Overcrowded hospitals and schools may lead to
compromised quality of services.

Unemployment and Underemployment: While urban areas with high population density may
attract migrants in search of better opportunities, they may also face challenges related to
unemployment and underemployment. The job market may not be able to absorb the large influx
of job seekers, leading to increased competition for limited job opportunities.

Housing Affordability: High demand for housing in densely populated areas can drive up housing
prices, making it difficult for low-income individuals and families to afford decent
accommodation.

Social Issues: Overcrowding and a higher concentration of people can lead to increased social
issues, such as crime rates, beggary, drug addictions and social conflicts.

Health Risks: High population density areas may be more susceptible to the rapid spread of
contagious diseases due to the close proximity of individuals.

Water Scarcity: In regions with high population density and limited water resources, access to
clean and sufficient water for daily needs can become a challenge.

Unplanned Growth of Cities: Basic principles of town planning are neglected in order to provide
accommodation to too many people. Unplanned constructions by commercial companies are
also posing threat to civic facilities. Moreover, multi-storey buildings are constructed which put
pressure on existing sewerage systems.

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Migration
People moving from one geographical location, region, or country to another with the intention
of establishing a new place of residence.[to live]

Types of Migration

Internal Migration: This involves people moving within the borders of their own country. It can
be rural-to-urban migration (from rural areas to cities), urban-to-rural migration (from cities to
rural areas), or movement within cities or regions.

International Migration: This type of migration involves people crossing international borders to
move from one country to another.

Emigration: Emigration refers to leaving one's home country to settle in another country. It
involves leaving one's country of origin.

Immigration: Immigration is the process of entering and settling in a foreign country. It involves
moving to a new country to establish residence.

Rural-urban migration is a specific type of internal migration where people move from rural or
countryside areas to urban or metropolitan areas within the same country.

Seasonal migration: People move temporarily from one place to another for the purpose of
taking advantage of specific seasonal opportunities or activities.

Major Reasons for Migration

Economic Opportunities: People often move in search of better job prospects, higher wages, and
improved living standards.

Access to quality education: Individuals may move to pursue higher education, attend
specialized schools or universities, or provide educational opportunities for their children.

Family Reunification: Many people migrate to reunite with family members who have already
moved to another location. Family reunification is often a primary reason for migration, as people
seek to be with spouses, parents, siblings, or other relatives.

Escape from Conflict and Violence: Refugees and asylum seekers often migrate to escape war,
conflict, persecution, or violence in their home countries. These forced migrants seek safety and
protection in other countries.

Environmental Factors: Environmental migration occurs when people are compelled to move
due to environmental changes or disasters, such as natural disasters (e.g., hurricanes, floods, and
earthquakes), droughts, or long-term environmental degradation (e.g., desertification, rising sea
levels).

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Political Reasons: Political instability, repression, and human rights abuses can drive people to
seek refuge or asylum in other countries. Political migrants often flee their home countries to
escape persecution or to advocate for political change.

Healthcare: Access to quality healthcare can be a factor in migration, especially for individuals
with serious medical conditions. People may move to countries with better healthcare
infrastructure and services.

Marriage and Relationships: Some individuals migrate to be with a spouse or partner who resides
in another country. This is often related to family reunification or marriage.

Retirement: In some cases, individuals choose to migrate to a different location for retirement,
seeking a more favorable climate, lower cost of living, or a specific lifestyle.

Cultural and Lifestyle Preferences: People may migrate to areas that align with their cultural,
religious, or lifestyle preferences. This can include moving to areas with a particular cultural
community, religious congregation, or social environment.

Reasons for Rural Urban Migration

Rural Push Factors Urban Pull Factors

Limited Economic Opportunities Employment Opportunities
Agricultural Challenges Higher Wages
Poverty Access to Education
Limited Access to Education Healthcare Services
Lack of Healthcare Diverse Cultural and Recreational Activities:
Social and Cultural Isolation Infrastructure and Services
Infrastructure and Services Access to Markets
Frequent natural disaster Networking and Social Opportunities
Mechanization in farms Security and Safety
Feudal pressure Access to Social Services

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Rural Push Factors

Limited Economic Opportunities: Rural areas may have fewer job opportunities and lower wages
compared to urban centers. Lack of diverse industries and limited access to markets can hinder
economic growth and employment prospects.

Agricultural Challenges: In regions where agriculture is a primary livelihood, factors such as land
degradation, soil infertility, droughts, floods, or crop failures can push rural residents to seek
alternative livelihoods in urban areas.

