Environmental

Performance in
Construction

A database of embodied
environmental flow coefficients
Published 2024

The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
[Link]

You are free to use, copy, distribute and transmit the work as you like for non-commercial purposes, as long as the
appropriate credit is given, and all existing credits are retained.

The authors disclaim any liability, in whole or in part, arising from information contained in this publication. They do
not take any responsibility for any action taken, decision-made, or result associated with the use of the coefficients
or the database.

Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC) Database

1. Environmental performance in construction 2. Life cycle assessment
3. Environmental flow coefficients 4. Life cycle inventory

Citation: Crawford, R.H., Stephan, A. and Prideaux, F. (2024) Environmental Performance in Construction (EPiC)
Database, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne.

DOI: [Link]/10.26188/5dc228ef98c5a

ISBN: 978 0 7340 5719 8

Website: [Link]

Further enquiries: epic@[Link]

Contents

Foreword 6

Preface 8

Glossary 10

Related Resources 12

1. The Environmental Effects of Construction 15

2. Quantifying Environmental Flows 21

3. Developing the EPiC Coefficients 27

4. Using the EPiC Coefficients 37

5. EPiC Database 47

References 272

Appendices 274
Material coefficients
Concrete and Plaster Products 68
Concrete block 68
Cement mortar 70
Portland cement 72
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) 74
Concrete 20 MPa 76
Concrete 25 MPa 78
Concrete 32 MPa 80
Concrete 40 MPa 82
Concrete 50 MPa 84
Concrete 65 MPa 86
Concrete 80 MPa 88
Concrete 100 MPa 90
Geopolymer concrete 92
Fibre cement sheet 94
Fibre cement weatherboard 96
Gypsum plaster 98
Plasterboard 100
Concrete roof tile 102

Glass 104
Flat glass double glazing 104
Flat glass 106
Laminated glass 108
Toughened glass double glazing 110
Toughened glass 112

Insulation 114
Cellulose insulation 114
Aluminium foil insulation 116
Glasswool insulation 118
Polyester insulation 120
Rockwool insulation 122
Polystyrene (EPS/XPS) insulation 124
Polyurethane (PU) insulation 126

Metals 128
Aluminium bar 128
Aluminium composite panel 130
Aluminium extruded 132
Aluminium sheet 134
Copper pipe 136
Copper sheet 138
Copper wire 140
Cold rolled stainless steel 142
Stainless steel extruded 144
Stainless steel sheet 146
Stainless steel wire 148
 Cold rolled steel 150
Hot rolled galvanised structural steel 152
Hot rolled structural steel 154
Steel bar 156
Steel hollow section extruded 158
Steel pipe 160
Steel sheet corrugated 162

Miscellaneous 164
Asphalt 164
Cellulose-cement block 166
Hempcrete block 168
Magnesium oxide board 170
Strawboard - 50 mm 172
Nylon carpet 174
Wool carpet 176
Silicone 178
Solar hot water system 180
Straw bale 182
Water 184
Wood glue (PVA) 186
Solvent-based paint 188
Water-based paint 190
Wallpaper 192
Natural rubber 194
Synthetic rubber 196

Plastics 198
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) film 198
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe 200
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) film 202
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) pipe 204
Nylon 66 206
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) 208
Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) 210
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) 212
Linoleum 214
Polycarbonate 216
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) 218
Polypropylene (PP) sheet 220
Polyurethane (PU) flexible foam 222
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film 224
Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) 226

Sand, Stone and Ceramics 228

Adobe 228
Clay brick 230
Gravel 232
Rammed earth 234
Recycled aggregate 236
Sand 238
 Sanitary ceramic 240
Dimension stone 242
Ceramic tile 244
Clay roof tile 246

Timber Products 248

Cork slab 248
Hardwood 250
Cross laminated timber (CLT) 252
Glued laminated timber 254
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) 256
Medium density fibreboard (MDF) sheet 258
Oriented strand board (OSB) sheet 260
Particleboard 262
Plywood 264
Structural insulated panel (SIP) 266
Softwood 268
 Foreword
The construction sector provides buildings and infrastructure, and
ultimately habitat for humanity. But our homes and cities come
at a cost, economically and environmentally. Buildings account
for more than a third of global energy use, 39 per cent of global
energy-related greenhouse gas emissions, and create a huge
demand for freshwater resources. Construction and demolition
waste together, are the largest contributor to landfill.

This represents a unique opportunity. We can shift from being the

problem to being the solution if we dramatically change the way
we design and construct our buildings and cities. Understanding
how they perform is the first step. This starts with a greater
awareness of the resource demands and environmental effects
that result from our use of construction materials.

In the early 1990s the late Graham Treloar developed a passion

for assessing and improving the environmental performance of
buildings. This led him to develop a new method for quantifying
the resource flows associated with materials, specifically
their embodied energy. He went on to combine process and
input-output data, pioneering what is now known as the Path
Exchange hybrid approach, which he subsequently used to
develop embodied energy coefficients for a range of construction
materials.

Since then, Graham’s work has been further developed and

continues to be used by practitioners and researchers all over the
world. The coefficients contained within the EPiC Database build
upon this work and several decades of internationally recognised
research by a group of dedicated, world-leading researchers.

6
The EPiC Database will be an invaluable resource for anyone
involved in the planning, design, construction, operation or
management of our buildings and cities. It provides decision-
makers with critical information needed to understand, predict
and improve the environmental performance of building and
engineering projects.

Graham died from cancer at the age of 39 and was my much-

admired brother-in-law. He is survived by two daughters. If
we continue under the current ‘business-as-usual’ emissions
scenario, his two girls are likely to live to experience the
catastrophic reality of our planet under three to four degrees
warming.

The release of the EPiC Database is well-timed, given the urgent

need to reduce the environmental effects of construction while
still providing habitat for humanity. The EPiC Database gives the
industry the information needed to make informed choices that
we all can live with. It is especially pleasing to know that it will
continue a legacy left by others.

Tanya Ha
Science journalist, environmental advocate and author

7
 Preface
The construction of buildings and built infrastructure assets is a major contributor to global
resource demands, waste production, and greenhouse gas and pollutant emissions. Therefore,
the construction industry has an important role to play in reducing the current and future
effects of human activities on the natural environment. In order to facilitate this, information on
how various design and construction-related decisions affect the environment, are needed. If
key decision makers, such as asset owners, architects, engineers and contractors have access
to detailed information about the resource demands and environmental effects associated
with materials, they are in a better position to make decisions around material selection in
order to improve the overall environmental performance of a project. While some data already
exists for informing these critical decisions, it is often based on disparate data sources, limited
in coverage to only a fraction of the environmental flows associated with the production of any
given material, and difficult or costly to access.

The aim of the EPiC Database is to provide open-access data on the environmental flows
associated with construction materials, based on a consistent methodological approach and
ensuring maximum coverage of environmental flows, helping to reduce the environmental
effects of construction. The database contains embodied energy, embodied water and
embodied greenhouse gas emissions coefficients for a broad range of common construction
materials. The approach used to compile the EPiC coefficients is based on over 65 years of
research, stemming from the work of researchers like Walter Isard and Wassily Leontief. More
recently, the work of Graham Treloar forms the most critical basis for the EPiC coefficients.
Graham’s work on hybrid methods for compiling life cycle inventories and quantifying
embodied energy, as well as its subsequent development in recent years provides the EPiC
Database with consistency and broad coverage of material-related environmental flows.

8
A key strength of the EPiC Database is its high level of transparency. The approach used to
compile the coefficients is outlined in detail within this book and has been peer-reviewed
in multiple scientific papers. The data used is made available as open-access (see Related
Resources) and individual material fact sheets provide further insight into the environmental
flows associated with each material. This EPiC Database is an invaluable resource for anyone
involved in the construction industry, including material specifiers, planners, architects,
engineers, asset owners, developers and contractors. The EPiC coefficients can be used to
compare materials or quantify the environmental flows associated with entire construction
projects. They can also be integrated into broader life cycle assessment studies to ensure that
the environmental effects of construction projects are optimised across their entire life cycle.

The EPiC Database would not have happened were it not for the support and contribution
of a number of people and organisations. The database and associated resource hub are
the result of a four-year Australian Research Council funded Discovery Project – ‘Improving
the Environmental Performance of Australian Construction Projects’ (DP150100962) and
we acknowledge the Australian Research Council for their support. In addition to this, The
University of Melbourne has provided on-going support and facilities to the project, which is
also greatly appreciated. We also acknowledge Thomas Wiedmann and Man Yu as members
of the Discovery Project team for their contribution to the broader project and Paul-Antoine
Bontinck for his many years of dedication to the project and in particular his assistance in
compiling the raw data and the environmental flow coefficients contained within the EPiC
Database.

9
 Glossary
Direct environmental flows The natural resource inputs and waste, greenhouse gas
emissions and pollutant outputs associated with a main
production process, at the point of the activity

Embodied energy The primary energy required by all of the activities associated
with a production process and the share of energy used in
making equipment and other supporting functions (i.e. direct
and indirect)

Embodied greenhouse gas The greenhouse gas emissions (in carbon dioxide equivalent)
emissions released during all of the activities associated with a
production process and the share of emissions associated
with making equipment and other supporting functions (i.e.
direct and indirect)

Embodied water The water required by all of the activities associated with a
production process and the share of water used in making
equipment and other supporting functions (i.e. direct and
indirect)

Environmental flows The natural resource inputs and waste, greenhouse gas
emissions and pollutant outputs associated with the
production and provision of goods and services

Environmental Product A document outlining the findings of a process-based life

Declaration cycle assessment of a particular product, covering a range of
environmental flows

Environmentally-extended A life cycle inventory analysis technique for quantifying

input-output analysis inputs and outputs of a product, process or activity, based on
environmentally-extended input-output data

Environmentally-extended Top-down macro-economic data covering the entire

input-output data economy that is combined with environmental flow data, by
economic sector

Functional unit A reference unit for the performance of a product or process

Hybrid analysis A life cycle inventory analysis technique for quantifying inputs
and outputs of a product, process or activity that combines
the use of process data and environmentally-extended input-
output data

Indirect environmental flows The natural resource inputs and waste, greenhouse gas
emissions and pollutant outputs associated with the
processes and activities upstream of, and supporting, a main
production process

Inputs The resources required by a process (e.g. energy or raw

materials)

10
Life cycle The stages through which something (e.g. a product or a
building) passes during its life (usually from raw material
acquisition to final disposal)

Life cycle assessment A tool for measuring the environmental effects associated
with a product, process or activity over its life cycle from raw
material acquisition through to production, use and disposal

Life cycle impact assessment The third phase of a life cycle assessment, which involves the
evaluation of the magnitude and significance of potential
environmental effects of a product, process or activity across
its life cycle, based on the findings from a life cycle inventory
analysis

Life cycle inventory analysis The second phase of a life cycle assessment, which involves
quantifying the inputs to, and outputs from, a product across
its life cycle

Node A single input or output of an environmental flow within a

product system, at a particular point of a pathway

Outputs The waste, emissions, materials and products produced by

a process

Pathway A collection of nodes through which goods or services and

related environmental flows are transferred within a product
system

Primary energy The energy contained within a primary energy source (e.g.
coal, oil or natural gas) that has not been processed or
converted

Process analysis A life cycle inventory analysis technique for quantifying inputs
and outputs of a product, process, or activity, by breaking it
down into its constituent parts and tracing the inputs and
outputs through the supply chain

Process data Bottom-up industry data of inputs and outputs to a product

system related to specific products, processes or activities

Product system A collection of processes used to produce or provide a good

or service

System boundary Defines the processes included within a product system

Total environmental flow The total environmental flow required by a process or

requirement economic sector, per unit of product output

11
 Related Resources

Open Access Data

In the interest of data transparency, all data used in the compilation of the environmental
flow coefficients contained within the EPiC Database can be found on the EPiC Database
Figshare site at: [Link]
Construction_EPiC_Database/68177#

The code for the object-oriented programming used to conduct structural path analysis is also
made freely available on GitHub ([Link] with further information
located at: [Link] It is available as a Python package
(pyspa) from the central Python package index (PyPi).

EPiC Resource Hub

The EPiC Resource Hub is an online resource that supplements this book, providing further
resources on life cycle assessment, a searchable and interactive version of the EPiC Database
as well as further information on the compilation of the EPiC coefficients. The EPiC Resource
Hub can be accessed at: [Link]

12
Publications
The following publications supplement the EPiC Database and provide additional insight
into the methods and data used to compile the EPiC coefficients.

Crawford, R. H., Stephan, A. & Prideaux, F. (2022) The EPiC database: Hybrid embodied
environmental flow coefficients for construction materials. Resources, Conservation and
Recycling, 180, 106058. [Link]

Crawford, R.H., Stephan, A., & Prideaux, F. (2019) A comprehensive database of environmental
flow coefficients for construction materials: closing the loop in environmental design. Paper
presented at the Revisiting the Role of Architecture for ‘Surviving’ Development, Architectural
Science Association, Roorkee, India.

Stephan, A., Crawford, R.H., & Bontinck, P.-A. (2019) A model for streamlining and automating
path exchange hybrid life cycle assessment. The International Journal of Life Cycle
Assessment, 24(2), 237-252. [Link]

Crawford, R.H., Stephan, A., & Schmidt, M. (2018) Embodied Carbon in Buildings: An
Australian Perspective. In F. Pomponi, C. D. Wolf, & A. Moncaster (Eds.), Embodied Carbon in
Buildings. Cham: Springer. [Link]

Crawford, R.H., Bontinck, P.-A., Stephan, A., Wiedmann, T., & Yu, M. (2018) Hybrid life cycle
inventory methods – A review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 1273-1288. [Link]
org/10.1016/[Link].2017.10.176

Crawford, R.H., Bontinck, P., & Stephan, A. (2018) Establishing a comprehensive database of
construction material environmental flow coefficients for Australia. Paper presented at the
Engaging Architectural Science: Meeting the Challenges of Higher Density, Architectural
Science Association, Melbourne, Australia.

Bontinck, P.-A., Crawford, R. H., & Stephan, A. (2017) Improving the uptake of hybrid life cycle
assessment in the construction industry. Procedia Engineering, 196, 822-829. [Link]
org/10.1016/[Link].2017.08.013

Crawford, R.H., Bontinck, P.-A., Stephan, A., & Wiedmann, T. (2017) Towards an automated
approach for compiling hybrid life cycle inventories. Procedia Engineering, 180, 157-166.
[Link]

13
1

THE ENVIRONMENTAL
EFFECTS OF CONSTRUCTION
The construction of built assets, such as buildings, roads, bridges and
other infrastructure demands a large volume of natural resources
and results in significant effects on the natural environment. The
production of construction materials is one of the largest contributors.
 The Environmental Effects of Construction
The construction industry is responsible for the construction of buildings, roads, bridges,
railways, energy networks and other infrastructure assets. These assets are typically long-lived
and require a significant quantity of natural resources in their construction and throughout
their life, from pre-construction activities through to their final disposal. They also generate
considerable quantities of waste, greenhouse gases and pollutants.

Construction Project Life Cycle Information

Pre-construction Product stage Construction Use stage End of life stage Beyond system
stage process stage boundary

A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 C1 C2 C3 C4 D

Deconstruction demolition
Refurbishment
Construction-installation

Replacement
Maintenance
Raw material supply

Preliminary
Repair

Reuse,

Waste processing
studies,
Use

Recovery,
Manufacturing

consultations Recycling
Transport

Transport

and design

Transport
B6 Operational energy use potential

Disposal
B7 Operational water use

Demand for natural resources and production of waste, greenhouse gases and pollutants occur
across the building life cycle (based on EN 15978:2011 and EN 15643-5:2017)

Each stage of the life cycle requires direct and indirect resource inputs and results in direct and
indirect outputs to the environment. Energy, water and raw materials are essential resources
for almost all stages of the built asset life cycle. Likewise, each life cycle stage results in the
production of waste, greenhouse gases and pollutants. These inputs and outputs can also be
referred to as environmental flows.

16
Direct environmental flows
Direct flows are those associated with a main process, such as heating a building, operating
machinery or melting iron ore. These flows represent direct inputs of resources or outputs of
waste, emissions and pollutants for specific life cycle stages.

Indirect environmental flows

Almost every stage of the built asset life cycle requires inputs of goods and services from other
industries. The environmental flows associated with the production of these goods or provision
of these services are direct flows for the industry in which they are produced. However, they
are considered indirect flows associated with the subsequent life cycle stages in which they
are ultimately used. For example, direct energy use associated with manufacturing steel is an
indirect energy flow associated with building construction.

The energy required for manufacturing steel is an indirect energy flow associated with the
construction sector

17
 What are embodied environmental flows?
The use of natural resources, such as energy, water and raw materials, the generation of waste,
and the release of emissions and pollutants are integral to the production of most goods
and provision of most services. These environmental flows are considered to be ‘locked in’
once the goods are produced. The term embodied is commonly used to reflect that these
flows have already occurred. The embodied environmental flows of a construction project
include all of the direct and indirect environmental flows associated with the production of
construction materials, construction activities and the provision of services that support the
entire construction process.

Construction results in a broad range of environmental effects that are geographically and
temporally dispersed. The type and extent of these effects depend on the scale and type of direct
and indirect environmental flows associated with a construction project. Each environmental
flow can be converted to an effect on the natural environment, using tools such as life cycle
assessment (ISO 14040:2006). This conversion, also known as life cycle impact assessment
(LCIA), is necessary as different flows will have different environmental consequences. For
example, energy from fossil fuels contributes much more to global warming than renewable
energy sources do.

Embodied energy
The term embodied energy refers to the total energy required to produce a particular
good or provide a particular service. It covers all direct and indirect energy flows for
that good or service. While environmental flows cover a broad range of resource
inputs and outputs to the environment, embodied energy only considers energy
flows. Other commonly considered environmental flows include embodied water
and embodied greenhouse gas emissions.

Want more information about embodied energy?

See [Link]

18
The construction and use of buildings and other built assets represents a considerable
proportion of global environmental effects caused by human activity. Buildings alone account
for 36% of global energy use, 39% of global energy-related greenhouse gas emissions and
40% of global material use (International Energy Agency and the United Nations Environment
Programme, 2018; Roodman, 1995). Understanding the environmental flows and effects
associated with the construction industry is therefore of critical importance.

of the world’s of the world’s of energy-related of landfill waste

energy is used by materials are used greenhouse gas comes from
buildings by buildings emissions are construction and
associated with demolition
buildings

19
2

QUANTIFYING
ENVIRONMENTAL FLOWS
Environmental flows associated with construction
can be quantified using data from life cycle inventory
databases, environmental product declarations, and using
environmental flow coefficients.
 Quantifying Environmental Flows
In order to determine the environmental effects caused by the construction industry and
prioritise efforts to improve its environmental performance, it is necessary to understand the
environmental flows associated with construction projects.

Environmental flows are typically quantified using an approach known as process analysis.
This begins with drawing a diagram outlining all of the individual processes that form part of
the project being assessed. This could be anything from a simple structure up to an entire city.
This process flow diagram helps identify the processes for which data will need to be collected.

Gravel
mining
Gypsum Concrete
mining production
Cement
production
Raw blend Clinker
processing production

Iron ore
mining Steel scrap

Oxygen Pig iron Steel

production production production

Coke Oxygen
Coal mining production production
Building
construction
Caustic soda Al. fluoride
production production

Calcite Calcined lime Aluminium

mining production production

Caustic soda Alumina

production production

Bauxite Bauxite
mining processing

Limestone Lime Soda ash

mining production production
Glass
production
Sand mining

Example of a process flow diagram

22
The data to be collected depends on the focus of the analysis. This can range from a single
environmental flow for one life cycle stage (e.g. the energy used during the construction
process) to a full life cycle assessment that considers a broad range of flows across the
entire project life cycle, from raw material extraction to eventual demolition and disposal of
materials.

Data is collected for each process identified in the process flow diagram. This can include
a combination of process, product and location-specific data. Types of data that might be
collected include quantities of resource inputs, such as units of raw materials, energy or
water; raw material characteristics and their source; hours of operation for machinery and
equipment; machinery and equipment production efficiencies; production capacity and
output; and transport modes and distances.

Data can be collected from a range of sources, including physical observation, utility bills,
orders, invoices, and other company records. Once all available data has been collected, it is
then collated to form a life cycle inventory for the product or project, specifying all inputs and/
or outputs for the specific processes considered.

As an example, a life cycle inventory for steel may include: quantities of raw materials (e.g. iron
ore, coke and limestone); as well as flows of energy, water, greenhouse gas emissions, waste
and various pollutants associated with transporting raw materials and factory production
processes (such as operating the blast furnace, steel casting, rolling and finishing).

23
 Life cycle inventory databases
Databases containing pre-compiled life cycle inventories can significantly reduce the time
involved in collecting data and analysing the environmental performance of a construction
project. These databases contain life cycle inventories for a wide range of products, across
multiple sectors (e.g. agriculture, energy, manufacturing) and across the different life cycle
stages of a product. They will often contain data collected from process analyses conducted
by industry, researchers and environmental consultants. These databases are commonly
accessed from within environmental assessment tools which make identifying relevant
processes much easier.

Environmental Product Declarations or EPDs

The generation of Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs) is becoming increasingly
common among material and product manufacturers. An EPD summarises the findings of a
process analysis for a specific product or a group of similar products. While much of the data
contained within an EPD is often generated and sourced from a single producer, generic data
from life cycle inventory databases can also be used to fill in data gaps. An EPD typically covers
a broad range of environmental flows and often a range of life cycle stages. The guidelines for
compiling an EPD are outlined in ISO 14025:2006.

Environmental flow coefficients

An environmental flow coefficient represents a complete life cycle inventory of a specific
material or product for a single environmental flow. For example, an embodied energy
coefficient will give the total direct and indirect energy flows (or inputs) for the production of
a particular material or product. Ideally it will cover all processes involved in its production
from raw material extraction to the factory gate. These coefficients are measured in units of
flow (e.g. megajoules of energy or litres of water) per unit of material (e.g. tonnes or cubic
metres), or per product. Environmental flow coefficients are useful for quantifying a single
environmental flow, whereas life cycle inventory databases and EPDs can be more useful for
understanding a broader range of environmental flows and effects associated with a product.

24
Limitations of process analysis
Collection of process data can have a significant influence on the time and costs involved in
identifying environmental flows and compiling a life cycle inventory for a particular product,
especially for more complex products like buildings. Conducting a process analysis can be
incredibly time intensive and sufficient resources are rarely available for undertaking these for
an entire construction project. Life cycle inventory databases, EPDs and environmental flow
coefficients can considerably streamline the process.

When undertaking a process analysis, it is unrealistic to include every single process. Resource
constraints and supply chain complexity generally limit the ability for this to be achieved.
Hence, a boundary is usually drawn around the processes to be included, usually based
on those which are seen to be important or for which data is readily available. Many other
processes are excluded, considered to be insignificant or just not able to be identified.

The processes excluded from a process analysis have been shown to represent around 50% of
total environmental flows for moderately complex products (Norris, 2001) and up to 87% for
more complex products (Born, 1996; Crawford, 2005, 2008; Hendrickson et al., 1998; Lenzen
& Dey, 2000). For very energy or resource-intensive manufacturing processes, such as metals
and glass production, this issue is reduced, due to the much higher significance of the main
production process (where process data is typically readily available).

Environmental flows excluded within a process-based life cycle inventory may include those
associated with: the production of minor materials; basic material conversion into fabricated
or more complex products; higher order processes in the supply chain; providing services,
such as finance, insurance and telecommunications to all supply chain organisations; and
those associated with the production of capital machinery and equipment.

25
 Filling data gaps in process-based life cycle inventories
Data gaps in process-based life cycle inventories can be significant. Minimising these gaps by
collecting additional process data is preferred due to its relevance for particular processes.
While this is often not possible due to the sheer complexity of the supply chain, alternative
data sources can be used. One such source, known as environmentally-extended input-output
(EEIO) data is useful as it uses a whole-of-economy approach. This means that it includes all
activity that occurs within a national or global economy and can thus be used to fill any gaps
that exist in a process-based life cycle inventory.

Monetary-based transactions generally represent a flow of goods or services within and

between industries and supply chains. These transactions represent sales and purchases
made by organisations and individuals within the economy. All of these transactions are
summarised in input-output (IO) tables published by statistics agencies such as the Australian
Bureau of Statistics (ABS). This data can be converted to environmental terms by combining
it with economic sector based environmental flow data from national statistics, such as
energy accounts. Environmental flows for individual or groups of goods or services can then
be determined, in environmental flow units (e.g. megajoules of energy or litres of water) per
monetary unit.

Combining data from a process analysis with environmentally-extended input-output data

is known as hybrid analysis. There are a number of ways that this data can be combined,
but ultimately the aim is to use the environmentally-extended input-output data to model
environmental flows that have not been included in a process-based life cycle inventory.

Hybrid analysis
Want more information about hybrid analysis?
See Hybrid life cycle inventory methods – A review (Crawford et al., 2018b)

26
3

DEVELOPING THE EPiC

COEFFICIENTS
Completeness, consistency and transparency have been
prioritised in the development of the EPiC coefficients.
Industry-based process data is combined with national
macro-economic data using a comprehensive hybrid
approach.
 Developing the EPiC Coefficients
The environmental flow coefficients contained within the EPiC Database cover commonly
used construction materials and products. The scope of the EPiC coefficients includes the
processes associated with the production of these materials and products, including raw
materials supply, transport and manufacturing (A1-A3 in EN 15978:2011). This scope is also
known as cradle-to-gate.

Construction Project Life Cycle Information

Pre-construction Product stage Construction Use stage End of life stage Beyond system
stage process stage boundary

A0 A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 C1 C2 C3 C4 D

Deconstruction demolition
Refurbishment
Construction-installation

Replacement
Maintenance
Raw material supply

Preliminary
Repair

Reuse,

Waste processing
studies,
Use

Recovery,
Manufacturing

consultations Recycling
Transport

Transport

and design
Transport
B6 Operational energy use potential

Disposal
B7 Operational water use

Life cycle inventory scope for EPiC coefficients

The environmental flows covered within the EPiC Database include energy (megajoules),
water (litres) and greenhouse gas emissions (kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent).
As the coefficients include all direct and indirect flows, they represent the total embodied
environmental flows associated with the production of the materials and products covered.
The coefficients can therefore also be referred to as embodied energy, embodied water and
embodied greenhouse gas emissions coefficients.

28
Key Characteristics
In the development of the EPiC Database a number of key characteristics were prioritised –
completeness, consistency and transparency.

Completeness
To ensure that all processes are accounted for, from cradle to gate, the EPiC coefficients
have been produced using a hybrid analysis, filling gaps in available process data with
environmentally-extended input-output data. Life cycle inventories based on process
analysis suffer from varying degrees of incompleteness. This variation in coverage of the
processes included makes comparability between materials and products problematic. The
completeness of the system boundary of EPiC coefficients ensures a full coverage of the
supply chain and enables meaningful comparisons to be made.

Consistency
The EPiC coefficients have been developed using a common methodology, as well as
consistent data source (where practicable), approach to data integration, and data cut-off
rules. The use of coefficients from different sources, or based on data from different sources,
limits the ability to reliably compare the environmental performance of different materials or
products. It can also result in misleading findings at a whole project level. The approach used
to produce the EPiC coefficients maximises comparability between materials or products and
improves the reliability of assessments.

Transparency
To maximise transparency within the EPiC Database, the methods and data used to produce
the coefficients have been made freely available through open-access platforms (see Related
Resources). In contrast, environmental flow coefficients are often treated as a black box, with
little information about how they were compiled or the source of the data used. This can
reduce the level of confidence in their use. The open access to all metadata behind the EPiC
Database allows in-depth sensitivity analyses to be performed and the relevance of individual
coefficients to be assessed.

29
 Data
The EPiC Database relies on two main sources of data, namely process and environmentally-
extended input-output data. These data types are described below along with details about
how they were processed.

Process data
The EPiC Database uses the Australian Life Cycle Inventory Database Initiative (AusLCI), which
is collected as a matrix of processes from the LCA software Simapro. AusLCI is a process-
based life cycle inventory containing process data collected from Australian sources, and
supplemented with ecoinvent data (Frischknecht et al., 2005) when no local data is available
(Grant, 2016). The European ecoinvent data is made Australia-specific by modifying energy
generation and transmission processes. Additional processes were also created to represent
processed materials, such as rolled steel or extruded aluminium where these didn’t already
exist. In total, this process-based life cycle inventory contains 4 693 individual processes.

Environmentally-extended input-output data

Environmentally-extended input-output data is used in the compilation of the EPiC Database
and is sourced from official Australian government reports, for the 2014-2015 financial year. A
detailed description of the input-output data sources is available in Crawford et al. (2018a) and
the data is freely available (see Related Resources and Appendices A and B).

Input-output tables (representing monetary transactions between sectors of the economy)

were collected from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) at a disaggregation level of 114
sectors (ABS, 2018). Energy accounts were collected from the Department of Industry (2016),
water accounts from the ABS (2016) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions accounts from the
Department of the Environment and Energy (2015).

30
Data processing
Prior to the compilation of the EPiC coefficients, the process and environmentally-extended
input-output data need to be further processed. The final data format is represented by a
square matrix of process/input-output data and a list of processes/economic sectors and their
environmental flow requirements (direct and total) along with other relevant metadata.

Energy, water and greenhouse gas emissions accounts were available at lower sectoral
resolution than the input-output data and had to be manually disaggregated to match the
resolution of the input-output data. The allocation and disaggregation of environmental
accounts was based on the expenditure for each economic sector in the input-output tables.
This enabled the calculation of direct and total environmental flow requirements for each
environmental flow, and each economic sector.

Process data was collected in a standardised format requiring minimal manipulation. The
entire AusLCI database (Grant, 2016) was collected as a square matrix (PRé Sustainability,
2018). The direct and total environmental flow requirements for each process were calculated
using raw data from AusLCI and the square matrix.

31
 Hybrid approach
The EPiC coefficients have been produced by combining the process and environmentally-
extended input-output data described above using a hybrid approach known as Path Exchange
hybrid analysis (Lenzen & Crawford, 2009). This approach uses an input-output model of the
national economy, into which available process data is integrated, or exchanged. This ensures
that the entire supply chain of a material is covered, across the economy, while using as much
detailed and relevant process data as possible.

The following diagram outlines the steps involved in producing the EPiC coefficients, which
are further described below.

1 Define construction material and specify its attributes

P IO
2 Select process
database
Select input-output
database

Conduct Structural Conduct Structural

3 Path Analysis (SPA) on Path Analysis (SPA) on
process of interest corresponding sector

4 Identify corresponding process and

input-output nodes in the supply chain

Sum direct flows of Calculate total

5 identified process flows for
nodes remaining nodes

Convert remaining
6 $ nodes to physical
unit of material

Sum process and input-output

7 COEFF
components to obtain the hybrid
coefficient

Summary of the hybrid approach used to produce the EPiC coefficients

32
Step 1. Define construction material or product
The first step involves defining a particular construction material or product (e.g. hot rolled
steel), and its attributes (e.g. density, basic price, functional unit). This definition is critical as it
dictates the selection of a relevant process and economic sector in Step 3.

Step 2. Select databases

The second step is to select which process and input-output database are to be used. For the
EPiC coefficients, the same process and input-output databases (as described above) were
used.

Step 3. Conduct structural path analyses

Once the process and input-output databases have been selected, the relevant process and
economic sector that represent the material are identified in order to conduct a structural
path analysis (SPA). This analysis involves mapping the supply chain of the material using
both the process and input-output data. The outcome of this analysis is two lists of mutually
exclusive nodes, one based on process data and the other based on input-output data. Each
node represents a good (such as a material) or service (such as transportation) provided from
one process or organisation to another, and an associated environmental flow.

Step 4. Matching process and input-output nodes

The fourth step consists of reviewing the process and input-output structural path analyses
of the material’s supply chain and identifying equivalent nodes. A fundamental assumption
in the compilation of the EPiC coefficients is that the process and input-output databases
provide two representations of the same supply chains. This means, for instance, that the
analysis of the process ‘concrete 20 MPa, at batching plant/AU U’ and the input-output sector
‘Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed Concrete Manufacturing’ provide two representations of the
production of concrete and its supply chain. It is then possible to identify equivalent nodes
between the supply chains of the two data types.

33
 Step 5-7. Hybridisation and calculation of an EPiC coefficient
The fifth, sixth and seventh steps consist of combining the process and input-output data to
produce the hybrid environmental flow coefficient. Based on the two structural path analyses,
for the input-output nodes where an equivalent process node is available, the associated
environmental flow is replaced with the process-based environmental flow. This avoids
double counting, ensures system boundary completeness and maximises specificity. During
this process, all input-output nodes that were replaced by process nodes are excluded and the
remaining input-output data is deemed to represent all of the environmental flows associated
with the nodes not covered by the process data.

A word on automation
It is important to highlight the novelty in the automation of the steps described above. These
steps are typically performed manually, but in this instance were significantly automated
through the development and use of object-oriented Python programming. This enabled the
consistent, transparent and streamlined creation of the EPiC coefficients. Apart from creating
a dedicated graphical user interface to compile the coefficients (Stephan, 2018), multiple
aspects were automated, including: the processing of process and input-output data, the
structural path analysis of process and input-output data, the exchange of process and input-
output nodes, the calculation of EPiC coefficients, and exporting all data associated with the
compilation of a coefficient.

Hybrid approach
Want more information about the hybrid approach used?
See A model for streamlining and automating path exchange hybrid life cycle assessment
(Stephan et al., 2019) and Hybrid life cycle inventory methods – A review (Crawford et al.,
2018b)

34
Example compilation of an EPiC coefficient
This section provides an example of the process involved in compiling an EPiC coefficient.
This example calculates the embodied greenhouse gas emissions of 10 mm plasterboard. The
following diagram summarises the results obtained from each step.

Define construction material and specify its attributes

1 Name: Plasterboard
Category: Minerals
Country of production: Australia
Functional unit: m2
Type: Plaster Cost: A$7.67/m2 (2014)

P Select process database IO Select input-output database

2 AusLCI shadow database Australian IO data, 2014-15

Conduct Structural Path Analysis Conduct Structural Path Analysis

(SPA) on process of interest (SPA) on corresponding sector
3 Plasterboard, 10mm, at plant/ AU U
Process nodes extracted: 97 873
Plaster and Concrete Product Manf.
IO nodes extracted: 51 736
Coverage of total emissions: 89% Coverage of total emissions: 84%

Identify corresponding process and input-output nodes in the supply chain

4 Input-output nodes replaced: 119 (58% of total IO-based emissions)

Process nodes used: 1 355 (55% of total process-based emissions)
Process nodes excluded: 96 518 (45% of total process-based emissions)

Sum direct flows of identified Calculate total flows for

5
process nodes remaining nodes

2.7 kgCO2e/m2 0.41 kgCO2e/A$

$
Convert remaining nodes to

6
physical unit of material

3.1 kgCO2e/m2

Sum process and input-output components to obtain

7
the hybrid coefficient
COEFF
2.7 + 3.1 = 5.8 kgCO2e/m2

Example of step by step process for calculating the EPiC embodied greenhouse
gas emissions coefficient for 10mm plasterboard

35
4

USING THE EPiC

COEFFICIENTS
The EPiC coefficients are used to assess the embodied
energy, water or greenhouse gas emissions of
construction projects. This step-by-step guide
streamlines the assessment process to assist with
design and project decision-making.
 Using the EPiC Coefficients
This section describes how to use the EPiC coefficients to quantify the embodied
environmental flows of a construction project. While the coefficients can be integrated into
existing environmental assessment tools that automate the quantification of embodied
environmental flows, this section describes how to conduct this assessment manually. This
process ensures all material as well as all non-material-related environmental flows are
included.

How can the coefficients be used?

There are a number of ways that the EPiC coefficients can be used:

• To select materials with the lowest environmental effects for one or across a range of
environmental flows, informing design aimed at maximising project environmental
performance;

• To quantify the embodied environmental flows associated with a construction

project or a larger development, and identify areas with greatest potential for​
improvement;

• As part of a life cycle assessment to understand the life cycle environmental

performance of a construction project and identify areas or life cycle stages with
greatest potential for improvement;

• To demonstrate compliance with specific performance benchmarks.

38
Quantifying environmental flows
This section provides a step-by-step description of the use of the EPiC coefficients to quantify
the environmental flows of a construction project.

• Energy
Select environmental
1 flow/s to be quantified
• Water
• Greenhouse gas emissions

• Functional unit
2 Define and describe
the project
• List of main materials
• Quantity of main materials

Quantify environmental • Select EPiC coefficient

3 flows for each main • Confirm units
• Quantify environmental flows
material

4 Quantify total environmental flows associated with all

main materials

Quantify environmental • Production of minor materials

5 flows associated with • Transport and Other services
• Assembly/Construction
additional processes

Quantify total
• Main materials
6 environmental flows • Additional processes
for the project

Steps for using the EPiC coefficients to quantify embodied environmental flows

39
 Step 1.
The environmental flow/s to be quantified are selected.

• Energy

• Water

• Greenhouse gas emissions

Step 2.
The project being assessed is defined and described.

• Establish functional unit.

• Develop a list of the main materials contained within the project - This information
can usually be extracted from construction documentation, including drawings,
specifications and schedules. If a bill of quantities (BoQ) is available, this can
significantly streamline this process.

• Determine the quantity of each main material contained within the project, including
on-site wastage, if relevant.

Sample – defining the project

Material Quantity Unit Coefficient Flow

Cross laminated timber 10 m 3

Cork slab – 10 mm 10 m2

Water-based paint 100 m2

40
Step 3.
The embodied environmental flow/s for each of the main materials contained within the
project are quantified.

• Select relevant coefficient for each material from the EPiC Database.

• Ensure material quantities are in identical units to the coefficients.

• Multiply main material quantities by the respective coefficient.

Sample – quantifying embodied environmental flow of main materials

Material Quantity Unit Coefficient Flow

Cross laminated timber 10 m 3
9 607 MJ/m 3
96 070 MJ
Cork slab – 10 mm 10 m2 215 MJ/m2 2 150 MJ
Water-based paint 100 m 2
8.7 MJ/m 2
870 MJ

Step 4.
The total embodied environmental flow/s associated with the main materials is quantified.

• Sum environmental flow/s of main materials.

Sample – quantifying total embodied environmental flow of main materials

Material Quantity Unit Coefficient Flow

Cross laminated timber 10 m 3
9 607 MJ/m 3
96 070 MJ
Cork slab – 10 mm 10 m2 215 MJ/m2 2 150 MJ
Water-based paint 100 m2 8.7 MJ/m2 870 MJ
Total 99 090 MJ

41
 Step 5.
The embodied environmental flows associated with the assembly/construction and minor
materials of the project are quantified. The EPiC coefficients include the environmental flows
for all processes associated with the production of the individual materials and products (A1-
A3 as per EN 15978:2011 and EN 15643-5:2017). When these individual materials or products
are used together within a larger or more complex product (such as a building or infrastructure
asset), additional environmental flows are required. This is represented by A4-A5 within EN
15978:2011 and EN 15643-5:2017 and includes those associated with:

• transport of materials to a construction site – for example, the fuel used to operate
trucks;

• the assembly or construction process – for example, the energy used to cut and fix
materials or operate machinery; and

• providing services needed to support the assembly or construction process – for

example, the energy used to provide financial, insurance, telecommunications,
regulatory, employment, and professional services to the organisations involved in
constructing the project.