Poverty: Rural areas often face higher poverty rates than urban areas. Limited access to basic
services, education, healthcare, and infrastructure can exacerbate poverty, leading people to
migrate in search of a better quality of life.

Limited Access to Education: Inadequate educational facilities and limited access to quality
education can limit the opportunities available to rural youth. Families may migrate to urban
areas to provide better educational prospects for their children.

Lack of Healthcare: Rural areas may lack adequate healthcare facilities and medical services.
People facing health issues or in need of specialized medical care may need to migrate to urban
areas for treatment.

Social and Cultural Isolation: Rural communities may experience social isolation, particularly for
individuals seeking a broader social and cultural experience. Urban areas often provide more
diverse social networks and cultural activities.

Infrastructure and Services: Deficient infrastructure, including roads, electricity, sanitation, and
clean drinking water, can negatively impact the quality of life in rural areas. This lack of
infrastructure can be a push factor for migration.

Environmental Degradation: Environmental challenges, such as deforestation, soil erosion,

water pollution, and natural disasters, can disrupt rural livelihoods and force people to migrate
in search of more stable environments.

Inadequate Technology and Connectivity: Limited access to technology and the internet can
hinder economic and educational opportunities. Rural areas may lack the digital infrastructure
needed for remote work and online education.

Social Unrest and Conflict: In some rural areas, social unrest, ethnic conflicts, or political
instability can create an unsafe environment, prompting people to flee to more stable regions.

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Urban Pull Factors

Urban pull factors are conditions or attractions that draw individuals or families from rural areas
or other locations to urban centers. Some key urban pull factors include:

Employment Opportunities: Urban areas often have a more diverse and robust job market with
a wide range of industries and sectors. The promise of better job opportunities, higher wages,
and career advancement can attract job seekers from rural areas.

Higher Wages: Urban jobs tend to offer higher wages compared to rural jobs, which can be a
significant incentive for individuals seeking to improve their economic prospects.

Access to Education: Urban areas typically have a higher concentration of educational

institutions, including schools, colleges, and universities. This makes it easier for families to
access quality education for their children.

Healthcare Services: Cities often have advanced healthcare facilities, specialized medical care,
nd a larger number of healthcare professionals. Access to better healthcare can be a pull factor,
especially for individuals with health concerns.

Diverse Cultural and Recreational Activities: Urban areas offer a wide range of cultural,
entertainment, and recreational activities, including theaters, museums, sports events, and
nightlife. This cultural diversity and entertainment options can be appealing to people seeking a
vibrant social life.

Infrastructure and Services: Urban areas typically have better infrastructure, including paved
roads, public transportation, electricity, sanitation, and access to clean drinking water. These
amenities contribute to a higher quality of life.

Access to Markets: Urban areas provide easier access to markets for selling agricultural products
or other goods. Farmers and entrepreneurs from rural areas may migrate to urban centers to
expand their customer base.

Networking and Social Opportunities: Cities offer opportunities for networking, building social
connections, and forming professional relationships, which can be valuable for career growth and
personal development.

Cultural Diversity: Urban areas are often more ethnically and culturally diverse than rural areas.
This diversity can foster tolerance, cross-cultural experiences, and exposure to different
perspectives.

Transportation Hubs: Cities often serve as transportation hubs with access to airports, train
stations, and major highways. This facilitates travel and trade, making urban areas attractive to
businesses and individuals alike.

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Innovation and Technology: Urban centers tend to be hubs of innovation, technology, and
research. People working in fields such as tech, research, or creative industries may migrate to
cities to access these opportunities.

Security and Safety: Some urban areas are perceived as safer and more secure than certain rural
or conflict-prone regions, which can attract individuals seeking safety and stability.

Access to Social Services: Urban areas typically offer a wider range of social services, including
social welfare programs, housing assistance, and support for vulnerable populations.

It's important to note that the specific pull factors can vary from one urban area to another and
are influenced by regional economic conditions, social factors, and infrastructure development.
Additionally, the perception of these pull factors can vary among individuals, and the decision to
migrate is often influenced by a combination of factors.

[For problems caused by Rural – Urban migration in Urban Areas , see ‘Problems due High Population
Density/ Rural Urban Migration ‘ above ]

Problems faced in Rural Areas

Some of the key problems faced by rural areas due to rural-urban migration include:

Population Decline: As people migrate to urban areas, rural communities may experience
population decline, particularly among younger age groups. This demographic shift can have
negative implications for local economies, schools, and community vitality.