In addition to this, further minor materials may be required that are often not quantified as
part of Step 2. This could include fixings such as nails and screws, electrical wiring and fittings.

Direct flows Direct flows Direct flows Direct flows

Further Further Further Further
of resources of resources of resources of resources
upstream upstream upstream upstream
processes processes processes processes

Direct flows Direct flows Direct flows Direct flows

of resources Production of resources Transport of resources Other of resources Production
of main of services of minor
materials materials materials

Direct flows
of resources Assembly/
Construction
Additional processes and flows

Additional processes to be included as part of Step 5

42
Environmental flows for these additional processes could be quantified using a process
analysis. However, the complexity of identifying the source of all main materials and tracing
their journey from factory to site, or identifying the environmental flows associated with the
provision of services, is unlikely to be feasible on an individual construction project. Also,
without physical quantities of minor materials, coefficients are not useful. Environmentally-
extended input-output data can be used in the absence of process data for these additional
processes. This is a unique characteristic of the hybrid approach, accounting for processes
and related environmental flows not typically included in a process analysis.

• Identify relevant economic sector responsible for the construction of the project
being assessed – for construction projects this will be one of: Residential Building
Construction, Non-Residential Building Construction or Heavy and Civil Engineering
Construction (for full sector list, see Appendix A).

• Identify total environmental flow requirement of relevant economic

sector for the environmental flow/s being considered (as per Appendix B).

Relevant Economic Sector Total Flow Requirement

Residential Building Construction 6.26 MJ/A$

• Select table of sector-based inputs for relevant economic sector responsible for the
construction of the project (Appendix C – construction sectors provided).

• For each main material quantified in Step 2, select the relevant economic sector
responsible for its production and identify its total environmental flow requirement for
the environmental flow/s being considered (as per table selected from Appendix C).

Sample – identifying total environmental flow of sectors representing main materials

Material Relevant Economic Sector Total Flow

Cross laminated timber Other Wood Product Manufacturing 0.589 MJ/A$
Cork slab – 10 mm Other Wood Product Manufacturing 0.589 MJ/A$
Water-based paint Polymer Product Manufacturing 0.138 MJ/A$

43
 • Sum the total environmental flow requirements of each unique economic sector for
the environmental flow/s being considered.

Sample – quantifying total environmental flow of sectors representing main materials

Material Relevant Economic Sector Total Flow

Cross laminated timber Other Wood Product Manufacturing 0.589 MJ/A$
Cork slab – 10 mm Other Wood Product Manufacturing *0.589 MJ/A$
Water-based paint Polymer Product Manufacturing 0.138 MJ/A$
Total Flows 0.727 MJ/A$

*this flow is not unique and thus not included to avoid double counting.

• Subtract the sum of environmental flows representing main materials for the flow/s
being considered from the total environmental flow requirement of the relevant
economic sector.

Sample – quantifying total additional embodied environmental flows per A$ of project

Material Relevant Economic Sector Total Flow

Cross laminated timber Other Wood Product Manufacturing 0.589 MJ/A$
Cork – 10mm slab Other Wood Product Manufacturing 0.589 MJ/A$
Water-based paint Polymer Product Manufacturing 0.138 MJ/A$
Sector Total Flow (6.26 MJ/A$) – Total Flows 0.727 MJ/A$
= Additional Flows 5.53 MJ/A$

• Multiply the total additional environmental flows by the cost of construction.

Sample – quantifying total additional embodied environmental flows for the project

Additional Flows per A$ Cost of Construction Additional Flows per Project

5.53 MJ x A$100 000 = 553 000 MJ

44
Step 6.
Total embodied environmental flows for the project are quantified.

• Add the total embodied environmental flows associated with the main materials
(from Step 4) to the total additional environmental flows (from Step 5).

Sample – combining main material flows and additional flows

Flows for Main Materials Additional Flows Total Flows per Project
99 090 MJ + 553 000 MJ = 652 090 MJ

Notes

1. The proportion of additional flows in the sample above is higher than in reality. This is
due to the limited number of materials quantified, and thus the small amount of process
data used.

2. Materials and environmental flows associated with on-site wastage are not typically
accounted for in the material quantities extracted from a BoQ. Thus, as part of Step 2,
wastage multipliers may be used to ensure these are covered.

45
5

EPiC DATABASE
A database of embodied environmental flow coefficients for a
broad range of construction materials and products. Detailed
factsheets provide insight into each material and their respective
embodied energy, water and greenhouse gas emissions.
48
EPiC Database
The EPiC Database contains hybrid environmental flow coefficients for a broad range of
construction materials and products. A total of 1 227 coefficients are provided across three
environmental flows - energy, water and greenhouse gas emissions. The reported embodied
energy coefficients are in primary energy terms, covering the entire energy supply chain.

Materials and products are grouped into eight broad categories:

Concrete and plaster products

Glass

Insulation

Metals

Miscellaneous

Plastics

Sand, stone and ceramics

Timber products

While the database does not contain an exhaustive list of materials, additional materials can
be added, especially where process data in the form of environmental product declarations
or life cycle inventories already exist, as further data becomes available, or new materials are
developed.

This section provides a summary of all coefficients contained within the EPiC Database,
followed by individual material factsheets which provide further details about each material.

49
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Blocks Concrete block kg 2.6 3.7 0.24
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

390 × 190 × 90 mm no. 24.3 34.2 2.2

390 × 190 × 140 mm no. 29.6 41.6 2.7
390 × 190 × 190 mm no. 35.2 49.4 3.2
Cement Cement mortar kg 3.9 3.7 0.35
Portland cement kg 11.8 7.8 1.3
Concrete Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) kg 8.5 8.4 0.71
Block - 600 × 200 × 100 mm no. 56.4 55.4 4.7
Block - 600 × 200 × 150 mm no. 84.5 83 7
Block - 600 × 200 × 200 mm no. 113 111 9.4
20 MPa m³ 2 404 4 154 328
20 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 2 322 4 145 305
20 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 2 184 4 084 278
20 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 2 026 4 011 251
20 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 1 896 3 967 225
20 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 1 766 3 906 198
20 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 1 630 3 839 172
20 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 2 366 4 147 309
20 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 2 288 4 100 287
20 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 2 186 4 034 263
20 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 2 136 3 988 243
20 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 2 059 3 941 221
20 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 1 980 3 894 198
25 MPa m³ 2 691 4 277 368
25 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 2 580 4 215 338
25 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 2 427 4 150 309
25 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 2 275 4 086 279

50
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Concrete 25 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 2 121 4 007 250
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

25 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 1 989 3 954 223

25 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 1 838 3 890 193
25 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 2 633 4 186 342
25 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 2 547 4 172 318
25 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 2 462 4 121 293
25 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 2 379 4 054 269
25 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 2 292 4 000 244
25 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 2 207 3 949 220
32 MPa m³ 3 015 4 300 416
32 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 2 860 4 239 383
32 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 2 682 4 165 349
32 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 2 484 4 066 314
32 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 2 328 3 999 281
32 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 2 150 3 928 247
32 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 1 974 3 856 212
32 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 2 922 4 248 389
32 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 2 821 4 189 361
32 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 2 704 4 103 331
32 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 2 625 4 047 304
32 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 2 525 3 990 275
32 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 2 425 3 932 247
40 MPa m³ 3 476 4 355 497
40 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 3 304 4 286 457
40 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 3 087 4 195 415
40 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 2 854 4 075 373
40 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 2 652 3 995 332

51
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Concrete 40 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 2 436 3 909 290
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

40 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 2 220 3 823 248

40 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 3 380 4 294 462
40 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 3 257 4 223 428
40 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 3 106 4 120 392
40 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 3 016 4 052 358
40 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 2 895 3 984 324
40 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 2 772 3 915 289
50 MPa m³ 4 247 4 625 626
50 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 4 197 4 513 573
50 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 3 925 4 404 521
50 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 3 634 4 246 467
50 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 3 382 4 158 416
50 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 3 111 4 052 364
50 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 2 839 3 947 312
50 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 4 294 4 528 580
50 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 4 140 4 442 537
50 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 3 958 4 325 492
50 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 3 841 4 235 450
50 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 3 686 4150 407
50 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 3 535 4 062 362
65 MPa m³ 5 246 4 730 728
65 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 4 905 4 649 665
65 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 4 593 4 522 605
65 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 4 278 4 378 544
65 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 3 962 4 237 484
65 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 3 645 4 113 423
65 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 3 333 3 991 363
65 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 5 027 4 668 675

52
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Concrete 65 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 4 856 4 570 625
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

65 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 4 686 4 426 575

65 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 4 524 4 330 526
65 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 4 356 4 233 476
65 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 4 187 4 134 426
80 MPa m³ 6 203 4 959 851
80 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 5 800 4 863 779
80 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 5 432 4 717 708
80 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 5 064 4 528 638
80 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 4 696 4 386 567
80 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 4 329 4 244 496
80 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 3 960 4 102 426
80 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 5 946 4 888 790
80 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 5 751 4 775 733
80 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 5 561 4 608 675
80 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 5 377 4 498 617
80 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 5 180 4 388 559
80 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 4 989 4 276 502
100 MPa m³ 7 478 5 297 1011
100 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 6 997 5 186 926
100 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 6 565 5 012 843
100 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 6 130 4 787 760
100 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 5 696 4 621 676
100 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 5 262 4 455 593
100 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 4 832 4 287 510
100 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 7 176 5 216 940
100 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 6 955 5 084 873
100 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 6 740 4 888 805
100 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 6 532 4 759 738

53
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Concrete 100 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 6 308 4 629 671
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

100 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 6 090 4 500 604

Geopolymer 20 MPa m³ 1 397 4 111 95.5
concrete
25 MPa m³ 1 500 4 153 105
32 MPa m³ 1 752 4 256 121
40 MPa m³ 2 020 4 310 145
50 MPa m³ 2 323 4 320 175
Fibre cement Sheet kg 18.3 19.8 1.6
4.5 mm m² 119 129 10.2
6 mm m² 159 172 13.5
7.5 mm m² 198 214 16.9
18 mm m² 475 514 40.6
24 mm m² 634 686 54.2
Weatherboard kg 26.1 31.3 2.2
205 × 7.5 mm - per m² wall m² 304 365 26
230 × 7.5 mm - per m² wall m² 284 341 24.2
300 × 7.5 mm - per m² wall m² 260 313 22.3
150 × 16 mm - per m² wall m² 549 660 46.9
180 × 16 mm - per m² wall m² 549 660 46.9
Plaster Gypsum plaster kg 6.5 6.5 0.44
Plasterboard - 10 mm m² 86.1 85.6 5.8
Plasterboard - 13 mm m² 95.7 97.9 6.5
Tiles Concrete roof tile kg 4.3 5.7 0.39
Flat glass Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 336 1 558 101
GLASS

Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 336 1 558 101

Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 441 1 671 108
Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 441 1 671 108

54
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Flat glass Sheet kg 28.5 32.2 2
GLASS

3 mm m² 222 251 15.7

4 mm m² 296 335 21
5 mm m² 370 418 26.2
6 mm m² 444 502 31.4
10 mm m² 740 837 52.4
12 mm m² 888 1 004 62.9
Laminated Sheet kg 36.4 59.7 2.8
glass
6.38 mm m² 604 991 46.8
8.38 mm m² 794 1 302 61.4
10.38 mm m² 983 1 613 76.1
12.38 mm m² 1 172 1 923 90.7
Toughened Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 536 1 772 115
glass
Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 536 1 772 115
Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 635 1 879 122
Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 635 1 879 122
Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 729 1 980 128
Double glazing - [Link] m² 1 729 1 980 128
Double glazing - [Link] m² 2 254 2 543 165
Double glazing - [Link] m² 2 254 2 543 165
Double glazing - [Link] m² 2 779 3 107 202
Double glazing - [Link] m² 2 779 3 107 202
Sheet kg 29.8 30.2 2.2
3 mm m² 232 235 17.1
4 mm m² 310 314 22.8
5 mm m² 387 392 28.5
6 mm m² 465 471 34.2
10 mm m² 775 785 56.9
12 mm m² 929 942 68.3

55
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Cellulose General kg 12.1 20.5 0.79
INSULATION

Insulation - 80 mm (R2) m² 48.3 82.1 3.1

Insulation - 100 mm (R2.5) m² 60.3 103 3.9
Other Aluminium foil insulation m² 25.7 33.8 1.9
Glasswool insulation kg 57.5 40.7 4
Insulation - 80 mm (R2) m² 115 81.4 8
Insulation - 100 mm (R2.5) m² 144 102 10.1
Polyester insulation kg 158 148 6.5
Insulation - 75 mm (R1.5) m² 238 221 9.8
Insulation - 90 mm (R2.0) m² 285 266 11.8
Rockwool insulation kg 57.1 62.2 3.8
Insulation - 80 mm (R2) m² 320 348 21.1
Insulation - 100 mm (R2.5) m² 400 435 26.4
Polystyrene Rigid foam kg 155 841 8
(EPS/XPS)
Insulation - 72 mm (R2) m² 251 1 362 12.9
Insulation - 90 mm (R2.5) m² 314 1 703 16.2
Polyurethane Rigid foam kg 293 690 17.5
(PU)
Insulation - 44 mm (R2) m² 387 911 23.1
Insulation - 55 mm (R2.5) m² 484 1 138 28.8
Aluminium Bar kg 345 219 29.6
METALS

Flat - 12 mm × 3 mm m 33.7 21.3 2.9

Flat - 40 mm × 3 mm m 112 71.2 9.6
Flat - 100 mm × 6 mm m 562 356 48.2
Round - 16 mm dia. m 188 119 16.2
Round - 50 mm dia. m 1 838 1 164 158
Round - 150 mm dia. m 16 542 10 479 1 420
Composite panel m² 1 196 1 174 102

56
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Aluminium Extruded kg 358 182 29.4
METALS

Angle kg 383 244 32.7

Round tube - 25 mm dia., 3.2 mm thick m 114 57.9 9.4
Round tube - 60 mm dia., 10 mm thick m 871 442 71.5
Round tube - 80 mm dia., 6 mm thick m 705 357 57.8
Square tube - 20 mm, 1.6 mm thick m 59.7 30.3 4.9
Square tube - 40 mm, 2 mm thick m 152 76.8 12.4
Square tube - 100 mm, 3 mm thick m 574 291 47.1
Extruded powdercoated kg 415 251 33.6
Sheet kg 295 160 26.7
1.6 mm m² 1 280 693 116
3 mm m² 2 400 1 300 217
6 mm m² 4 800 2 600 434
Copper Pipe kg 150 289 10.1
12.7 mm outer dia., 0.91 mm thick m 45.1 87.0 3
19.05 mm outer dia., 1.02 mm thick m 77.3 149 5.2
40 mm outer dia., 1.22 mm thick m 199 384 13.4
Sheet kg 226 389 15.1
0.9 mm m² 1 819 3 132 121
1.2 mm m² 2 426 4 175 162
2 mm m² 4 043 6 959 270
3 mm m² 6 064 10 438 405
Wire kg 671 897 41.8
Stainless steel Cold rolled kg 123 168 9.2
Extruded kg 155 138 11.8
Sheet kg 97.6 140 7.2
Sheet products kg 238 263 14.7

57
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Stainless steel Wire kg 226 253 13.9
METALS

Bare - 2 mm dia. m 5.5 6.2 0.34

Bare - 3.2 mm dia. m 14.1 15.8 0.87
Rope - 1.6 mm dia. m 2.4 2.7 0.15
Rope - 4 mm dia. m 14.2 15.9 0.87
Rope - 8 mm dia. m 57.8 64.9 3.6
Rope - 12 mm dia. m 127 143 7.8
Steel Cold rolled kg 51.7 77.6 3.7
Hot rolled galvanised structural steel kg 43 43.2 3.3
Hot rolled structural steel kg 38.8 37.1 2.9
Reinforcement bar - 6 mm dia. m 8.6 8.2 0.64
Reinforcement bar - 8 mm dia. m 15.3 14.6 1.1
Reinforcement bar - 12 mm dia. m 34.5 32.9 2.6
Bar kg 29.5 44.3 2.1
Extruded hollow section kg 54.8 45.2 4.6
Square tube - 20 mm, 1.6 mm thick m 55 45.4 4.6
Square tube - 50 mm, 2 mm thick m 172 142 14.5
Square tube - 100 mm, 4 mm thick m 688 568 57.8
Pipe kg 42.9 78.1 3.5
21.3 mm outer dia., 2.6 mm thick m 51.4 93.7 4.2
42.4 mm outer dia., 2.6 mm thick m 110 199 9
88.9 mm outer dia., 4 mm thick m 359 654 29.6
165.1 mm outer dia., 4.9 mm thick m 831 1 512 68.5
Sheet corrugated kg 79.6 73.4 5.5
per m² m² 259 239 17.9
per m² - pre-painted m² 293 286 24.9

58
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Asphalt General kg 4.2 2.9 0.2
MISCELLANEOUS

Blocks Cellulose-cement block m³ 3 805 3 344 345

285 × 125 × 95 mm no. 12.9 11.3 1.2
348 × 160 × 100 mm no. 21.2 18.6 1.9
350 × 172 × 95 mm no. 21.8 19.1 2
400 × 160 × 120 mm no. 29.2 25.7 2.7
400 × 160 × 200 mm no. 48.7 42.8 4.4
440 × 240 × 110 mm no. 44.2 38.8 4
Hempcrete block m³ 6 319 76 976 434
600 × 300 × 100 mm no. 114 1 386 7.8
600 × 300 × 150 mm no. 171 2 078 11.7
600 × 300 × 200 mm no. 227 2 771 15.6
600 × 300 × 300 mm no. 341 4 157 23.4
Boards Magnesium oxide board kg 25.2 27.9 2.3
6 mm m² 118 130 10.7
9 mm m² 177 196 16
10 mm m² 196 217 17.8
12 mm m² 235 261 21.3
18 mm m² 353 391 32
20 mm m² 392 435 35.5
Strawboard - 50 mm m² 259 396 15.1
Carpet Nylon tufted - average m² 465 1 149 31.2
Nylon tufted - quality m² 484 1 161 33.3
Nylon tufted - prestige m² 785 1 866 55.3
Nylon woven - average m² 364 908 23.9
Nylon woven - quality m² 376 911 24.8
Wool tufted - average m² 360 1 343 41
Wool tufted - quality m² 407 1 545 49.1
Wool tufted - prestige m² 509 1 945 64.2

59
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Other Silicone kg 224 589 13.8
MISCELLANEOUS

Solar hot water system no. 24 537 30 097 1 863

Straw bale kg 3.1 113 0.29
900 × 450 × 350 mm no. 49.6 1 815 4.7
900 × 450 × 400 mm no. 56.7 2 074 5.4
2 400 × 900 × 600 mm no. 454 16 593 42.9
2 400 × 900 × 900 mm no. 681 24 889 64.4
2 400 × 1 200 × 900 mm no. 907 33 185 85.8
Water kg 0.017 1.02 0.0013
Wood glue (PVA) kg 106 171 5.4
Paint Solvent-based kg 124 197 6.3
per m² m² 9.3 14.7 0.47
Water-based kg 111 206 6.8
per m² m² 8.7 16.1 0.53
Paper Wallpaper kg 263 448 16
per m² m² 45.5 77.5 2.8
Rubber Natural kg 75.2 92.1 2.5
Synthetic kg 92.8 111 3.7
High density Film kg 147 172 6.4
PLASTICS

polyethylene
(HDPE) 100 μm m² 13.8 16.2 0.6
200 μm m² 27.6 32.4 1.2
Pipe kg 135 130 5.6
32 mm inner dia., 1.88 mm thick m 12.3 11.9 0.51
63 mm inner dia., 3.75 mm thick m 47.7 46.1 2
125 mm inner dia., 7.35 mm thick m 188 181 7.8
250 mm inner dia., 14.71 mm thick m 752 726 31
500 mm inner dia., 29.41 mm thick m 3 007 2 903 124
800 mm inner dia., 47.06 mm thick m 7 698 7 433 318

60
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Low density Film kg 136 122 6.4
PLASTICS

polyethylene
(LDPE) 100 μm m² 12.3 11.1 0.58
200 μm m² 24.7 22.2 1.2
Pipe kg 130 89.6 6
13 mm inner dia., 3.95 mm thick m 11 7.6 0.51
19 mm inner dia., 4.4 mm thick m 17.3 11.9 0.8
25 mm inner dia., 5.2 mm thick m 26.6 18.4 1.2
32 mm inner dia., 6.7 mm thick m 43.9 30.3 2
Nylon Nylon 66 kg 335 910 22.2
Sheet - 1.5 mm m² 572 1 556 37.9
Sheet - 3 mm m² 1 145 3 113 75.8
Sheet - 5 mm m² 1 908 5 188 126
Other Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) kg 270 359 16
Panel - 2mm m² 577 767 34.3
Panel - 3mm m² 866 1 151 51.4
Pipe - 21.4 mm outer dia., 2.1 mm thick m 36.8 48.9 2.2
Pipe - 48.3 mm outer dia., 3.6 mm thick m 146 194 8.7
Pipe - 168.3 mm outer dia., 7.7 mm thick m 1 122 1 491 66.6
Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) kg 12 063 22 606 798
Film - 25.4 μm m² 306 574 20.3
Film - 50.8 μm m² 613 1 148 40.5
Film - 127 μm m² 1 532 2 871 101
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) kg 299 529 18.8
Panel - 10 mm m² 4 037 7 144 254
Panel - 20 mm m² 8 075 14 288 509
Panel - 50 mm m² 20 187 35 719 1 271

61
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Other Linoleum kg 58.2 195 4.4
PLASTICS

Sheet - 2 mm m² 140 469 10.6

Sheet - 2.5 mm m² 175 586 13.3
Sheet - 3.2 mm m² 223 750 17
Sheet - 4 mm m² 279 937 21.2
Polycarbonate kg 190 265 14
Roofing sheet - 1 mm m² 228 318 16.7
Roofing sheet - 2 mm m² 457 635 33.5
Roofing sheet - 3 mm m² 685 953 50.2
Roofing sheet - 6 mm m² 1 371 1 905 100
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) kg 230 215 15.4
Sheet - 3 mm m² 822 768 54.9
Sheet - 4 mm m² 1 096 1 023 73.2
Sheet - 5 mm m² 1 370 1 279 91.4
Sheet - 6 mm m² 1 644 1 535 110
Sheet - 8 mm m² 2 192 2 047 146
Sheet - 10 mm m² 2 740 2 558 183
Polypropylene Sheet kg 159 186 7.4
(PP)
Sheet - 2 mm m² 287 335 13.4
Sheet - 3 mm m² 431 502 20
Sheet - 4 mm m² 574 670 26.7
Sheet - 6 mm m² 861 1 005 40.1
Sheet - 10 mm m² 1 435 1 675 66.8
Sheet - 12 mm m² 1 722 2 010 80.2
Sheet - 15 mm m² 2 153 2 512 100
Polyurethane Flexible foam kg 127 443 7.7
(PU)
Underlay - 7 mm, 64 kg/m³ m² 56.8 198 3.4
Underlay - 7 mm, 69 kg/m³ m² 61.4 214 3.7
Underlay - 10 mm, 73 kg/m³ m² 92.5 323 5.6
Underlay - 10 mm, 123 kg/m³ m² 156 543 9.4

62
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Polyvinyl Film kg 190 758 11.2
PLASTICS

chloride (PVC)
19 μm m² 5 20 0.3
25 μm m² 6.6 26.3 0.39
uPVC kg 76.3 561 4.2
Pipe - 21.35 mm outer dia., 1.8 mm thick m 11.7 86.2 0.64
Pipe - 60.25 mm outer dia., 2.6 mm thick m 50 367 2.7
Pipe - 114.3 mm outer dia., 4.85 mm thick m 177 1 301 9.7
Pipe - 225.3 mm outer dia., 11.1 mm thick m 792 5 826 43.2
Brick Adobe kg 3.5 2.7 0.3
SAND, STONE & CERAMICS

Clay brick kg 3.5 1.8 0.32

Other Gravel kg 0.48 1.9 0.036
Rammed earth kg 3.3 4.1 0.26
Recycled aggregate kg 0.11 0.1 0.008
Sand kg 0.34 1.8 0.024
Sanitary ceramic kg 98 89.8 6.4
Stone Dimension stone kg 16.3 16.5 1.3
Tiles Ceramic tile kg 18.9 15.2 1.3
Clay roof tile kg 7.5 4.7 0.61
Cork Slab kg 179 199 9.5
TIMBER PRODUCTS

6 mm m² 129 143 6.8

10 mm m² 215 238 11.4
12 mm m² 258 286 13.6
20 mm m² 430 477 22.7
50 mm m² 1 074 1 192 56.8
Hardwood Air-dried m³ 13 632 19 110 944
Kiln-dried - dressed m³ 41 597 58 411 2 269
Kiln-dried - structural m³ 19 389 25 332 1 178

63
 Embodied Water (L)

Emissions (kgCO₂e)
Embodied Energy

Greenhouse Gas
Functional Unit

Embodied
(MJ)
Manufactured Cross laminated timber (CLT) m³ 9 607 8 608 645
TIMBER PRODUCTS

timber
product 60 mm m² 576 516 38.7
105 mm m² 1 009 904 67.7
175 mm m² 1 681 1 506 113
Manufactured Glued laminated timber - indoor m³ 29 996 35 813 1 718
timber
product Glued laminated timber - outdoor m³ 28 279 31 246 1 605
Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) m³ 17 479 18 025 1 059
Medium density fibreboard (MDF) sheet m³ 15 016 8 471 899
Melamine-coated MDF sheet - 16 mm m² 344 283 18.7
Melamine-coated MDF sheet - 18 mm m² 390 323 21.3
Melamine-coated MDF sheet - 25 mm m² 557 453 30.5
Oriented strand board (OSB) sheet m³ 14 422 17 997 751
Particleboard - indoor m³ 12 717 10 720 696
Particleboard - outdoor m³ 15 879 20 491 813
Plywood - indoor decorative m³ 63 691 69 363 3 680
Plywood - outdoor m³ 26 790 23 083 1 777
Structural insulated panel (SIP) - 112 mm m² 2 624 4 219 135
142 mm m² 3 327 5 349 171
162 mm m² 3 795 6 103 195
Softwood Air-dried m³ 9 392 13 091 549
Kiln-dried m³ 9 704 13 181 583

64
65
 Interpreting EPiC Database Factsheets

Functional unit
This is the base unit of
Material metadata
measurement for the
Material name A selection of the key
material. Coefficients
characteristics of the
relate to this specific
material
quantity of the
material

Material
category
The category in
which the material
is grouped Common uses
Some of the
most common
uses for the
material

Description
A description of
the material
including how it is
made and some
of its key
characteristics

Material variations Further information

These variations provide Additional details about
coefficients for common the material’s coefficients
sizes or thicknesses of the are available at this link
material

66
Top three inputs
A list of the inputs
associated with the Energy
top three flows for This is the embodied
the material, energy coefficient for
showing their the base functional
contribution as a unit of the material
proportion of the
total hybrid
environmental flow. Water
Process-based This is the embodied
flows are denoted water coefficient for
in a darker shade the base functional
unit of the material

Coefficient
comparison
The material
coefficient based on
process data or
input-output data can
be useful for
comparing to the final
hybrid coefficient Greenhouse gas
emissions
This is the embodied
Coefficient breakdown greenhouse gas emissions
A breakdown of the hybrid coefficient, showing coefficient for the base
contribution of process and input-output data functional unit of the material

Process (outside scope) Input-output (outside scope)

Process data outside the SPA Input-output data outside the SPA
threshold and excluded threshold, but subsequently
included

Input-output (included)
Input-output data for nodes where
no process data is available
Process (excluded)
Process data for nodes
representing less than Process (included)
0.02% of the total Process data included in
process coefficient the final hybrid coefficient

Input-output (excluded)
Input-output data for nodes considered
equivalent to available process data, and
thus excluded to avoid double counting

67
 kg Concrete block

Concrete blocks (also known as concrete masonry units or CMU) Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

plaster products
are precast rectangular shaped blocks manufactured from concrete.
Type Concrete
They generally contain one or more hollow cavities, which reduces
their weight and makes handling easier. Steel reinforcement is often Functional kg
unit
inserted into these cavities, which are then filled with concrete in situ
Specific heat 1 000 J/(kg·K)
to provide added strength and loadbearing capacity.
Density 1 400 kg/m³
Concrete blocks come in a range of sizes, with typical blocks coming in
Common uses
a length of 390 mm, a height of 190 mm and depth of 90, 140 and 190 External walls, internal walls,
landscaping
mm. Each block weighs around 10 kg and has a minimum strength of
15 MPa. A range of colours and surface textures are available. Process name
Concrete block, at plant/DE U/
AusSD U
Blocks are typically used for internal and external walls in both
domestic and commercial construction and can be used with or Input-output sector
Plaster and Concrete Product
without mortar for loadbearing and non-loadbearing applications. Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da552ea39cdc

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Concrete block kg 2.6 3.7 0.2
Concrete block - 390 × 190 × 90 mm no. 24.3 34.2 2.2
Concrete block - 390 × 190 × 140 mm no. 29.6 41.6 2.7
Concrete block - 390 × 190 × 190 mm no. 35.2 49.4 3.2

68
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
6.7% Road Transport

MJ/kg
2.6
6.1% Structural Metal Product MJ/kg
Manufacturing

5.6% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1.2 4 2.6

TOP THREE INPUTS

7.5%
Tanned Leather, Dressed
Fur and Leather Product WATER
Manufacturing

3.7
L/kg

5.0% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing L/kg

3.3% Meat and Meat product

Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1.7 2.6 3.7

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
4.1% Structural Metal Product
Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

0.24
3.5% Basic Chemical Manufacturing
kgCO2e/kg

2.4% Oil and gas extraction

Process IO Hybrid
0.17 0.27 0.24
69
 kg Cement mortar

Cement mortar contains Portland cement, sand and hydrated lime. It Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

plaster products
is used as a bonding layer for bricks, masonry blocks and stonework.
Type Other minerals
It is generally available in bags (usually up to 20 kg) and is mixed with Functional kg
water on site to form a highly workable paste. Once cured, it becomes unit

hard but is designed to be weaker than the masonry elements it is Specific heat 837 J/(kg·K)

used with. Density 1 858 kg/m³

A range of mortar types are available, ranging in strength depending Common uses
Bonding masonry walls, pointing,
on the mix ratio, with stronger mortars containing a higher proportion render
of cement. Mortars containing alternative binders are also available, Process name
including polymer cement and lime mortars. Cement mortar, at plant/CH U/
AusSD U

Input-output sector
Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
Concrete Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5528f75432

70
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
14.2% Road Transport

MJ/kg
3.9
2.7% Petroleum and Coal Product MJ/kg
Manufacturing

1.5% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
1.7 4.7 3.9

TOP THREE INPUTS

4.1% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining WATER

3.7
L/kg

2.2% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services L/kg

2.1% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
1.8 3.4 3.7

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
4.8% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

0.35
1.4% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining
kgCO2e/kg

Petroleum and Coal Product

0.9%
Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
0.24 0.39 0.35
71
 kg Portland cement

Portland cement (also known as common or general-purpose Category Concrete and

CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

plaster products
cement) is manufactured from limestone, clay and gypsum. A range
Type Other minerals
of additional minerals or additives can be added to control the
properties of the finished cement. Functional kg
unit

Limestone and other raw materials are heated at over 1 000°C to Specific heat 920 J/(kg·K)

produce clinker. The clinker is then mixed with gypsum and ground Density 1 500 kg/m³
into a fine powder to produce Portland cement.
Common uses
Concrete, fibre cement sheet, fibre
Portland cement is typically used as a binder for concrete and cement- cement weatherboard, cement
mortar, cement render
based products, such as fibre cement sheet and cement mortar. When
mixed with water it forms a workable slurry that undergoes a process Process name
Ordinary portland cement, at plant/
known as hydration, setting within a few hours and forming its final AU U
hardened state within weeks.
Input-output sector
Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
Concrete Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55701cee5d

72
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
37.7% Clinker, at plant/AU U

MJ/kg
11.8
15.3% Road Transport MJ/kg

3.7% Electricity, low voltage,

Australian/AU U
Process IO Hybrid
5.5 15.3 11.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

11.7% Clinker, at plant/AU U WATER

7.8
L/kg

3.2% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services L/kg

2.9% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
1.3 11 7.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
68.1% Clinker, at plant/AU U GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

1.3
4.2% Road Transport
kgCO2e/kg

Electricity, low voltage,

1.7%
Australian/AU U

Process IO Hybrid
1 1.3 1.3
73
 kg Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC)

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, also known as AAC, is a lightweight Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
concrete product manufactured from cement, water, aluminium
Type Concrete
powder and sand. Hydrogen gas is used to create air bubbles in the
mix. AAC is generally rated at 8 MPa, with up to 80% of its volume Functional kg
unit
made up of air.
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)

Its lightweight nature, which is 20% lighter than standard concrete, Density 550 kg/m³
makes it easier to work with. AAC materials can be sanded and cut to
Common uses
size using standard power tools and have superior thermal properties External walls, internal walls, floors
to standard concrete.
Process name
Autoclaved aerated concrete block,
AAC comes in a variety of product types, including blocks and panels. at plant/CH U/AusSD U
AAC blocks are typically used for domestic wall construction and are Input-output sector
available as a 600 mm wide and 200 mm high block in thicknesses Plaster and Concrete Product
Manufacturing
ranging from 50 to 300 mm. Blocks can be used for loadbearing walls
Further information
up to three storeys. Panels are often used for both wall and floor [Link]/10.26188/5da551fc254d7
construction in residential and commercial applications. They are
600 mm wide, 75 mm thick and come in lengths ranging from 1800
to 4 800 mm.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) kg 8.5 8.4 0.7
AAC block - 600 × 200 × 100 mm no. 56.4 55.4 4.7
AAC block - 600 × 200 × 150 mm no. 84.5 83 7
AAC block - 600 × 200 × 200 mm no. 113 111 9.4

74
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
6.4% Road Transport

MJ/kg
8.5
5.8% Structural Metal Product MJ/kg
Manufacturing

5.4% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
3.7 12.3 8.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

10.2%
Tanned Leather, Dressed
Fur and Leather Product WATER
Manufacturing

8.4
L/kg

8.3% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U

L/kg

6.9% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
2.2 8.1 8.4

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
4.3% Structural Metal Product
Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

0.71
3.7% Basic Chemical Manufacturing
kgCO2e/kg

2.2% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
0.48 0.83 0.71
75
 m³ Concrete 20 MPa

Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement
Type Concrete
is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as
polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials Functional m³
unit
(SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)
(GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland
Density 2 335 kg/m³
cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to
control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually Common uses
combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength. Floor slabs, suspended slabs,
driveways, precast wall panels

Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials. Process name
Concrete 20 MPa, at batching plant/
It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in AU U
buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured
Input-output sector
to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 20 MPa is commonly Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
Concrete Manufacturing
used in domestic floor construction, garage floors and driveways,
where the loads supported are lighter. The typical mix ratio is 1:1.5:3 Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da54a205d0e5
(cement, sand, coarse aggregate).

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Concrete 20 MPa m³ 2 404 4 154 328
Concrete 20 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 2 322 4 145 305
Concrete 20 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 2 184 4 084 278
Concrete 20 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 2 026 4 011 251
Concrete 20 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 1 896 3 967 225
Concrete 20 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 1 766 3 906 198
Concrete 20 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 1 630 3 839 172
Concrete 20 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 2 366 4 147 309
Concrete 20 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 2 288 4 100 287
Concrete 20 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 2 186 4 034 263
Concrete 20 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 2 136 3 988 243
Concrete 20 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 2 059 3 941 221
Concrete 20 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 1 980 3 894 198

76
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
9.1% Road Transport

MJ/m³
2 404
1.2% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U MJ/m³

0.9% Diesel, burned in building

machine/GLO U/AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
2 132 1 853 2 404

TOP THREE INPUTS

22.8% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

4 154
L/m³

3.4% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U L/m³

0.7% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services

Process IO Hybrid
3 562 1 329 4 154

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
2.0% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

328
0.8% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U
kgCO2e/m³

Diesel, burned in building

0.5%
machine/GLO U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
321 153 328
77
 m³ Concrete 25 MPa

Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement
Type Concrete
is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as
polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials Functional m³
unit
(SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)
(GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland
Density 2 409 kg/m³
cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to
control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually Common uses
combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength. Floor slabs, suspended slabs,
precast wall panels

Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials. Process name
Concrete 25 MPa, at batching plant/
It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in AU U
buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured
Input-output sector
to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 25 MPa is commonly Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
Concrete Manufacturing
used in domestic and commercial floor construction and is
considered to be a multi-purpose concrete mix. The typical mix ratio Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da54a4ae57a1
is [Link] (cement, sand, coarse aggregate).