Labor Shortages: Rural areas may face labor shortages, especially during critical agricultural
seasons. The departure of young, able-bodied workers can hinder agricultural productivity and
food production.

Aging Population: With younger generations leaving for urban opportunities, rural areas often
have aging populations. This can strain healthcare systems and lead to reduced social and
economic vitality.

Reduced Access to Services: As populations decline, rural areas may struggle to maintain
essential services, such as healthcare facilities, schools, and public transportation. This can result
in reduced access to basic services for those who remain in rural communities.

Economic Challenges: The outmigration of the working-age population can weaken local
economies. Smaller consumer bases and reduced economic activity can lead to businesses
closing or downsizing, leading to job losses.

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Dependency on Remittances: In some cases, rural communities become dependent on
remittances sent back by family members who have migrated to urban areas. While these
remittances can provide financial support, they may not lead to sustainable local economic
development.

Land Fragmentation: In some regions, rural-urban migration can lead to land fragmentation as
land is sold or divided among family members. This can result in smaller and less productive
landholdings for those who remain in rural areas.

Social Disintegration: Rural outmigration can disrupt social structures and community bonds, as
families are separated, and traditional lifestyles are altered. This can lead to a sense of isolation
and loss of cultural heritage.

Environmental Impact: As people migrate away from rural areas, land use patterns may change.
Abandoned agricultural land may be left fallow or repurposed, potentially affecting local
ecosystems.

Limited Investment: Rural areas may receive fewer resources and investments from
governments and private sectors compared to urban areas. This can hinder the development of
infrastructure and economic opportunities.

Education Issues: Rural schools may face declining enrollments, making it difficult to maintain
quality education and offer a diverse range of educational opportunities.

It's important to note that not all rural areas experience the same problems due to rural-urban
migration, and the specific challenges can vary widely depending on factors such as location,
economic conditions, government policies, and the scale of migration. Efforts to address these
challenges often involve strategies for rural development, investment in infrastructure, and
initiatives to create employment opportunities and improve the overall quality of life in rural
areas.

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Employment

Employment refers to the state of being engaged in paid work or labor in exchange for
compensation or wages.

Unemployment is a term used to describe the situation in which individuals who are willing and
able to work, and are actively seeking employment, are unable to find suitable job
opportunities.

Underemployment: Individuals are employed in jobs that are inadequate or suboptimal in terms
of their skills, qualifications, or desired working hours.

Disguised unemployment, also known as hidden unemployment or underutilization of labor,

refers to a situation in which individuals appear to be employed, but their work is not contributing
significantly to the overall productivity of the economy or is redundant.

In other words, it's a form of unemployment in which people are employed in jobs that do not
fully utilize their skills and abilities, and their presence in the workforce does not contribute
meaningfully to increased output or economic growth

Disguised unemployment is commonly associated with the agricultural sector. In subsistence

farming, for instance, there may be more family members working on a farm than necessary to
maintain the existing level of production.

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 Causes of Unemployment

Cause Description
The workforce is expanding faster than the economy can
Population Growth create jobs, leading to a surplus of labor
Economic Underdevelopment Low industrialization, energy crisis , poor infrastructure
such as link roads, highways etc. and limited economic
diversification
Mismatch of demand and Supply Gap between the skills acquired by the workforce and
the demands of the job market.
Mechanization Use of machines in farms led to redundancy as less
workers are needed
Agricultural Dominance Employs large portion of population but there is
seasonal unemployment after harvesting specially
Development of Information IT sector in industry has reduced the number of workers
Technology in organizations leaving them unemployed
Political Instability Political instability and frequent changes in government
can create uncertainty in the business environment,
discouraging investment and job creation
Limited Foreign Investment A lack of foreign direct investment and economic
instability can hinder job creation in various sectors.
Education System Challenges Limited access to quality education, a focus on rote
learning, and inadequate career guidance, all of which
affect the employability of graduates.
Solution Description
Promote Economic Growth and Encourage foreign and domestic investments, develop
Industrialization and implement industrial policies, support small scale
industries
Boost Agricultural Productivity Implement modern agricultural practices for all year
production, promote crop diversification and value
addition
Invest in Education and Skills Quality education at all levels and promote technical
Development and vocational education and training (TVET) programs.
Align education and training programs with the
demands of the labor market, Offer career counseling
and guidance services
Entrepreneurship and Small Facilitate access to credit and financial services for
Business Support aspiring entrepreneurs and small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs). Provide training and mentorship
programs to help individuals start and manage their own
businesses.
Infrastructure Development Invest in energy infrastructure, transportation networks
Promote Export-Oriented Set up industries with export potential Provide
Industries incentives and support to exporters