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Concrete 25 MPa m³ 2 691 4 277 368
Concrete 25 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 2 580 4 215 338
Concrete 25 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 2 427 4 150 309
Concrete 25 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 2 275 4 086 279
Concrete 25 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 2 121 4 007 250
Concrete 25 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 1 989 3 954 223
Concrete 25 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 1 838 3 890 193
Concrete 25 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 2 633 4 186 342
Concrete 25 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 2 547 4 172 318
Concrete 25 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 2 462 4 121 293
Concrete 25 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 2 379 4 054 269
Concrete 25 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 2 292 4 000 244
Concrete 25 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 2 207 3 949 220

78
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
8.5% Road Transport

MJ/m³
2 691
0.9% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U MJ/m³

0.9% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
2445 1924 2691

TOP THREE INPUTS

21.7% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

4 277
L/m³

3.4% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U L/m³

1.4% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
3628 1380 4277

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
1.8% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

368
0.7% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U
kgCO2e/m³

0.6% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
359 159 368
79
 m³ Concrete 32 MPa

Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement
Type Concrete
is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as
polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials Functional m³
unit
(SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)
(GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland
Density 2 327 kg/m³
cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to
control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually Common uses
combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength. Floor slabs, suspended slabs,
precast wall panels, in situ
loadbearing walls, piling, roads
Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials.
Process name
It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in Concrete 32 MPa, at batching plant/
buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured AU U

to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 32 MPa is commonly Input-output sector

Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
used in commercial and civil construction, for structural piling, floor
Concrete Manufacturing
slabs, external walls, paths and roads, where increased durability,
Further information
weather-resistance and load-bearing capacity are required. [Link]/10.26188/5da550538b369

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Concrete 32 MPa m³ 3 015 4 300 416
Concrete 32 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 2 860 4 239 383
Concrete 32 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 2 682 4 165 349
Concrete 32 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 2 484 4 066 314
Concrete 32 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 2 328 3 999 281
Concrete 32 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 2 150 3 928 247
Concrete 32 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 1 974 3 856 212
Concrete 32 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 2 922 4 248 389
Concrete 32 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 2 821 4 189 361
Concrete 32 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 2 704 4 103 331
Concrete 32 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 2 625 4 047 304
Concrete 32 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 2 525 3 990 275
Concrete 32 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 2 425 3 932 247

80
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
7.9% Road Transport

MJ/m³
3 015
0.9% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U MJ/m³

0.8% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
2 776 2 008 3 015

TOP THREE INPUTS

20.8% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

4 300
L/m³

3.6% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U L/m³

1.4% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
3 643 1 441 4 300

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
1.7% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

416
0.6% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U
kgCO2e/m³

0.5% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
412 166 416
81
 m³ Concrete 40 MPa

Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement
Type Concrete
is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as
polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials Functional m³
unit
(SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)
(GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland
Density 2 400 kg/m³
cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to
control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually Common uses
combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength. Structural beams, structural
columns, in situ loadbearing walls,
structural piling
Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials.
Process name
It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in Concrete 40 MPa, at batching plant/
buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured AU U

to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 40 MPa is commonly Input-output sector

Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
used in commercial and civil construction, for structural beams and
Concrete Manufacturing
columns, where increased durability and load-bearing capacity are
Further information
required. [Link]/10.26188/5da5507e33fe6

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Concrete 40 MPa m³ 3 476 4 355 497
Concrete 40 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 3 304 4 286 457
Concrete 40 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 3 087 4 195 415
Concrete 40 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 2 854 4 075 373
Concrete 40 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 2 652 3 995 332
Concrete 40 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 2 436 3 909 290
Concrete 40 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 2 220 3 823 248
Concrete 40 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 3 380 4 294 462
Concrete 40 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 3 257 4 223 428
Concrete 40 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 3 106 4 120 392
Concrete 40 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 3 016 4 052 358
Concrete 40 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 2 895 3 984 324
Concrete 40 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 2 772 3 915 289

82
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
7.2% Road Transport

MJ/m³
3 476
0.8% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining MJ/m³

0.7% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
3 308 2 123 3 476

TOP THREE INPUTS

19.4% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

4 355
L/m³

3.9% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U L/m³

1.5% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
3 686 1 523 4 355

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
1.5% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

497
0.5% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining
kgCO2e/m³

0.4% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
497 176 497
83
 m³ Concrete 50 MPa

Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement
Type Concrete
is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as
polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials Functional m³
unit
(SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)
(GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland
Density 2 393 kg/m³
cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to
control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually Common uses
combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength. Structural beams, structural
columns, in situ loadbearing walls,
structural piling
Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials.
Process name
It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in Concrete 50 MPa, at batching plant/
buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured AU U

to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 50 MPa is commonly Input-output sector

Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
used in commercial and civil construction where high strength and
Concrete Manufacturing
durability are required. The mix will generally have a lower water to
Further information
cement ratio than standard concrete. [Link]/10.26188/5da5514c0eea5

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Concrete 50 MPa m³ 4 247 4 625 626
Concrete 50 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 4 197 4 513 573
Concrete 50 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 3 925 4 404 521
Concrete 50 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 3 634 4 246 467
Concrete 50 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 3 382 4 158 416
Concrete 50 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 3 111 4 052 364
Concrete 50 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 2 839 3 947 312
Concrete 50 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 4 294 4 528 580
Concrete 50 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 4 140 4 442 537
Concrete 50 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 3 958 4 325 492
Concrete 50 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 3 841 4 235 450
Concrete 50 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 3 686 4 150 407
Concrete 50 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 3 535 4 062 362

84
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
6.7% Road Transport

MJ/m³
4 247
0.7% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining MJ/m³

0.7% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
4 305 2 396 4 247

TOP THREE INPUTS

17.0% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

4 625
L/m³

3.8% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U L/m³

1.7% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
3 872 1 719 4 625

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
1.3% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

626
0.4% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining
kgCO2e/m³

0.3% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
629 198 626
85
 m³ Concrete 65 MPa

Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement
Type Concrete
is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as
polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials Functional m³
unit
(SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)
(GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland
Density 2 332 kg/m³
cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to
control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually Common uses
combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength. Structural beams, structural
columns, in situ loadbearing walls,
structural piling
Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials.
Process name
It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in Concrete 65 MPa, at batching plant/
buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured AU U (custom)

to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 65 MPa is commonly Input-output sector

Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
used in commercial and civil construction where high strength and
Concrete Manufacturing
durability are required. The mix will generally have a lower water to
Further information
cement ratio than standard concrete. [Link]/10.26188/22896572

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Concrete 65 MPa m³ 5 246 4 730 728
Concrete 65 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 4 905 4 649 665
Concrete 65 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 4 593 4 522 605
Concrete 65 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 4 278 4 378 544
Concrete 65 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 3 962 4 237 484
Concrete 65 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 3 645 4 113 423
Concrete 65 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 3 333 3 991 363
Concrete 65 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 5 027 4 668 675
Concrete 65 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 4 856 4 570 625
Concrete 65 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 4 686 4 426 575
Concrete 65 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 4 524 4 330 526
Concrete 65 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 4 356 4 233 476
Concrete 65 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 4 187 4 134 426

86
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
6.2% Road Transport

MJ/m³
5 246
0.7% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining MJ/m³

0.6% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
5 016 2 765 5 246

TOP THREE INPUTS

15.0% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

4 730
L/m³

4.0% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U L/m³

1.9% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
3 900 1 983 4 730

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
1.3% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

728
0.4% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining
kgCO2e/m³

0.2% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
729 229 728
87
 m³ Concrete 80 MPa

Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement
Type Concrete
is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as
polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials Functional m³
unit
(SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)
(GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland
Density 2 281 kg/m³
cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to
control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually Common uses
combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength. Structural beams, structural
columns, in situ loadbearing walls,
structural piling
Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials.
Process name
It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in Concrete 80 MPa, at batching plant/
buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured AU U (custom)

to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 80 MPa is commonly Input-output sector

Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
used in commercial and civil construction where high strength and
Concrete Manufacturing
durability are required. The mix will generally have a lower water to
Further information
cement ratio than standard concrete. [Link]/10.26188/22896575

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Concrete 80 MPa m³ 6 203 4 959 851
Concrete 80 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 5 800 4 863 779
Concrete 80 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 5 432 4 717 708
Concrete 80 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 5 064 4 528 638
Concrete 80 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 4 696 4 386 567
Concrete 80 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 4 329 4 244 496
Concrete 80 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 3 960 4 102 426
Concrete 80 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 5 946 4 888 790
Concrete 80 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 5 751 4 775 733
Concrete 80 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 5 561 4 608 675
Concrete 80 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 5 377 4 498 617
Concrete 80 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 5 180 4 388 559
Concrete 80 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 4 989 4 276 502

88
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
6.2% Road Transport

MJ/m³
6 203
0.7% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining MJ/m³

0.6% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
5 900 3 231 6 203

TOP THREE INPUTS

12.7% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

4 959
L/m³

4.0% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U L/m³

2.1% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
3 976 2 318 4 959

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
1.3% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

851
0.4% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining
kgCO2e/m³

0.2% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
851 267 851
89
 m³ Concrete 100 MPa

Concrete is a composite material combining sand or other fine Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
aggregates, coarse aggregates, a binder and water. Portland cement
Type Concrete
is the most commonly used binder, however other binders, such as
polymers, may also be used. Supplementary Cementitious Materials Functional m³
unit
(SCM) such as Fly Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)
(GGBFS), are also commonly used as a part replacement for Portland
Density 2 202 kg/m³
cement. Additives, such as plasticisers can be added to the mix to
control concrete properties, such as workability. Concrete is usually Common uses
combined with steel reinforcement to improve tensile strength. Structural beams, structural
columns, in situ loadbearing walls,
structural piling
Concrete is one of the most commonly used construction materials.
Process name
It is highly durable and is thus typically used for structural elements in Concrete 100 MPa, at batching
buildings and infrastructure projects. Concrete can be manufactured plant/AU U (custom)

to meet a variety of strength grades. Concrete 100 MPa is commonly Input-output sector
Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
used in commercial and civil construction where high strength and
Concrete Manufacturing
durability are required. The mix will generally have a lower water to
Further information
cement ratio than standard concrete. [Link]/10.26188/22896566

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Concrete 100 MPa m³ 7 478 5 297 1 011
Concrete 100 MPa - 10% fly ash m³ 6 997 5 186 926
Concrete 100 MPa - 20% fly ash m³ 6 565 5 012 843
Concrete 100 MPa - 30% fly ash m³ 6 130 4 787 760
Concrete 100 MPa - 40% fly ash m³ 5 696 4 621 676
Concrete 100 MPa - 50% fly ash m³ 5 262 4 455 593
Concrete 100 MPa - 60% fly ash m³ 4 832 4 287 510
Concrete 100 MPa - 10% GGBFS m³ 7 176 5 216 940
Concrete 100 MPa - 20% GGBFS m³ 6 955 5 084 873
Concrete 100 MPa - 30% GGBFS m³ 6 740 4 888 805
Concrete 100 MPa - 40% GGBFS m³ 6 532 4 759 738
Concrete 100 MPa - 50% GGBFS m³ 6 308 4 629 671
Concrete 100 MPa - 60% GGBFS m³ 6 090 4 500 604

90
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
6.3% Road Transport

MJ/m³
7 478
0.7% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining MJ/m³

0.6% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
7 031 3 949 7 478

TOP THREE INPUTS

9.8% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

5 297
L/m³

3.9% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U L/m³

2.4% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
4 062 2 833 5 297

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
1.4% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

1 011
0.4% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining
kgCO2e/m³

0.3% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1 006 327 1 011
91
 m³ Geopolymer concrete

Geopolymer concrete is an alternative to Portland cement concrete. Category Concrete and

CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

Plaster Products
Geopolymer concrete is made from waste materials such as Fly
Type Concrete
Ash and Ground, Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS). The use
of geopolymer concrete helps to reduce natural resource use and Functional m³
unit
greenhouse gas emissions by reducing Portland cement demand.
Specific heat 880 J/(kg·K)
The main constituents of geopolymers are silicon and aluminium,
Density 2 401 kg/m³
which are provided by thermally activated natural materials, such as
kaolinite or industrial byproducts (e.g. fly ash or slag) and an alkaline Common uses
activating solution which polymerises these materials into molecular Structural beams, structural
columns, in situ loadbearing walls,
chains and networks to create hardened binder. structural piling

Process name
Geopolymer binder is also known as alkali-activated cement or Geopolymer concrete 32 MPa, at
inorganic polymer cement. As for Portlnd cement concrete, the batching plant

geopolymer binder is combined with sand or other fine aggregates, Input-output sector
Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
coarse aggregates, and water to form the concrete mix.
Concrete Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Geopolymer concrete 32 MPa m³ 1 752 4 256 121
Geopolymer concrete 20 MPa m³ 1 397 4 111 95.5
Geopolymer concrete 25 MPa m³ 1 500 4 153 105
Geopolymer concrete 40 MPa m³ 2 020 4 310 145
Geopolymer concrete 50 MPa m³ 2 323 4 320 175

92
TOP THREE INPUTS

Ground granulated blast ENERGY

17.3% furnace slag, at cement plant/
AU U

MJ/m³
1 752
13.6% Road Transport MJ/m³

Sodium silicate, furnace liquor,

13.3% 37% in H2O, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U Process IO Hybrid
1 593 2 008 1 752

TOP THREE INPUTS

26.5% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

Sodium silicate, furnace liquor, 4 256

L/m³

11.3% 37% in H2O, at plant/RER U/

AusSD U
L/m³

4.3% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U

Process IO Hybrid
3 640 1 440 4 256

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Sodium silicate, furnace liquor,
19.2% 37% in H2O, at plant/RER U/ GAS EMISSIONS
AusSD U
kgCO2e/m³

Ground granulated blast 121

18.2% furnace slag, at cement plant/
AU U
kgCO2e/m³

6.2% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
120 166 121
93
 kg Fibre cement sheet

Fibre cement sheet is a non-structural material manufactured from Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

plaster products
Portland cement, cellulose fibres and water. Sheets come in standard
Type Fibre cement
sizes, generally 1 800 to 3 000 mm in length, 900 or 1 200 mm wide
and in thicknesses ranging from 4.5 mm to 24 mm. They can be easily Functional kg
unit
cut to size on site. Thicker boards provide superior impact resistance
Specific heat 832 J/(kg·K)
while thinner boards are typically used in situations where impact
Density 1 445 kg/m³
resistance is not as crucial.

Common uses
Thermal and acoustic performance is generally poor and additional Internal wall lining, external wall
cladding, soffit lining, structural
insulation is usually needed when used as external cladding.
bracing
However, it is termite and rot resistant and has very high fire resistance
Process name
properties. Fibre cement roof slate, at plant/CH
U/AusSD U
Fibre cement sheet is often used as a replacement for plasterboard,
Input-output sector
particularly in situations that are exposed to water (such as wet Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product
Manufacturing
areas). It can be used for both residential and commercial buildings
in a range of applications, including internal and external cladding, Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da554545f280
soffit linings and structural bracing.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Fibre cement sheet kg 18.3 19.8 1.6
Fibre cement sheet - 4.5 mm m² 119 129 10.1
Fibre cement sheet - 6 mm m² 159 172 13.5
Fibre cement sheet - 7.5 mm m² 198 214 16.9
Fibre cement sheet - 18 mm m² 475 514 40.6
Fibre cement sheet - 24 mm m² 634 686 54.2

94
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
12.1% Road Transport

MJ/kg
18.3
6.1% Structural Metal Product MJ/kg
Manufacturing

3.2% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
11 26.5 18.3

TOP THREE INPUTS

9.0%
Tanned Leather, Dressed
Fur and Leather Product WATER
Manufacturing

19.8
L/kg

7.1% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

L/kg

6.6% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
11.4 17.6 19.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
4.4% Structural Metal Product
Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

1.6
4.2% Road Transport
kgCO2e/kg

3.1% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
1.1 1.9 1.6
95
 kg Fibre cement weatherboard

Fibre cement weatherboards are a non-structural material Category Concrete and

CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

plaster products
manufactured from Portland cement, cellulose fibres and water.
Type Fibre cement
Boards generally come in 4 200 mm lengths, in widths from 150 to
300 mm and in thicknesses ranging from 7.5 mm to 16 mm. They can Functional kg
unit
be easily cut to size on site. Thicker boards provide superior impact
Specific heat 832 J/(kg·K)
resistance while thinner boards are typically used in situations where
Density 1 445 kg/m³
impact resistance is not as crucial. They come in a range of textured
finishes. Common uses
External wall cladding
Fibre cement weatherboards are used as an external wall cladding.
Process name
Each board is installed to overlap the board below, and as such, the Fibre cement facing tile, at plant/CH
U/AusSD U
effective wall coverage area is typically 80-90% of the actual area of
boards used. Input-output sector
Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product
Manufacturing
Thermal and acoustic performance is generally poor and additional
Further information
insulation is usually needed. However, it is termite and rot resistant [Link]/10.26188/5da55463adae0
and has very high fire resistance properties.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Fibre cement weatherboard kg 26.1 31.3 2.2
205 × 7.5 mm - per m² wall m² 304 365 26
230 × 7.5 mm - per m² wall m² 284 341 24.2
300 × 7.5 mm - per m² wall m² 260 313 22.3
150 × 16 mm - per m² wall m² 549 660 46.9
180 × 16 mm - per m² wall m² 549 660 46.9

96
TOP THREE INPUTS

Fibre cement facing tile, large ENERGY

30.9%
format, at plant/CH U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
26.1
12.5% Fibre cement facing tile, small MJ/kg
format, at plant/CH U/AusSD U

9.9% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
14.1 30.9 26.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

25.6% Fibre cement facing tile, large WATER

format, at plant/CH U/AusSD U

31.3
L/kg

13.3% Non Metallic Mineral Mining

L/kg

12.1% Fibre cement facing tile, small

format, at plant/CH U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
13.4 20.5 31.3

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
39.6% Fibre cement facing tile, large
format, at plant/CH U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Fibre cement facing tile, small

2.2
17.1%
format, at plant/CH U/AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

6.7% Non Metallic Mineral Mining

Process IO Hybrid
1.5 2.2 2.2
97
 kg Gypsum plaster

Gypsum plaster (traditionally known as plaster of Paris) is Category Concrete and

CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

plaster products
manufactured from gypsum rock and additives. The gypsum is heated
Type Plaster
to produce a dry plaster powder. It is then mixed with water to form
a highly workable paste, which then hardens. It is a non-loadbearing Functional kg
unit
material that is commonly used as a protective or decorative coating
Specific heat 840 J/(kg·K)
for walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative
Density 1 956 kg/m³
building elements.

Common uses
Gypsum plaster is often used to simulate other materials, such as Decorative building elements,
plasterboard, plaster cornices, filling
timber, metal and stone, due to its ability to be formed into any shape,
gaps, wall finish
which can be easily sanded. It is also a core material for plasterboard
Process name
and other plaster-based products, such as cornices. Alternative forms Stucco, at plant/CH U/AusSD U
of plaster include lime and cement-based plasters.
Input-output sector
Plaster and Concrete Product
Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da554d7d6197

98
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
7.4% Road Transport

MJ/kg
6.5
6.7% Structural Metal Product MJ/kg
Manufacturing

6.2% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1.3 10.9 6.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

11.6%
Tanned Leather, Dressed
Fur and Leather Product WATER
Manufacturing

6.5
L/kg

7.8% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing L/kg

5.2% Meat and Meat product

Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
0.11 7.1 6.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
8.7% Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
Concrete Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Structural Metal Product

0.44
7.2%
Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

5.7% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
0.096 0.73 0.44
99
 m² Plasterboard

Plasterboard, also known as gypsum board, is a wall and ceiling lining Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

plaster products
material manufactured from gypsum, water and paper. A gypsum-
Type Plaster
based plaster is sandwiched between two layers of paper. The plaster
often contains a paper or fibreglass fibre as well as various additives. Functional m²
unit
After the plaster sets it is then dried in a large drying chamber. It is
Specific heat 1 225 J/(kg·K)
then cured at high temperatures before being cut to size.
Density 570 kg/m³
Plasterboard is used to provide a lining for internal walls and ceilings.
Common uses
A variety of product types are available, including acoustic-rated, fire- Internal wall lining, internal ceiling
lining
rated and moisture-resistant plasterboard. It is typically finished with
paint once installed. It has a relatively low durability and is thus easily Process name
Plasterboard 10 mm, at regional
damaged, but can usually be repaired with gypsum plaster products. store/AU U
It comes in standard sizes, typically 1 200 × 2 400 mm, 1 200 × 4 800
Input-output sector
mm and 1 200 × 6 000 mm and 10 or 13 mm thick. The 13 mm board is Plaster and Concrete Product
Manufacturing
generally used in commercial applications due to its better durability
and acoustic properties. Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da556516b6e3

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Plasterboard - 10 mm m² 86.1 85.6 5.8
Plasterboard - 13 mm m² 95.7 97.9 6.5

100
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
5.8% Road Transport

MJ/m²
86.1
5.2% Structural Metal Product MJ/m²
Manufacturing

4.8% Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed

Concrete Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
66.2 111 86.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

8.8%
Tanned Leather, Dressed
Fur and Leather Product WATER
Manufacturing

85.6
L/m²

5.1% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing L/m²

3.9% Meat and Meat product

Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
49.4 73 85.6

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
6.6% Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed
Concrete Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m²

Structural Metal Product

5.8
5.5%
Manufacturing kgCO2e/m²

2.7% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
4.9 7.5 5.8
101
 kg Concrete roof tile

Concrete roof tiles are a roof cladding material manufactured from Category Concrete and
CONCRETE AND PLASTER PRODUCTS

plaster products
concrete. A concrete mix, containing sand, cement and water is
Type Concrete
extruded into moulds and kiln dried for a number of hours. Concrete
roof tiles come in a range of colours and profiles with a typical weight Functional kg
unit
of around 5 kg per tile and an average thickness of around 20 mm. A
Specific heat 837 J/(kg·K)
range of capping tiles are also available for ridges and other roofing
Density 2 100 kg/m³
junctions.