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Self Help Scheme
A self-help scheme, also known as a self-help program or self-help initiative, is a community-
based effort in which individuals or groups come together to address common challenges or
meet specific needs through collective action and mutual support.
These schemes aim to empower participants to take control of their circumstances, improve
their well-being, and achieve their goals through shared resources, skills, and efforts.
Advantages
Collective Action: Self-help schemes rely on the collective efforts and resources of participants.
Individuals or groups work together to identify issues, set goals, and implement solutions.
Mutual Support: Participants in self-help programs provide emotional, practical, or financial
support to one another. This mutual assistance can help individuals overcome challenges and
obstacles.
Empowerment: Self-help initiatives aim to empower individuals to take ownership of their
problems and solutions. Through active participation, individuals build self-confidence and
develop skills to improve their lives.
Autonomy: Participants in self-help schemes have a degree of autonomy and control over
decision-making processes. They have a say in how the program is structured and run.
Education and Training: Self-help programs often provide education and training to
participants, helping them acquire the knowledge and skills needed to address their specific
challenges. For example, financial literacy training in a self-help savings group.
Disadvantages
Limited Resources: Self-help initiatives often rely on limited resources, both financial and
human. This can constrain the scale and impact of the programs.
Coordination Challenges: Coordinating and sustaining self-help efforts can be complex,
particularly in larger communities or when dealing with diverse groups with varying interests.
Dependency on Volunteers: Self-help initiatives often rely on volunteers or community leaders
to organize and manage activities.
Sustainability Concerns: Maintaining the long-term sustainability of self-help projects can be
challenging, as it often requires continued community engagement, funding, and resources.
Quality Control: In some cases, self-help initiatives may lack quality control mechanisms, which
can result in subpar outcomes or products.
Time-Consuming: Participation in self-help programs can be time-consuming, which may be a
disadvantage for individuals who have other responsibilities, such as work or caregiving.

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The Orangi Pilot Project (OPP) is a pioneering and
innovative community development initiative located in
the Orangi Town neighborhood of Karachi, [Link] was
established in the early 1980s by Dr. Akhtar Hameed Khan,
a prominent Pakistani social scientist and development
practitioner, along with a team of dedicated professionals
and community members. The project aimed to address
the pressing issues of informal settlements and urban
poverty in Karachi, one of Pakistan's largest and most
populous cities.
Key features and components of the Orangi Pilot Project include:
Sanitation and Infrastructure: The OPP initially focused on improving sanitation and
infrastructure in the informal settlements of Orangi Town. It introduced a cost-effective and
community-driven model for building low-cost, decentralized sanitation systems, including
sewers and toilets.
Community Mobilization: Central to the success of the OPP was the active involvement of local
communities in the planning, implementation, and maintenance of development initiatives.
Community members were organized into neighborhood-based committees responsible for
decision-making and project management.
Housing Upgrades: The OPP also addressed housing issues in informal settlements. It promoted
self-help housing schemes, where residents could upgrade their homes with improved
construction materials and techniques.
Microcredit and Livelihoods: It supported microcredit and income-generating activities to
improve the livelihoods of community members.
Education and Training: The OPP provided education and training opportunities to enhance the
skills and capacities of community members. This included vocational training, health education,
and awareness campaigns.
The Orangi Pilot Project is considered a remarkable example of community-based development
and participatory planning. It demonstrated that residents of informal settlements, when
organized and empowered, could take charge of improving their living conditions and
infrastructure. The project's success has inspired similar initiatives worldwide and influenced the
field of development practice.