Common uses
They are installed using clips attached to timber or steel roof battens Roof cladding
and overlap to ensure no water ingress into a building. Concrete roof
Process name
tiles are typically used in domestic construction where the roof pitch Concrete roof tile, at plant/CH U/
AusSD U
is at least 15 degrees.
Input-output sector
Plaster and Concrete Product
Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da552f96c488

102
TOP THREE INPUTS

Acrylic dispersion, 65% in H2O, ENERGY

12.9%
at plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
4.3
6.8% Road Transport MJ/kg

6.2% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
2 6.5 4.3

TOP THREE INPUTS

17.0% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

5.7
L/kg

15.8% Acrylic dispersion, 65% in H2O,

at plant/RER U/AusSD U L/kg

Tanned Leather, Dressed

8.0% Fur and Leather Product
Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
2.4 4.3 5.7

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
7.5% Acrylic dispersion, 65% in H2O,
at plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Structural Metal Product

0.39
4.8%
Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

2.6% Oil and gas extraction

Process IO Hybrid
0.24 0.44 0.39
103
 m² Flat glass double glazing

Flat glass double glazing is a glazing system that combines two Category Glass
GLASS

sheets of flat glass separated by a sealed gas-filled cavity. These Type Glass
systems are also commonly referred to as insulated glass units (IGU). Functional m²
An aluminium spacer is used to separate the glass panes, attached to unit

the glass with an adhesive. The cavity is then filled with an inert gas. Specific heat 840 J/(kg·K)
Argon, xenon and krypton are the most commonly used gases. Density 2 600 kg/m³

The double glazed system is typically used to improve the acoustic or Common uses
Windows
thermal performance of a window. The thickness of each glass pane
Process name
generally ranges from 3 to 10 mm and the gas-filled cavity typically
Glazing, double (2-IV), U<1.1 W/m2K,
ranges from 6 to 12 mm. at plant/RER U/AusSD U

Input-output sector
The same glass thickness is usually used for both panes, but in some Glass and Glass Product
circumstances the thickness may vary. Laminated or toughened glass Manufacturing

can also be used in place of flat glass. Various coatings (such as low-e) Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55375f3452
can also be applied to the glass surfaces to improve its thermal,
acoustic or privacy characteristics.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Flat glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 336 1 558 101
Flat glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 336 1 558 101
Flat glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 441 1 671 108
Flat glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 441 1 671 108

104
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
10.2% Road Transport

MJ/m²
1 336
7.8% Flat glass, coated, at plant/RER MJ/m²
U/AusSD U

7.1% Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/

RER U/AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
427 2 033 1 336

TOP THREE INPUTS

17.9% Zeolite, powder, at plant/RER S/ WATER

AusSD U

1 558
L/m²

5.9% Flat glass, coated, at plant/RER

U/AusSD U L/m²

5.7% Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/

RER U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
548 1 432 1 558

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
9.8% Flat glass, coated, at plant/RER
U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m²

Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/

101
9.0%
RER U/AusSD U kgCO2e/m²

6.4% Oil and gas extraction

Process IO Hybrid
37.1 132 101
105
 kg Flat glass

Flat glass, also known as soda-lime glass, is made from a combination Category Glass
GLASS

of silica, soda, lime (from limestone), dolomite and aluminium oxide. Type Glass
Cullet, or waste glass, can also be added. The raw materials are melted Functional kg
at high temperature and the molten glass is then formed into flat glass unit

using a variety of processes. A floating process, where the molten Specific heat 840 J/(kg·K)
glass is floated on a bed of tin, is most common for manufacturing Density 2 600 kg/m³
window glass. This gives it the common name of float glass.
Common uses
Windows, skylights, internal
The speed at which glass flows across the tin bath determines the partitions, doors
glass thickness, which typically ranges from 2 to 25 mm. The glass is
Process name
then gradually cooled (annealed) and cut to size. It can also be coated Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/RER
U/AusSD U
with a range of materials to provide particular characteristics (such as
thermal, reflective, privacy). Input-output sector
Glass and Glass Product
Manufacturing
Flat glass is commonly used in buildings to provide daylight and
Further information
views. It is used for windows, glass doors and transparent walls. [Link]/10.26188/5da554738e0e0

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Flat glass sheet kg 28.5 32.2 2
Flat glass sheet - 3 mm m² 222 251 15.7
Flat glass sheet - 4 mm m² 296 335 21
Flat glass sheet - 5 mm m² 370 418 26.2
Flat glass sheet - 6 mm m² 444 502 31.4

Flat glass sheet - 10 mm m² 740 837 52.4

Flat glass sheet - 12 mm m² 888 1 004 62.9

106
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
10.2% Road Transport

MJ/kg
28.5
2.3% Soda, powder, at plant/RER U/ MJ/kg
AusSD U

2.2% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
11.4 43.2 28.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

21.2% Soda, powder, at plant/RER U/ WATER

AusSD U

32.2
L/kg

4.3% Water Supply, Sewerage and

Drainage Services L/kg

2.4% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
10.1 30.4 32.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
4.5% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Soda, powder, at plant/RER U/

2
3.1%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

Structural Metal Product

2.3%
Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1 2.8 2
107
 kg Laminated glass

Laminated glass is a composite safety glass, made by combing two Category Glass
GLASS

or more sheets of flat glass with a plastic, or polyvinyl butyral (PVB) Type Glass
interlayer (usually 0.38 mm thick). The layers are bonded together Functional kg
using heat and pressure. unit
Specific heat 840 J/(kg·K)
Flat glass is made from a combination of silica, soda, lime, dolomite
Density 2 600 kg/m³
and aluminium oxide. The raw materials are melted at high
temperature and the molten glass is then formed into flat glass using Common uses
Windows, doors, partitions,
a variety of processes. A floating process, where the molten glass is skylights, ballustrades
floated on a bed of tin, is most common for manufacturing window
Process name
glass. The glass is then gradually cooled (annealed) and cut to size. Laminated safety glass (per mass),
at plant/RER U/AusSD U
Laminated glass is commonly used for windows, glass doors and Input-output sector
transparent walls, where there is an increased chance of damage, as Glass and Glass Product
Manufacturing
when broken, the glass remains intact, held together by the PVB layer.
Further information
It provides added safety, security, thermal and acoustic properties [Link]/10.26188/5da5556225c38
over flat glass. The glass comes in a range of thicknesses, starting
from 6.38 mm.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Laminated glass sheet kg 36.4 59.7 2.8
Laminated glass sheet - 6.38 mm m² 604 991 46.8
Laminated glass sheet - 8.38 mm m² 794 1 302 61.4
Laminated glass sheet - 10.38 mm m² 983 1 613 76.1
Laminated glass sheet - 12.38 mm m² 1 172 1 923 90.7

108
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
7.2% Road Transport

MJ/kg
36.4
2.2% Oil and gas extraction MJ/kg

1.5% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
23.9 39 36.4

TOP THREE INPUTS

1.1% Structural Metal Product WATER

Manufacturing

59.7
L/kg

1.0% Wholesale Trade

L/kg

0.9% Oil and gas extraction

Process IO Hybrid
42.6 27.5 59.7

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
4.4% Oil and gas extraction GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

2.8
2.9% Road Transport
kgCO2e/kg

Structural Metal Product

1.5%
Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
2 2.5 2.8
109
 m² Toughened glass double glazing

Toughened glass double glazing is a glazing system combining two Category Glass
GLASS

sheets of toughened glass separated by a sealed gas-filled cavity. Type Glass

These systems are commonly referred to as insulated glass units (IGU). Functional m²
An aluminium spacer is used to separate the glass panes, attached to unit

the glass with an adhesive. The cavity is then filled with an inert gas. Specific heat 840 J/(kg·K)
Argon, xenon and krypton are the most commonly used gases. Density 2 600 kg/m³

The double glazed system is typically used to improve the acoustic or Common uses
Windows, doors, skylights, internal
thermal performance of a window. The thickness of each glass pane partitions
generally ranges from 3 to 10 mm and the gas-filled cavity typically
Process name
ranges from 6 to 12 mm. Glazing, double (2-IV), U<1.1 W/m2K,
at plant/RER U/AusSD U
The same glass thickness is usually used for both panes, but in some Input-output sector
circumstances the thickness may vary. Laminated or flat glass can also Glass and Glass Product
Manufacturing
be used in place of toughened glass. Toughened glass is used where
Further information
additional strength is required or there is increased risk of damage. [Link]/10.26188/5da553f3e04ff
Various coatings (such as low-e) can also be applied to the glass
surfaces to improve its thermal, acoustic or privacy characteristics.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 536 1 772 115
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 536 1 772 115
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 635 1 879 122
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 635 1 879 122
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 729 1 980 128
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 1 729 1 980 128
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 2 254 2 543 165
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 2 254 2 543 165
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 2 779 3 107 202
Toughened glass double glazing - [Link] m² 2 779 3 107 202

110
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
10.7% Road Transport

MJ/m²
1 536
6.8% Flat glass, coated, at plant/RER MJ/m²
U/AusSD U

6.2% Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/

RER U/AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
427 2 452 1 536

TOP THREE INPUTS

15.7% Zeolite, powder, at plant/RER S/ WATER

AusSD U

1 772
L/m²

5.2% Flat glass, coated, at plant/RER

U/AusSD U L/m²

5.0% Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/

RER U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
548 1 727 1 772

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
8.6% Flat glass, coated, at plant/RER
U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m²

Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/

115
7.9%
RER U/AusSD U kgCO2e/m²

6.8% Oil and gas extraction

Process IO Hybrid
37.1 159 115
111
 kg Toughened glass

Toughened, or tempered glass is made from flat glass that has been Category Glass
GLASS

strengthened. Flat glass is made from a combination of silica, soda, Type Glass
lime, dolomite and aluminium oxide. The raw materials are melted at Functional kg
high temperature and the molten glass is then formed into flat glass unit

using a variety of processes. A floating process, where the molten Specific heat 840 J/(kg·K)
glass is floated on a bed of tin, is most common for manufacturing Density 2 600 kg/m³
window glass. The glass is then gradually cooled (annealed) and cut
Common uses
to size. Windows, doors, partitions,
skylights, ballustrades, shower
screens
To produce toughened glass, the flat glass is then heated and rapidly
cooled, increasing compressive stress on the outer surfaces of the Process name
Tempered glass (custom)
glass. This produces glass that is 5 times stronger than standard flat
glass. Input-output sector
Glass and Glass Product
Manufacturing
Toughened glass is commonly used for windows, glass doors,
Further information
balustrades, shower screens and pool fences. It provides added [Link]/10.26188/5da5589913df4
safety over flat glass as when broken, the glass shatters into small
even pieces.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Toughened glass sheet kg 29.8 30.2 2.2
Toughened glass sheet - 3 mm m² 232 235 17.1
Toughened glass sheet - 4 mm m² 310 314 22.8
Toughened glass sheet - 5 mm m² 387 392 28.5
Toughened glass sheet - 6 mm m² 465 471 34.2
Toughened glass sheet - 10 mm m² 775 785 56.9
Toughened glass sheet - 12 mm m² 929 942 68.3

112
TOP THREE INPUTS

Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/ ENERGY

34.3%
RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
29.8
9.1% Road Transport MJ/kg

1.9% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
14.6 40.3 29.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

30.3% Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/ WATER

RER U/AusSD U

30.2
L/kg

2.2% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing L/kg

2.1% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
11.5 28.4 30.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
44.0% Flat glass, uncoated, at plant/
RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

2.2
3.9% Road Transport
kgCO2e/kg

Structural Metal Product

2.0%
Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1.3 2.6 2.2
113
 kg Cellulose insulation

Cellulose is an organic compound that constitutes the primary cell Category Insulation
INSULATION

wall of green plants and is the most abundant polymer on Earth. Type Cellulose
Cellulose insulation has good thermal insulation properties (heat Functional kg
conductivity = 0.04 W/(m·K)). It also acts as sound insulation. unit
Specific heat 1 400 J/(kg·K)
Cellulose insulation is made from recycled newspaper (75-85%) and
Density 50 kg/m³
from natural fire retardants and anti-fungal agents such as boric acid
(15-25%). Newspapers are shredded and mixed with boric acid before Common uses
Insulation
being turned into small fibres. These are packaged for installation on
Process name
site.
Cellulose fibre, inclusive blowing in,
at plant/CH U/AusSD U
Cellulose insulation is mostly used in roofs and walls and is typically
Input-output sector
blown. Other Wood Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5528023cab

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Cellulose insulation kg 12.1 20.5 0.8
Cellulose insulation - 80 mm (R2) m² 48.3 82.1 3.1
Cellulose insulation - 100 mm (R2.5) m² 60.3 103 3.9

114
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
17.3% Road Transport

MJ/kg
12.1
4.5% Boric acid, anhydrous, powder, MJ/kg
at plant/RER U/AusSD U

2.8% Kraft paper, unbleached, at

plant/RER U/AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
7.2 12.9 12.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

34.3% Boric acid, anhydrous, powder, WATER

at plant/RER U/AusSD U

20.5
L/kg

22.9% Kraft paper, unbleached, at

plant/RER U/AusSD U L/kg

1.2% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
13.4 14.4 20.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
8.4% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Boric acid, anhydrous, powder,

0.79
7.0%
at plant/RER U/AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

Kraft paper, unbleached, at

5.4%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
0.56 0.64 0.79
115
 m² Aluminium foil insulation

Aluminium is a ductile non-ferrous metal. It is a lightweight metal Category Insulation

INSULATION

with an average density of 2 700 kg/m³. It is durable, corrosion Type Aluminium

resistant, a good reflector of both visible and infrared radiation, and Functional m²
highly recyclable. Aluminium insulation foils provide a barrier to unit

light, infrared radiation and sometimes air, moisture and bacteria, Specific heat 0.01 J/(kg·K)
depending on perforation and treatment. Density 321 kg/m³

Aluminium insulation foil is manufactured by rolling aluminium slabs Common uses

Insulation
cast from molten aluminium into a mill for a desired thickness. It is
Process name
produced into rolls of specific widths and lengths.
Aluminium foil insulation (custom)

Aluminium insulation foil is commonly installed in cavities to reflect Input-output sector

Basic Non-Ferrous Metal
infrared radiation and trap heat inside or outside of a building Manufacturing
(depending on its placement).
Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da551d0640fa

116
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
4.2% Road Transport

MJ/m²
25.6
0.6% Oil and gas extraction MJ/m²

Electricity Transmission,
0.6% Distribution, On Selling and
Electricity Market Operation Process IO Hybrid
12.6 55.9 25.6

TOP THREE INPUTS

21.0% Kraft paper, unbleached, at WATER

plant/RER U/AusSD U

33.8
L/m²

5.3% Glass fibre, at plant/RER U/

AusSD U L/m²

Ethylene vinyl acetate

1.5% copolymer, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
13.3 36.1 33.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
7.3% Glass fibre, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m²

1.9
1.7% Road Transport
kgCO2e/m²

1.4% Oil and gas extraction

Process IO Hybrid
0.96 2.8 1.9
117
 kg Glasswool insulation

Glasswool or fibreglass insulation contains micro fibres of glass that Category Insulation
INSULATION

trap pockets of air within. This results in a low density and low thermal Type Glass
conductivity (0.04 W/(m·K)), which is ideal for insulation materials. Functional kg
unit
Glasswool is made by mixing sand and recycled glass and melting Specific heat 840 J/(kg·K)
them at 1 450°C to obtain glass. This glass is turned into fibres using a
Density 25 kg/m³
process similar to making cotton candy, by forcing it through a mesh
and cooling it by contact with air. A binder is added beforehand to Common uses
Wall and ceiling insulation
ensure cohesion and mechanical strength. The resulting fibre is
Process name
heated at 200°C to polymerise the resin. The resulting insulation is
Glass wool mat, at plant/CH U/
calendered, before being cut and packed in rolls or panels. AusSD U

Input-output sector
Glasswool insulation is widely used in the construction industry as an Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product
insulation material for walls and ceilings. Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55494afb75

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Glasswool insulation kg 57.5 40.7 4
Glasswool insulation - 80 mm (R2) m² 115 81.4 8
Glasswool insulation - 100 mm (R2.5) m² 144 102 10.1

118
TOP THREE INPUTS

Natural gas, burned in ENERGY

13.0% industrial furnace low-NOx
>100kW/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
57.5
5.9% Formaldehyde, production mix, MJ/kg
at plant/RER U/AusSD U

5.3% Phenol, at plant/RER U/AusSD

U
Process IO Hybrid
51.8 25.2 57.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

18.4% Silicone product, at plant/RER WATER

U/AusSD U

40.7
L/kg

12.0% Phenol, at plant/RER U/AusSD

U L/kg

6.1% Soda, powder, at plant/RER U/

AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
30.8 16.8 40.7

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Natural gas, burned in
12.0% industrial furnace low-NOx GAS EMISSIONS
>100kW/RER U/AusSD U
kgCO2e/kg

Phenol, at plant/RER U/AusSD

4
3.0%
U kgCO2e/kg

Urea, as N, at regional
2.7%
storehouse/RER U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
3.7 1.8 4
119
 kg Polyester insulation

Polyester insulation is made from Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), Category Insulation

INSULATION

a fibre that is also commonly used for making bedding and clothing. Type Other minerals
Polyester insulation is a synthetic or man-made product based on Functional kg
petrochemicals. It is also often produced using recycled plastic unit

materials, such as plastic bottles, bags and packaging. Polyester Specific heat 1 200 J/(kg·K)
Insulation is also able to be fully recycled. Polyester insulation is fire Density 20 kg/m³
resistant, doesn’t attract vermin or develop mould.
Common uses
Wall and ceiling insulation
Polyester insulation is typically used in the construction industry as
Process name
an insulation material for walls, floors and ceilings. It comes in the
Fleece, polyethylene, at plant/RER
form of batts or rolls which are available in widths suited to standard U/AusSD U
spacings of wall studs, ceiling or floor joists. Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Polyester insulation kg 158 148 6.5
Polyester insulation - 75 mm (R1.5) m² 238 221 9.8
Polyester insulation - 90 mm (R2.0) m² 285 266 11.8

120
TOP THREE INPUTS

Petroleum and Coal Product ENERGY

3.9%
Manufacturing

MJ/kg
158
2.4% Road Transport MJ/kg

1.3% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
108 132 158

TOP THREE INPUTS

21.6% Other Agriculture WATER

148
L/kg

3.4% Water Supply, Sewerage and

Drainage Services L/kg

2.0% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
46.4 115 148

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
3.3% Petroleum and Coal Product
Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

6.5
2.1% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/kg

1.9% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
3.7 6.4 6.5
121
 kg Rockwool insulation