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Khuda ki Basti – An incremental Development Scheme
In an attempt to reach the lowest income groups in Hyderabad, HDA launched an incremental
development scheme. The scheme is based on the idea that people should settle before houses
and infrastructure are constructed and that, once settled, they can develop their housing and the
infrastructure incrementally, as and when they have the resources.
This scheme was initiated by the former Director General of Hyderabad Development Authority
(HDA) in 1986. The first incremental housing scheme (KKB) was developed at Gulshan-e-Shahbaz
near Hyderabad and has since been followed by four similar schemes in various parts of Sindh
Province including Karachi [Gadap Town].
Restrictive governmental process such as allotment procedures, allocation of loan against land
mortgage or land/property ownership provision for speculative purposes, were replaced with
unconventional and innovative approaches.
Some examples include: targeting needy households; simplification of bureaucratic procedures;
optimizing choice of relocation; providing urban basic services incrementally through community
involvement; providing housing credit facilities to every household; creating direct rapport with
the communities; and periodically monitoring the development process.
Although there is need for improvement of the approach, the results of the first three years of
the incremental development scheme are quite encouraging. Some 2800 families have settled in
KKB and many have been able to construct semi-permanent houses. In those blocks which have
been able to develop a strong community organization, water supply, a sewer system and
electricity are already available. Other blocks have, however, not been able to develop any
infrastructure, owing to a lack of leadership: if they can not manage soon to acquire some basic
infrastructure without an up-front payment and re-introduce the need for cost recovery.
Sustainable Population Growth
Sustainable population growth refers to a rate of population increase that can be maintained
over the long term without harming the well-being of current or future [Link] is achieved
when development in resources is proportionate to population growth. In a country like Pakistan
a population growth rate of less than 0.5% is likely to be sustainable while greater than 1.5% will
not ensure a sustainable population.
The current population of Pakistan in 2023 is 240,485,658, a 1.98% increase from 2022.
Ways to maintain sustainable population growth rate
Increase awareness of the as adverse consequences of rapid population growth.
Educate Women
Access to Family Planning Services
Job Creation
Maximum utilization of nautral and human resources

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Summary of Geography Topics 2. Western Mountains [Location on Map]

Chapter 1- Location of Pakistan ● Safed Koh

● Waziristan Hill
 Location of Pakistan on the world map ● Sulaiman Ranges
with accurate longitudes and latitudes ● Kirther Ranges
 Total Area of Pakistan [KM]
Relief - Location, Direction, Altitude, Passes,
 Location of Provinces
Highest peaks, important towns and valleys
 Location of the Tropic of Cancer, latitudes
Drainage features- Rivers [Kabul Kurram Tochi
30°N, 36°N, longitudes 64°E, 70°E and
Goaml]
76°E
 the Arabian Sea Life style and economic activities
 location of the countries sharing a border
with Pakistan
3. Potwar Plateau [Location on Map]
 the administrative areas of Pakistan –
FATA , Northern Areas] ● Location , Altitude
 Location of named cities: Islamabad, ● Ranges – Salt Range [Map], Khairi Murat,
Muree, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Lahore, Kala Chitta
Faisalabad, Multan, Sialkot, Peshawar, ● Rivers – Soan [map]
Chitral, Gilgit, Hyderabad, Karachi, Quetta ● Formation of Ridges, Residual Hills,
and Gwadar. troughs, Depressions, Ravines
● Bad Land topography
 Strategic importance of Pakistan’s position
[in relation to others in South and Central ● Importance or Lifestyle and economic
Asia.] activities

Chapter 2- Topography
1. Northern Mountains [Location on Map] 4. Balochistan Plateau [Location on Map]

● Karakoram ● Relief –Location of ranges- Makran Coastal

● Hindu Kush , Central Makran , Siahan , Raskoh, Chagai
● Himalayas Hills, Central Bruhi, Toba Kakar, Hala
Ranges, Pub Ranges [map]
Relief – Location, Direction, Altitude, Passes, ● Rivers- Zhob, Dasht, Hingol, Porali, Hub
Highest peaks, important towns and valleys [map]
Drainage features- Rivers [Indus, Chitral, Swat, ● Economic potential of Balochistan
Mastuj ] ● Problems

Life style and economic activities

Environmental threats

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 5. Deserts [Location on Map] Chapter 3 - Climate

● Location of deserts[ on map]- 1. Definitions of Climate and weather

Kharan, Thal, Thar , Nara , Cholistan 2. Climatic Regions and their location on the
[South Eastern] map
● Relief Features- Sand dunes, sand patti,
undulating land. Interdunal valleys 3. Temperature
● Life style and economic activities ● Temperature Key
● Seasonal distributions
● Problems ● Factors affecting temperature
● Effects of temperature

6. Indus Plain 4. Rainfall- [Areas, Timings, Causes and

Effects]
Upper Indus plain [Location on Map]
 Diagram- Cross section of a doab ● Relief
 Features of a Doab - Levees, Active flood ● Convectional rainfall
plain, old flood plains, meanders, Scarp, ● Tropical Cyclone
alluvial Terraces/Bar up land, Piedmont ● Western depression
plains [Definition] ● Monsoon