Rockwool, also called mineral wool, is made by spinning or drawing Category Insulation
INSULATION

molten rock materials into fibres. The resulting fibrous material has a Type Other minerals
very low density and low thermal conductivity (0.04 W/(m·K)). Functional kg
unit
Rockwool is produced by melting rock at 1 600°C and blowing air or Specific heat 840 J/(kg·K)
steam through the furnace to generate the fibres. Fibres can also be
Density 70 kg/m³
produced by spinning, similar to the process of making cotton candy
(the same process used to make fibreglass, or glasswool). The wool is Common uses
Insulation
packed in rolls or matts.
Process name
Rock wool, packed, at plant/CH U/
Rockwool insulation is widely used in the construction industry as AusSD U
thermal insulation. It has a high fire resistance depending on the
Input-output sector
constituting material, with ceramic fibre wool withstanding up to Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product
1 200°C of heat. Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55737d3e5e

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Rockwool insulation kg 57.1 62.2 3.8
Rockwool insulation - 80 mm (R2) m² 320 348 21.1
Rockwool insulation - 100 mm (R2.5) m² 400 435 26.4

122
TOP THREE INPUTS

Rock wool, at plant/CH U/ ENERGY

27.2%
AusSD U

MJ/kg
57.1
13.8% Road Transport MJ/kg

7.0% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
19.7 94.3 57.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

17.8% Rock wool, at plant/CH U/ WATER

AusSD U

Tanned Leather, Dressed 62.2

L/kg

10.1% Fur and Leather Product

Manufacturing
L/kg

7.7% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
13.9 62.7 62.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
32.3% Rock wool, at plant/CH U/
AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Structural Metal Product

3.8
6.6%
Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

6.2% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
1.5 6.7 3.8
123
 kg Polystyrene (EPS/XPS) insulation

Polystyrene (PS) is a synthetic polymer and thermoplastic. Polystyrene Category Insulation

INSULATION

insulation is made from Expanded (EPS) or Extruded Polystyrene Type Polystyrene

(XPS). It has a low thermal conductivity (0.03-0.038 W/(m·K)) and is a Functional kg
lightweight material. unit
Specific heat 1 223 J/(kg·K)
PS insulation is made by polymerising styrene monomers in
Density 23 kg/m³
polystyrene before moulding it (EPS) or extruding it (XPS) into rigid
foam panels. Common uses
Insulation

PS insulation is widely used in the construction industry. EPS is used Process name
Polystyrene foam slab, from
in walls and on roofs that do not require stepping onto. XPS, with expandable polystyrene (EPS)
its increased compressive strengths, can be stepped upon and is
Input-output sector
therefore more common on roofs. Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da556cc242c5

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Polystyrene (EPS/XPS) rigid foam insulation kg 155 841 8
Polystyrene (EPS/XPS) insulation - 72 mm (R2) m² 251 1 362 12.9
Polystyrene (EPS/XPS) insulation - 90 mm (R2.5) m² 314 1 703 16.2

124
TOP THREE INPUTS

Polystyrene ,general purpose, ENERGY

59.5%
modelled from USLCI data

MJ/kg
155
6.9% Polymer foaming MJ/kg

2.7% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
111 149 155

TOP THREE INPUTS

78.7% Polymer foaming WATER

841
L/kg

8.4% Polystyrene ,general purpose,

modelled from USLCI data L/kg

4.3% Other Agriculture

Process IO Hybrid
735 130 841

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
45.6% Polystyrene ,general purpose,
modelled from USLCI data
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

8
13.4% Polymer foaming
kgCO2e/kg

1.9% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
5.2 7.2 8
125
 kg Polyurethane (PU) insulation

Polyurethane (PU) is a polymer with a low density, low thermal Category Insulation
INSULATION

conductivity and high durability. Type Polyurethane

Functional kg
PU is produced by mixing a stream of isocyanate and a stream of unit
polyol, including any other additives. The proportion of each stream Specific heat 1 800 J/(kg·K)
in the mix is often used to alter the material properties. The resulting
Density 30 kg/m³
mixture is poured into a mould or onto a surface. Once cured, the PU
is demoulded. Common uses
Insulation

PU insulation consists of rigid foam panels that are used for high- Process name
Polyurethane, rigid foam, at plant/
performance insulation. RER U/AusSD U

Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da556ef90771

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Polyurethane (PU) rigid foam insulation kg 293 690 17.5
Polyurethane (PU) rigid foam insulation - 44 mm (R2) m² 387 911 23.1
Polyurethane (PU) rigid foam insulation - 55 mm (R2.5) m² 484 1 138 28.8

126
TOP THREE INPUTS

Methylene diphenyl ENERGY

16.0% diisocyanate, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U

MJ/kg
293
9.6% Polyols, at plant/RER U/AusSD MJ/kg
U

7.0% Petroleum and Coal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
86.3 445 293

TOP THREE INPUTS

29.2%
Methylene diphenyl
diisocyanate, at plant/RER U/ WATER
AusSD U

690
L/kg

19.7% Polyols, at plant/RER U/AusSD

U L/kg

15.6% Other Agriculture

Process IO Hybrid
340 389 690

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Methylene diphenyl
14.8% diisocyanate, at plant/RER U/ GAS EMISSIONS
AusSD U
kgCO2e/kg

Polyols, at plant/RER U/AusSD

17.5
8.2%
U kgCO2e/kg

Petroleum and Coal Product

4.1%
Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
4.7 21.6 17.5
127
 kg Aluminium bar

Aluminium is a ductile non-ferrous metal. It is a lightweight metal Category Metals

METALS

with an average density of 2.7 t/m³. It is durable, corrosion resistant, Type Aluminium
a good reflector of both visible and infrared radiation, and highly Functional kg
recyclable. Aluminium alloys are used in the construction industry unit

as raw aluminium typically lacks the strength required for most of its Specific heat 910 J/(kg·K)
applications. Density 2 712 kg/m³

Aluminium is extracted from bauxite, its common ore, through an Common uses
Finishes, ventilation grilles
extensive process. Bauxite is converted to aluminium oxide through
Process name
the Bayer process. Aluminium oxide (or Alumina) is then converted
Aluminium section bar (custom)
to aluminium billets by the electricity-intensive Hall-Héroult process,
Input-output sector
made of 99% aluminium, which can be further purified if needed. Basic Non-Ferrous Metal
Aluminium billets are then thermoformed into the relevant shape. Manufacturing

Powder coating provides additional durability, custom colour and Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5519635948
improved performance.

Aluminium is commonly used as a construction material, notably as

cladding, structural and window framing, and as a thermal reflector.
Aluminium bars are typically extruded and can be used as a finishing
product (flat bars) and as ventilation grilles.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Aluminium bar kg 345 219 29.6
Aluminium bar flat - 12 mm × 3mm m 33.7 21.3 2.9
Aluminium bar flat - 40 mm × 3mm m 112 71.2 9.6
Aluminium bar flat - 100 mm × 6mm m 562 356 48.2
Aluminium bar round - 16 mm dia. m 188 119 16.2
Aluminium bar round - 50 mm dia. m 1 838 1 164 158
Aluminium bar round - 150 mm dia. m 16 542 10 479 1 420

128
TOP THREE INPUTS

Aluminium, primary, at plant/ ENERGY

56.2%
RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
345
5.3% Section bar extrusion, MJ/kg
aluminium/RER U/AusSD U

2.1% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
260 373 345

TOP THREE INPUTS

20.3% Aluminium, primary, at plant/ WATER

RER U/AusSD U

219
L/kg

8.9% Section bar extrusion,

aluminium/RER U/AusSD U L/kg

0.5% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
88.2 240 219

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
68.9% Aluminium, primary, at plant/
RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Section bar extrusion,

29.6
5.3%
aluminium/RER U/AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

0.8% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
24.2 19 29.6
129
 m² Aluminium composite panel

Aluminium composite panels consist of a layer of foam insulation, Category Metals

METALS

sandwiched between two aluminium sheets. Aluminium sheets are Type Aluminium
chosen for their durability, resistance to corrosion, large colour palette Functional m²
and strength. The foam is typically polyethylene or polyurethane. unit
Specific heat 1 000 J/(kg·K)
Rolled aluminium coils are used to sandwich the foam insulation,
Density 1 900 kg/m³
which is also fed to the manufacturing line as a roll. Adhesives are
used to glue the aluminium sheets to the core. Common uses
Cladding

Aluminium composite panels are typically used as cladding. The Process name
Aluminium composite panel,
panel specified here is 4 mm thick. ALUCOBOND, 4mm, FR (custom)

Input-output sector
Structural Metal Product
Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da551a4afce4

130
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
10.5% Iron and Steel Manufacturing

MJ/m²
1 196
6.2% Thermoforming, with MJ/m²
calendering/RER U/AusSD U

5.3% Rock wool, at plant/CH U/

AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
1 072 489 1 196

TOP THREE INPUTS

44.4% Thermoforming, with WATER

calendering/RER U/AusSD U

1 174
L/m²

7.5% Iron and Steel Manufacturing

L/m²

4.3% Rock wool, at plant/CH U/

AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
899 486 1 174

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
5.6% Thermoforming, with
calendering/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m²

Rock wool, at plant/CH U/

102
4.8%
AusSD U kgCO2e/m²

4.6% Iron and Steel Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
92.2 32 102
131
 kg Aluminium extruded

Aluminium is a ductile non-ferrous metal. It is a lightweight metal Category Metals

METALS

with an average density of 2.7 t/m³. It is durable, corrosion resistant, Type Aluminium
a good reflector of both visible and infrared radiation, and highly Functional kg
recyclable. Aluminium alloys are used in the construction industry unit

as raw aluminium typically lacks the strength required for most of its Specific heat 910 J/(kg·K)
applications. Density 2 712 kg/m³

Aluminium is extracted from bauxite, its common ore, through an Common uses
Window frames, profiles
extensive process. Bauxite is converted to aluminium oxide through
Process name
the Bayer process. Aluminium oxide (or Alumina) is then converted
Aluminium extruded (custom)
to aluminium billets by the electricity-intensive Hall-Héroult process,
Input-output sector
made of 99% aluminium, which can be further purified if needed. Structural Metal Product
Aluminium billets are then thermoformed into the relevant shape. Manufacturing

Powdercoating provides additional durability, custom colour and Further information

[Link]/10.26188/5da551b3248d5
improved performance.

Aluminium is commonly used as a construction material, notably as

cladding, structural and window framing, and as a thermal reflector.
Extruded aluminium is commonly used for window frames, profiles
for tracks, frames and rails, and mullions.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Aluminium extruded kg 358 182 29.4
Aluminium extruded angle kg 383 244 32.7
Aluminium round tube - 25 mm dia., 3.2 mm thick m 114 57.9 9.4
Aluminium round tube - 60 mm dia., 10 mm thick m 871 442 71.5
Aluminium round tube - 80 mm dia., 6 mm thick m 705 357 57.8
Aluminium square tube - 20 mm, 1.6 mm thick m 59.7 30.3 4.9
Aluminium square tube - 40 mm, 2 mm thick m 152 76.8 12.4
Aluminium square tube - 100 mm, 3 mm thick m 574 291 47.1
Aluminium extruded powdercoated kg 415 251 33.6

132
TOP THREE INPUTS

Aluminium, primary, at plant/ ENERGY

59.0%
RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
358
10.3% Iron and Steel Manufacturing MJ/kg

2.8% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
271 148 358

TOP THREE INPUTS

32.3% Aluminium, primary, at plant/ WATER

RER U/AusSD U

182
L/kg

14.6% Iron and Steel Manufacturing

L/kg

2.3% Other Fabricated Metal Product

manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
85.8 147 182

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
70.4% Aluminium, primary, at plant/
RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

29.4
4.8% Iron and Steel Manufacturing
kgCO2e/kg

1.1% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
25.2 9.6 29.4
133
 kg Aluminium sheet

Aluminium is a ductile non-ferrous metal. It is a lightweight metal Category Metals

METALS

with an average density of 2.7 t/m³. It is durable, corrosion resistant, Type Aluminium
a good reflector of both visible and infrared radiation, and highly Functional kg
recyclable. Aluminium alloys are used in the construction industry unit

as raw aluminium typically lacks the strength required for most of its Specific heat 910 J/(kg·K)
applications. Density 2 712 kg/m³

Aluminium is extracted from bauxite, its common ore, through an Common uses
Cladding, structural elements,
extensive process. Bauxite is converted to aluminium oxide through tubes, plates
the Bayer process. Aluminium oxide (or Alumina) is then converted
Process name
to aluminium billets by the electricity-intensive Hall-Héroult process, Aluminium sheet rolled (custom)
made of 99% aluminium, which can be further purified if needed. Input-output sector
Aluminium billets are then thermoformed into the relevant shape. Basic Non-Ferrous Metal
Manufacturing

Aluminium is commonly used as a construction material, notably Further information

[Link]/10.26188/5da551dec2e47
as cladding, structural and window framing, and as a thermal
reflector. Aluminium sheets or plates are used as the base material for
aluminium cladding, gutters, and structural elements.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Aluminium sheet kg 295 160 26.7
Aluminium sheet - 1.6 mm m² 1 280 693 116
Aluminium sheet - 3 mm m² 2 400 1 300 217
Aluminium sheet - 6 mm m² 4 800 2 600 434

134
TOP THREE INPUTS

Aluminium, primary, at plant/ ENERGY

65.1%
RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
295
3.2% Sheet rolling, aluminium/RER MJ/kg
U/AusSD U

1.6% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
251 250 295

TOP THREE INPUTS

27.8% Aluminium, primary, at plant/ WATER

RER U/AusSD U

160
L/kg

4.6% Sheet rolling, aluminium/RER

U/AusSD U L/kg

0.4% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
74.7 161 160

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
76.5% Aluminium, primary, at plant/
RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Sheet rolling, aluminium/RER

26.7
3.3%
U/AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

0.6% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
23.5 12.7 26.7
135
 kg Copper pipe

Copper is a soft and malleable non-ferrous metal and has been used Category Metals
METALS

in construction for hundreds of years. It has high thermal and electric Type Copper
conduction properties. Functional kg
unit
Copper is made by crushing mined copper ores and flash smelting Specific heat 390 J/(kg·K)
them. The resulting copper sulphite is further heated with oxygen
Density 8 940 kg/m³
to obtain copper oxide. The latter is heated to obtain blister copper,
which is used to cast anodes that are turned into pure copper Common uses
Gas pipes, coolant pipes, water
cathodes through electroplating. These are then heated and extruded pipes
into pipes.
Process name
Copper wire (custom)
Copper has multiple uses in construction. Copper pipes are used
Input-output sector
for building services, including for gas and in heating, cooling and Basic Non-Ferrous Metal
ventilation systems. Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55317e50fc

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Copper pipe kg 150 289 10.1
Copper pipe - 12.7 mm outer dia., 0.91 mm thick m 45.1 87 3
Copper pipe - 19.05 mm outer dia., 1.02 mm thick m 77.3 149 5.2
Copper pipe - 40 mm outer dia., 1.22 mm thick m 199 384 13.4

136
TOP THREE INPUTS

Copper, primary, at refinery/ ENERGY

23.2%
GLO U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
150
4.7% Road Transport MJ/kg

4.6% Wire drawing, copper/RER U/

AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
65.5 354 150

TOP THREE INPUTS

49.2% Copper, primary, at refinery/ WATER

GLO U/AusSD U

289
L/kg

4.5% Wire drawing, copper/RER U/

AusSD U L/kg

Electricity Transmission,
0.9% Distribution, On Selling and
Electricity Market Operation

Process IO Hybrid
176 229 289

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
24.7% Copper, primary, at refinery/
GLO U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Wire drawing, copper/RER U/

10.1
6.0%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

2.2% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
4.8 18 10.1
137
 kg Copper sheet

Copper is a soft and malleable non-ferrous metal and has been used Category Metals
METALS

in construction for hundreds of years. It has high thermal and electric Type Copper
conduction properties. Functional kg
unit
Copper is made by crushing mined copper ores and flash smelting Specific heat 390 J/(kg·K)
them. The resulting copper sulphite is further heated with oxygen
Density 8 940 kg/m³
to obtain copper oxide. The latter is heated to obtain blister copper,
which is used to cast anodes that are turned into pure copper Common uses
Roofing, cladding, gutters,
cathodes through electroplating. antimicrobial finished surfaces

Process name
Copper has multiple uses in construction. Copper sheets are often Copper sheet (custom)
used to manufacture roofing, cladding, gutters, antimicrobial finished
Input-output sector
surfaces and others. Basic Non-Ferrous Metal
Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55308b9bbe

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Copper sheet kg 226 389 15.1
Copper sheet - 0.9 mm m² 1 819 3 132 121
Copper sheet - 1.2 mm m² 2 426 4 175 162
Copper sheet - 2 mm m² 4 043 6 959 270
Copper sheet - 3 mm m² 6 064 10 438 405

138
TOP THREE INPUTS

Copper, primary, at refinery/ ENERGY

15.9%
GLO U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
226
5.4% Road Transport MJ/kg

2.0% Sheet rolling, copper/RER U/

AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
62.6 612 226

TOP THREE INPUTS

37.6% Copper, primary, at refinery/ WATER

GLO U/AusSD U

389
L/kg

2.1% Sheet rolling, copper/RER U/

AusSD U L/kg

Electricity Transmission,
1.1% Distribution, On Selling and
Electricity Market Operation

Process IO Hybrid
171 395 389

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
16.5% Copper, primary, at refinery/
GLO U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Sheet rolling, copper/RER U/

15.1
2.5%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

2.4% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
4.5 31.1 15.1
139
 kg Copper wire

Copper is a soft and malleable non-ferrous metal and has been used Category Metals
METALS

in construction for hundreds of years. It has high thermal and electric Type Copper
conduction properties. Functional kg
unit
Copper is made by crushing mined copper ores and flash smelting Specific heat 390 J/(kg·K)
them. The resulting copper sulphite is further heated with oxygen
Density 8 940 kg/m³
to obtain copper oxide. The latter is heated to obtain blister copper,
which is used to cast anodes that are turned into pure copper Common uses
Electrical cables
cathodes through electroplating. These cathodes are melted, roll
Process name
milled to a very small thickness and fed to a coiler than produces the
Copper wire (custom)
wire.
Input-output sector
Electrical Equipment Manufacturing
Copper has multiple uses in construction. Copper wires are used in
the majority of electrical cables. Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da553272580f

140
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
6.0% Road Transport

MJ/kg
671
5.9% Copper, primary, at refinery/ MJ/kg
GLO U/AusSD U

5.1% Iron and Steel Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
65.5 865 671

TOP THREE INPUTS

16.7% Copper, primary, at refinery/ WATER

GLO U/AusSD U

897
L/kg

5.5% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services L/kg

5.4% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
176 782 897

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
6.9% Copper, primary, at refinery/
GLO U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Electrical Equipment
41.8
6.9%
Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

4.9% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
4.8 62.2 41.8
141
 kg Cold rolled stainless steel

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Stainless steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Stainless Functional kg
steel is extremely resistant to corrosion. unit
Specific heat 456 J/(kg·K)
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore.
Density 7 740 kg/m³
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. To render Common uses
Exterior cladding, handrails, counter
the steel stainless, chromium is needed and is typically added as tops, interior surfaces
stainless steel scraps. The molten steel is usually further processed
Process name
before being cast for its final use. Cold rolled steel is cooled at room Stainless steel, cold rolled (custom)
temperature and then annealed or tempered. Input-output sector
Iron and Steel Manufacturing
Steel is commonly used in the construction industry, mainly as a
Further information
structural material. Cold rolled stainless steel is used to produce a [Link]/10.26188/5dd09ea396b11
range of high-precision corrosion resistant materials.