Lower Indus plain [Location on Map] 5. Climatic Hazards

● Floods and Droughts -Areas, Causes ,
 Features- Levees, Active flood plain, old effects and precautions
flood plains, meanders, Oxbow lakes,
Piedmont plains
Chapter 4 - Water Resources
Location [ on map] 1. Sources of Water
● Location of Rivers [map]
 Rivers- Indus , Jhelum, Chenab Ravi Sutlej
 Doabs - Sindh Sagar, Chaj, Rechna, Bari 2. Uses of Water
 Difference between upper and lower Indus ● Domestic
plain ● Industrial
● Agriculture
Importance or Lifestyle and economic 3. Irrigation – Methods
activities of Indus plain Picture identification and processes of the
following methods:
● Conventional- Shaduf , Persian Wheel, Karez,
Coastal Areas Inundation Canals
● Modern - Perennial Canals, Sprinklers, Tube
● Makran Coast wells
● Sindh Coast ● Difference between lined and unlined canals
● Delta – Swamps ● Linked canals
● Water Logging and Salinity –
Relief Features and definitions Causes, Effects , Precautions

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 4. Dams and Barrages Chapter 6 - Mineral Resources
● Location of Dams and Barrages [map]
1. Definitions
● Factors affecting the location of a dam
2. Difference between Metallic and non- metallic
● Advantages and disadvantages
minerals
● Siltation [Causes, Effects , Precautions]
3. Names of important metallic minerals, two
● Indus Water treaty
uses and two areas each
4. Names of important non- metallic minerals ,
5. Water Pollution
two uses and two areas each
5. Methods of Mining
Chapter 5- Forests
 Surface
 Underground
1. Definition of forest
6. Process of making cement
2. Types – Productive [Natural vegetation]
7. Advantages of developing mining Industries
● Types of Forests and their features
8. Problems of mining industries
● Areas [on Map]
9. Environmental degradation
● Advantages and disadvantages
10. Sustainable use of mineral resources
3. Types- Protection [Man made plantation]
● Irrigated forests
● Areas [on Map] Chapter 7- Power Resources
● Advantages and disadvantages
1. Formation of fossil fuels
4. Deforestation - Causes, Effects , Precautions 2. Layers of Coal [Diagram]
 Factors affecting forests 3. Non- Renewable –
 Sustainable forestry  coal
 oil
Chapter 6- Fishing  natural gas
 nuclear fuel
1. Types of Fishing ● Areas - Distribution on map
● Inland ● Diagrams
● Marine ● Methods of extraction
2. Methods of Fishing ● Transportation
● Conventional/ Subsistence ● Uses [benefits]
● Modern ● Disadvantages

3. Fishing Ports [map] 4. Renewable-

4. Species [ two at least]  Hydel,
5. Fish Farming  Solar
● Distributions  Wind
● Features  Biomass
● Method of rearing fish  Geothermal
● Advantages and disadvantages  Waves and tides
● Areas [ Distribution on map]
6. Sustainable fishing ● Uses [benefits]
● Disadvantages
3

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 Industries
5. Electricity generation Processes with
diagrams and labeling I. Large Scale Industries[ cotton textile, Steel,
Fertilizer, Cement, Sugar mills]
 Thermal
● Factors affecting Location
 Hydel
● Areas [Distribution on map]
 Nuclear
● Raw Material
 Wind
● Advantages of developing Industries
 Geothermal ● Problems
 Biomass
II. Small Scale Industries [ Sports goods,
6. Rural Electrification Surgical goods, Brick kiln, Cottage
 Definition industries]
 Advantages and disadvantages ● Factors affecting Location
● Areas [Distribution on map]
7. National Grid system ● Raw Material
● Advantages of developing Industries
● Problems
Agriculture:
III. Industrial Estates and Zones
I. Types of Agriculture ● Definition – features
● Subsistence ● Advantages of developing Industries
● Cash Crop ● Problems
IV. Formal and Informal Sector of Employment
II. Major Crops [ Wheat , Cotton, Rice, ● Features and examples
Sugarcane] ● Advantages and disadvantage
● Inputs V. Tertiary Industry
● Process of cultivation for each ● Tourism
● Names and uses of by products ● Tourist attraction
● Areas[Distribution on map] ● Factors that influence tourism
industry
III. Other Crops ● Benefits
● Names ● Disadvantages
● Areas
Trade
IV. Livestock Farming
I. Domestic and foreign trade
● Transhumance
● Main imports and exports of Pakistan
● Nomadic
● Main trading partners –[ Map Work]
● Settled
● Uses [importance]
II. Balance of payment and balance of trade
● Problems
● Reasons for negative balance of
payment an how to correct it
V. Factors Affecting Agriculture
● GDP and GNP
VI. Land reforms
III. Trade routes
VII. Sustainable Agriculture
IV. Trading bloc

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Transport and communication
I. Modes of transport [ Road, railways, air, sea
and Dry ports]
II. Routes [Road, railways, air]
III. Benefits
IV. Disadvantages

Population
I. Definition of important terms
● Reasons for high population growth
● Demographic transition model
● Population Pyramid
● Population distribution and density [ map
work]
● Factors affecting population density

II. Employment
● Reasons for unemployment
III. Migration
● In Migation
● Out migration
● Rural - urban Migration
● Rural push and urban pull factors
● Problems
IV. Self-help schemes

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Past Paper Index from 2014-2024
Year Topics Asked Not asked
June 2024 Q1- Mineral Resources  Topography
Q2- Flood Plains , Water Pollution  Climate
Q3- Agriculture [ Sugarcane, cotton] , water
 Fishing
logging and salinity
Q4 -Population [ density, Pyramid]  Forest
Q5- Transport [ Railways ] Trade  Power resources
 Industry

Nov 2023 Q1 - Topography[ desert] , motorway [d]  Water

Q2- Climate  Minerals
Q3- Forest and fishing
 Agriculture
Q4- Power resources [natural gas, renewable ]
 Transport and
Q5- Industry [tertiary, tourism ]
Communication
 Trade
 Population

June 2023 Q1- Topography, Water [d]  Fishing

Q2- Climate, Hydel power [c, d]  Forest
Q3- Agriculture [major crop, livestock]
 Mineral
Q4- Industries [small scale and steel], informal
sector  Transport and
Q5- Population [migration, population density] Communication
 Trade

Nov 2022 Q1- Climate ● Topography

Q2- Agriculture , water ● Water
Q3- Industry – tertiary , ● Fishing
Q4- trade
● Forest
Q-5 Population
● Minerals
● Power resources
● Transport and
Communication

June 2022 Q1- Topography, air ports, large scale industry ● Water
Q2- Topography [Desert], Climate ● Fishing
Q3 – Power resources [coal mine , solar, ● Forest
electricity] ● Minerals
Q4 – Agriculture- Livestock and crop, water [d] ● Industry
Q 5- Population ● Communication
● Trade
● Population

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Nov 2021 Q1- Topography [Potwar] ● Water
Q2- Climate ● Fishing
Q3 – Agriculture , main crops, rice ● Forest
Q4 – Trade ● Power
Q 5- Telecommunication ● Minerals
● Industry
● Transport
● Population

June 2021 Q1- Mineral [Gypsum and limestone] , cement ● Topography

factory ● Climate
Q2- Water.[uses, irrigation] ● Fishing
Q3- Agriculture [wheat]
● Forest
Q4- Industry [fertilizer]
Q5- Population[ employment, literacy] ● Power
● Trade
● Industry
● Transport

Nov 2020 Q1- Water – Persian Wheel , Agriculture ● Topography

Q2 -Air ports, Sea ports ● Water
Q3 -Power resources – Oil ● Climate
Q4 -Forest
● Fishing
Q.5 -Population- Migration, population
distribution ● Mineral resources
● Power – other than oil
● Trade
● Industry

June 2020 Q1 -Industry, education, IT ● Water

Q2 -Topography , Climate ● Forest
Q3 -Power , Coal ● Fishing
Q4 - Agriculture[ mainly fruit farming]
● Industry [others]
Q5 -Population [Pyramid]
● Trade
● Transport

Nov 2019 Q 1 – topography, Deforestation ● Climate

Q 2 – Water resources [dams and Barrages] ● Forests
Q 3 – Industry [Sports goods., Sugar Mills Factors ● Mineral Resources
affecting]
● Power Resources
Q 4- Transport[ road rail dry ports ]
Q 5- Population [ unemployment] ● Agriculture
● Trade
● Fishing

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June 2019 Q.1 - topography , Climate ● Water Resource
Q.2 – Fishing ● Forests
Q.3 – Power Resources [Natural Gas] ● Mineral Resources
Q.4 – Industry [ tourism]
● Power Resources[ Except
Q.5 – Population [Distribution and Migration]
Natural gas
● Agriculture
● Trade
● Industry [Except
Tourism]
● Transport and
communication

Nov 2018 Q.1- Agriculture Major Crops ● Topography

Q.2 – Power Resources [Renewable , Nuclear] ● Climate
Q.3- Trade ● Water Resource
Q.4- Transport and communication[Railways and
● Forests
internet]
Q.5- Population ● Fishing
● Mineral Resources

June 2018 Q.1- Topography , Climate ● Water Resource

Q.2 - Forests ● Fishing
Q.3- Livestock ● Agriculture
Q.4- Industry [ Cotton textile]
● Mineral Resources
Q.5- Population
● Power Resources
● Trade
● Transport and
communication

Nov 2017 Q.1 – Population , Livestock [only 3 marks] ● Water resources

Q.2 – Industry , Population ● Mineral resources
Q.3- Fishing industry, Agriculture ● Power resources
Q.4 - Topography , Transport, Forest
● Trade
Q.5 - Climate Population , Air Routes
● Transport [major part left]

June 2017 Q.1- Agriculture , Population, Livestock ● Climate

Q.2 – Roads , Population ● Fishing industry
Q.3 - Trade , Power resources [coal], ● Forest
communication
● Mineral resources
Q.4 - Water resources
Q.5- Power resources ● Industries

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Nov 2016 Q.1- Climate, Agriculture, Forest ,Tourism ● Water resources
Q.2- Mineral Resources, livestock , Export ● Mineral resources
,fertilizer ● Industries
Q.3- Power resources
● Population
Q.4- Agriculture
Q.5- Infrastructure, Population[b], Fishing
industry

June 2016 Q.1 - Topography , Climate, Population ● Climate

Q.2- Agriculture, Trade, Transport [road] ● Water resources
Q.3- Population , Industries ● Mineral resources
Q.4- HEP, forest [b], Fishing
● Power resources[non
Q.5- Industries , communication, unemployment
renewable]
● Large Scale Industries

Nov 2015 Q.1 Water resources [pollution], Forest , ● Topography

deforestation ● Water resources
Q.2- Power resources , Climate , Land use ● Fishing industry
Q.3- Agriculture
● Population
Q.4- Trade
Q.5 – Industries, Transport [road]

June 2015 Q.1- Climate, Transport ● Water resources

Q.2- Mineral, Thermal Power, Railways ● Fishing industry
Q.3- Agriculture , Population ● Forest
Q.4- Industries, Transport , Trade
● Power resources
Q.5- Population

Nov 2014 Q.1- Water resources , Forest ● Topography

Q.2- large scale Industry[ Steel] , ● Fishing
Q.3- Climate , Agriculture ● Mineral and power
Q.4- Population
resources
Q.5- Transport [Air], Cottage Industry
● Trade

June 2014 Q.1- Agriculture ● Topography

Q.2- Power Resources[ Non renewable] ● Climate
Q3- Transport ● Water resources
Q4- Forests
● Fishing
Q.5- Population
● Mineral
● Industries
● Trade

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 Paper Pattern
Paper 2- Environment of Pakistan

Total Marks: 75 Time: 1 hour 30 minutes [90

minutes]
Total Questions: 5 Questions to attempt: ANY 3 out of 5
Type of questions Mark Skills Description Suggested Time to
range spend on each
question
Map work 1-6 AO1 Label / Shade the areas on the map About 6 to 8
AO4 write the answers in space provided minutes for all the
Graph / charts AO4 Label X or Y axis, read data from the chart and parts of the
interpret, make calculation and comparisons question that use
must use units if you are being asked to provide resources
data.
Photos AO4 Use the photo to answer the question
state or describe 2 or 3 AO1 Be precise. The answers to these questions do not 3-4 minutes
need full explanations but should be more than one
word answer
explain 4 marks AO2 explain why or how or what happens when 4- 5 minutes
give reasons for the points you make instead of just
listing the ideas

Compare 2-4 AO4 Write similarities and differences both 4-5 minutes
To what extent 6 AO2 Write causes, factors, possibilities, limitations,
Or two problems according to the question.
argumentative Give an explanation for every point that you make 10 minutes
statements [make developed statements]
Explain both sides of the argument
Add evaluation and clearly show the examiner which
side of the argument, or which statement you
support

*Assessment Objectives [AOs]- The areas of knowledge, understanding and skills that you will be
assessed on are called assessment objectives.

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