142
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, chromium ENERGY

40.2% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U

MJ/kg
123
6.5% Sheet rolling, chromium steel/ MJ/kg
RER U/AusSD U

6.0% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
70.8 289 123

TOP THREE INPUTS

34.3% Sheet rolling, chromium steel/ WATER

RER U/AusSD U

Steel, converter, chromium 168

L/kg

23.0% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/

AusSD U
L/kg

2.9% Coal mining

Process IO Hybrid
103 216 168

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Steel, converter, chromium
44.0% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/ GAS EMISSIONS
AusSD U
kgCO2e/kg

9.2
7.6% Coal mining
kgCO2e/kg

Sheet rolling, chromium steel/

7.6%
RER U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
5.4 11.7 9.2
143
 kg Stainless steel extruded

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Stainless steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Stainless Functional kg
steel is extremely resistant to corrosion. unit
Specific heat 456 J/(kg·K)
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore.
Density 7 740 kg/m³
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. To render the Common uses
Tubes, pipes
steel stainless, chromium is needed and is typically added as stainless
Process name
steel scraps. The molten steel is usually further processed before
Stainless steel, hot extruded
being extruded into its final shape. (custom)

Input-output sector
Steel is commonly used in the construction industry, mainly as a Iron and Steel Manufacturing
structural material. Extruded stainless steel can be used to produce
Further information
a range of tubes for structural and finishing purposes as well as pipes. [Link]/10.26188/5da557cc41ed8

144
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, chromium ENERGY

31.5% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U

MJ/kg
155
5.8% Road Transport MJ/kg

2.5% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
85.9 357 155

TOP THREE INPUTS

28.1%
Steel, converter, chromium
steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/ WATER
AusSD U

138
L/kg

7.9% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

L/kg

4.4% Coal mining

Process IO Hybrid
62.5 267 138

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Steel, converter, chromium
34.2% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/ GAS EMISSIONS
AusSD U
kgCO2e/kg

11.8
7.3% Coal mining
kgCO2e/kg

4.0% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
6.8 14.4 11.8
145
 kg Stainless steel sheet

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Stainless steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Stainless Functional kg
steel is extremely resistant to corrosion. unit
Specific heat 456 J/(kg·K)
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore.
Density 7 740 kg/m³
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. To render the Common uses
High-durability cladding, tubes,
steel stainless, chromium is needed and is typically added as stainless roofing, kitchen surfaces
steel scraps. The molten steel is usually further processed before
Process name
being cast for its final use. Stainless steel, sheet (custom)

Input-output sector
Steel is commonly used in the construction industry, mainly as a Iron and Steel Manufacturing
structural material. Stainless steel sheets are used to produce a
Further information
range of finishing materials, such as high durability cladding, roofing [Link]/10.26188/5da557de9ee33
(mainly for airports), and kitchen surfaces.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Stainless steel sheet kg 97.6 140 7.2
Stainless steel sheet products kg 238 263 14.7

146
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, chromium ENERGY

50.6% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U

MJ/kg
97.6
8.1% Sheet rolling, chromium steel/ MJ/kg
RER U/AusSD U

4.7% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
70.8 182 97.6

TOP THREE INPUTS

41.2% Sheet rolling, chromium steel/ WATER

RER U/AusSD U

Steel, converter, chromium 140

L/kg

27.5% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/

AusSD U
L/kg

0.7% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
103 136 140

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Steel, converter, chromium
55.9% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/ GAS EMISSIONS
AusSD U
kgCO2e/kg

Sheet rolling, chromium steel/

7.2
9.7%
RER U/AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

2.1% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
5.4 7.4 7.2
147
 kg Stainless steel wire

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Stainless steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Stainless Functional kg
steel is extremely resistant to corrosion. unit
Specific heat 456 J/(kg·K)
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore.
Density 7 740 kg/m³
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. To render the Common uses
Cables, ropes, structure, lighting
steel stainless, chromium is needed and is typically added as stainless
Process name
steel scraps. The molten steel is usually further processed before
Stainless steel, wire (custom)
being thermoformed into its final shape.
Input-output sector
Other Fabricated Metal Product
Steel is commonly used in the construction industry, mainly as a manufacturing
structural material. Stainless steel wires are typically used as ropes
Further information
and cables in multiple applications, including bridges, suspending [Link]/10.26188/5da5580349dda
structures, lighting and others.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Stainless steel wire kg 226 253 13.9
Bare wire - 2 mm dia. m 5.5 6.2 0.3
Bare wire - 3.2 mm dia. m 14.1 15.8 0.9
Wire rope - 1.6 mm dia. m 2.4 2.7 0.2
Wire rope - 4 mm dia. m 14.2 15.9 0.9
Wire rope - 8 mm dia. m 57.8 64.9 3.6
Wire rope - 12 mm dia. m 127 143 7.8

148
TOP THREE INPUTS

Basic Non-Ferrous Metal ENERGY

25.9%
Manufacturing

MJ/kg
Steel, converter, chromium
226
22.3% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/ MJ/kg
AusSD U

5.0% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
64.3 250 226

TOP THREE INPUTS

15.3%
Steel, converter, chromium
steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/ WATER
AusSD U

253
L/kg

14.6% Wire drawing, steel/RER U/

AusSD U L/kg

12.4% Basic Non-Ferrous Metal

Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
82.5 245 253

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Steel, converter, chromium
26.9% steel 18/8, at plant/RER U/ GAS EMISSIONS
AusSD U
kgCO2e/kg

Basic Non-Ferrous Metal

13.9
20.6%
Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

Other Fabricated Metal Product

3.5%
manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
5.1 15.8 13.9
149
 kg Cold rolled steel

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Functional kg
unit
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore. Specific heat 490 J/(kg·K)
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
Density 7 850 kg/m³
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. The molten steel
is usually further processed before being cast for its final use. Cold Common uses
Truss members, wall and roof
rolled steel is cooled at room temperature and then annealed or systems
tempered.
Process name
Steel cold rolled (custom)
Steel is commonly used in the construction industry, mainly as a
Input-output sector
structural material. Cold rolled structural steel is used to produce a Iron and Steel Manufacturing
range of more precise structural elements compared to hot rolled
Further information
structural steel. These include structural members for trusses and [Link]/10.26188/5da552dadce9f
profiles for roof and wall systems.

150
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at ENERGY

41.5%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
51.7
9.9% Sheet rolling, steel/RER U/ MJ/kg
AusSD U

5.7% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
31.9 109 51.7

TOP THREE INPUTS

36.8% Sheet rolling, steel/RER U/ WATER

AusSD U

77.6
L/kg

20.6% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at

plant/RER U/AusSD U L/kg

5.9% Water Supply, Sewerage and

Drainage Services

Process IO Hybrid
47.9 81.5 77.6

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
46.9% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Sheet rolling, steel/RER U/

3.7
10.4%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

4.0% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
2.6 4.4 3.7
151
 kg Hot rolled galvanised structural steel

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Galvanised steel
(zinc coated)
been used in the construction industry for over a century.
Functional kg
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore. unit

Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting Specific heat 456 J/(kg·K)

process, while controlling for the content of carbon. The molten Density 7 850 kg/m³
steel is usually further processed before being cast for its final use.
Common uses
Galvanisation can be used to apply a coat of zinc crystals on the Beams, columns
surface of the steel to significantly improve its resistance to corrosion.
Process name
Galvanised hot rolled steel (custom)
Steel is commonly used in the construction industry, mainly as a
Input-output sector
structural material. Hot rolled galvanised steel is used to produce Structural Metal Product
elements for the outdoors, such as poles, pipes, and decking. Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5554017f41

152
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at ENERGY

49.8%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
43
9.4% Hot rolling, steel/RER U/AusSD MJ/kg
U

9.1% Zinc coating, coils/RER U/

AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
35.7 23.8 43

TOP THREE INPUTS

37.3% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at WATER

plant/RER U/AusSD U

43.2
L/kg

14.7% Hot rolling, steel/RER U/AusSD

U L/kg

12.5% Zinc coating, coils/RER U/

AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
31.2 23.7 43.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
55.2% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Zinc coating, coils/RER U/

3.3
9.9%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

Hot rolling, steel/RER U/AusSD

9.2%
U

Process IO Hybrid
2.8 1.6 3.3
153
 kg Hot rolled structural steel

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Functional kg
unit
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore. Specific heat 490 J/(kg·K)
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
Density 7 850 kg/m³
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. The molten steel
is usually further processed before being cast for its final use. Common uses
Reinforcement bars, beams, railroad
tracks
Steel is commonly used in the construction industry, mainly as a
Process name
structural material. Hot rolled structural steel is used to produce a Steel hot rolled (custom)
range of structural elements, such as reinforcement bars, I-beams and
Input-output sector
railroad tracks. Structural Metal Product
Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55550a40e9

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Hot rolled structural steel kg 38.8 37.1 2.9
Steel reinforcement bar - 6 mm dia. m 8.6 8.2 0.6
Steel reinforcement bar - 8 mm dia. m 15.3 14.6 1.1
Steel reinforcement bar - 12 mm dia. m 34.5 32.9 2.6

154
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at ENERGY

53.6%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
38.8
10.0% Hot rolling, steel/RER U/AusSD MJ/kg
U

6.9% Basic Non-Ferrous Metal

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
30.6 20.6 38.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

44.8% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at WATER

plant/RER U/AusSD U

37.1
L/kg

17.1% Hot rolling, steel/RER U/AusSD

U L/kg

3.8% Basic Non-Ferrous Metal

Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
25.3 20.5 37.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
60.9% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Hot rolling, steel/RER U/AusSD

2.9
10.2%
U kgCO2e/kg

Basic Non-Ferrous Metal

4.4%
Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
2.4 1.3 2.9
155
 kg Steel bar

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Functional kg
unit
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore. Specific heat 490 J/(kg·K)
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
Density 7 850 kg/m³
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. The molten steel
is usually further processed before being cast for its final use. Common uses
Framing, plates

Steel is commonly used in the construction industry, mainly as a Process name

Steel bar (custom)
structural material. Steel (flat) bars are used as frames and cut and
welded into steel plates. Input-output sector
Iron and Steel Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55814c051c

156
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at ENERGY

70.6%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
29.5
2.3% Road Transport MJ/kg

0.5% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
27.8 30.4 29.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

37.5% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining WATER

44.3
L/kg

2.9% Water Supply, Sewerage and

Drainage Services L/kg

1.9% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
37.9 22.7 44.3

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
74.5% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

2.1
1.6% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining
kgCO2e/kg

1.1% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
2.3 1.2 2.1
157
 kg Steel hollow section extruded

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Functional kg
unit
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore. Specific heat 490 J/(kg·K)
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
Density 7 850 kg/m³
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. The molten
steel is usually further processed before being extruded into hollow Common uses
Structural profiles
sections.
Process name
Steel, extruded (custom)
Hollow sections of steel are commonly used in the construction
industry, mainly for structural purposes. Input-output sector
Iron and Steel Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da558259be14

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Steel hollow section extruded kg 54.8 45.2 4.6
Square tube - 20 mm, 1.6 mm thick m 55 45.4 4.6
Square tube - 50 mm, 2 mm thick m 172 142 14.5
Square tube - 100 mm, 4 mm thick m 688 568 57.8

158
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at ENERGY

37.8%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
54.8
2.2% Road Transport MJ/kg

1.0% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
51.3 47.2 54.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

36.5% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at WATER

plant/RER U/AusSD U

45.2
L/kg

3.2% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

L/kg

1.8% Coal mining

Process IO Hybrid
37.1 35.3 45.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
39.1% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

4.6
2.2% Coal mining
kgCO2e/kg

1.3% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
4.3 1.9 4.6
159
 kg Steel pipe

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Functional kg
unit
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore. Specific heat 490 J/(kg·K)
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
Density 7 850 kg/m³
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. The molten steel
is usually further processed before being extruded into circular pipes. Common uses
Piles, pipes, structural profiles

Steel pipes are often used in pile foundations, plumbing and as Process name
Steel pipe (custom)
columns (usually filled with concrete).
Input-output sector
Iron and Steel Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5583906307

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Steel pipe kg 42.9 78.1 3.5
Steel pipe - 21.3 mm outer dia., 2.6 mm thick m 51.4 93.7 4.2
Steel pipe - 42.4 mm outer dia., 2.6 mm thick m 109 199 9
Steel pipe - 88.9 mm outer dia., 4 mm thick m 359 654 29.6
Steel pipe - 165.1 mm outer dia., 4.9 mm thick m 831 1 512 68.5

160
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at ENERGY

49.5%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
42.9
4.6% Road Transport MJ/kg

2.0% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
30.1 77.4 42.9

TOP THREE INPUTS

20.2% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at WATER

plant/RER U/AusSD U

78.1
L/kg

3.0% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

L/kg

1.7% Coal mining

Process IO Hybrid
61 58 78.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
50.8% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

3.5
5.3% Coal mining
kgCO2e/kg

2.8% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
2.6 3.1 3.5
161
 kg Steel sheet corrugated

Steel is a ferrous metal and is an alloy of iron and carbon, as well as Category Metals
METALS

potential other elements. It has a very high tensile strength. Steel has Type Steel
been used in the construction industry for over a century. Functional kg
unit
The core material for making steel is iron, which is found in iron ore. Specific heat 490 J/(kg·K)
Iron is extracted from iron ore in blast furnaces through the smelting
Density 7 850 kg/m³
process, while controlling for the content of carbon. The molten steel
is usually further processed before being cast into sheet. These steel Common uses
Roofing, cladding, separations,
sheets are then corrugated using roll forming. The corrugated steel permanent formwork
sheets are finally galvanised by applying a coat of zinc crystals on
Process name
their surface to significantly improve their resistance to corrosion. Steel sheet corrugated (custom)

Input-output sector
Corrugated steel sheets are widely used in the construction industry, Iron and Steel Manufacturing
mainly as roofing, cladding, separations and permanent formwork.
Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5584b06f9b

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Steel sheet corrugated kg 79.6 73.4 5.5
Steel sheet corrugated - per m2 m² 259 239 17.9
Steel sheet corrugated - per m2 - pre-painted m² 293 286 24.9

162
TOP THREE INPUTS

Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at ENERGY

26.2%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
79.6
4.9% Hot rolling, steel/RER U/AusSD MJ/kg
U

3.5% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
62.5 124 79.6

TOP THREE INPUTS

22.6% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at WATER

plant/RER U/AusSD U

73.4
L/kg

8.6% Hot rolling, steel/RER U/AusSD

U L/kg

4.8% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
49.4 93 73.4

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
28.0% Steel, converter, low-alloyed, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Hot rolling, steel/RER U/AusSD

5.5
4.5%
U kgCO2e/kg

2.5% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

Process IO Hybrid
5.1 5 5.5
163
 kg Asphalt

Asphalt is made by combining bitumen and aggregates. It is also Category Miscellaneous

MISCELLANEOUS

commonly known as asphaltic concrete or bituminous concrete. Type Bitumen

Bitumen is a petroleum-based product made by extracting Functional kg
components of crude oil. Crude bitumen obtained from oil sands can unit

also be used, which is a naturally occurring bitumen. Bitumen is used Specific heat 837 J/(kg·K)
as a binder and generally represents around 5% of the asphalt mix. Density 2 649 kg/m³

Typical aggregates used are crushed rock, sand or gravel and these Common uses
Roads, carparks, pathways, roofs
make up approximately 95% of the volume of asphalt. The maximum
Process name
aggregate size is generally 10 mm. Polymers and other additives
Asphalt, standard mix, 5.5% virgin
are often added to control the properties of asphalt. Due to its high bitumen, at plant/AU U
viscosity, asphalt is heated prior to being mixed with the aggregate Input-output sector
materials. Petroleum and Coal Product
Manufacturing

Asphalt is used mainly as a road construction material, but Further information

[Link]/10.26188/5da551ed753b9
also commonly used for path and carpark surfacing as well as
waterproofing of roofs.

164
TOP THREE INPUTS

Bitumen, at refinery/RER U/ ENERGY

55.8%
AusSD U

MJ/kg
4.2
12.9% Oil and gas extraction MJ/kg

1.4% Gravel, crushed, at mine/CH U/

AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
3.3 5.5 4.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

34.4% Gravel, crushed, at mine/CH U/ WATER

AusSD U

2.9
L/kg

15.1% Oil and gas extraction

L/kg

12.0% Bitumen, at refinery/RER U/

AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
1.9 1.4 2.9

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
48.1% Oil and gas extraction GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Bitumen, at refinery/RER U/
0.2
9.4%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

Gravel, crushed, at mine/CH U/

3.8%
AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
0.079 0.2 0.2
165
 m3 Cellulose-cement block

Cellulose-cement blocks are manufactured from a mix of cellulose, Category Miscellaneous

MISCELLANEOUS

cement, and sand. The cellulose is often sourced from waste products, Type Blocks
such as sawdust or wood chips, but other cellulose products may be Functional m³
used. Sand is used to maximise the load bearing capacity of the mix unit

and minimise water ingress. Portland cement or other cementitious Specific heat 1 171 J/(kg·K)
material is often used as a binder. Density 1 000 kg/m³

Cellulose-cement blocks can be used for wall construction as well as Common uses
External walls, internal walls,
in landscaping. The cellulose-cement mix can also be used to produce landscaping
bricks and panels. The blocks have a higher R-value compared
Process name
to traditional solid masonry blocks. They are also lighter, and can Cellulose-cement block
be nailed or screwed into. While cellulose-cement blocks have an Input-output sector
equivalent lifespan to traditional solid masonry blocks, sealing or Other Wood Product Manufacturing

rendering the blocks can increase their longevity. Further information

[Link]/10.26188/22896581

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Cellulose-cement block m³ 3 805 3 344 345
Cellulose-cement block - 285 × 125 × 95 mm no. 12.9 11.3 1.2
Cellulose-cement block - 348 × 160 × 100 mm no. 21.2 18.6 1.9
Cellulose-cement block - 350 × 172 × 95 mm no. 21.8 19.1 2
Cellulose-cement block - 400 × 160 × 120 mm no. 29.2 25.7 2.7
Cellulose-cement block - 400 × 160 × 200 mm no. 48.7 42.8 4.4
Cellulose-cement block - 440 × 240 × 110 mm no. 44.2 38.8 4

166
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
17.9% Road Transport

MJ/m³
3 805
10.9% Electricity Generation MJ/m³

2.7% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1 114 4 095 3 805

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.3% Water Supply, Sewerage and WATER

Drainage Services

3 344
L/m³

2.7% Wholesale Trade

L/m³

2.5% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
529 4 578 3 344

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
14.1% Electricity Generation GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

345
6.5% Road Transport
kgCO2e/m³

1.9% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
182 203 345
167
 m3 Hempcrete block

Hempcrete is made of the inner woody core of the hemp plant (hemp Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

shives) mixed with a lime-based binder and water. The lime-based Type Blocks
binder typically consists of either natural hydraulic lime or hydrated Functional m³
lime. Hydrated lime is made from pure limestone and sets through unit

the absorption of carbon dioxide as part of the carbonation process. Specific heat 1 600 J/(kg·K)
Hempcrete has low compressive strength, but high acoustic and Density 340 kg/m³
thermal insulation properties, and is fire resitant.
Common uses
External walls, internal walls, floors,
Hempcrete blocks are a non-loadbearing block used for external or roofs
internal walls, providing thermal insulation. They can also be used to
Process name
provide additional insulation to roofs and floors when combined with Hempcrete
a building’s structural system.. Input-output sector
Other Wood Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/22896602

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Hempcrete block m³ 6 319 76 976 434
Hempcrete block - 600 × 300 × 100 mm no. 113 1 386 7.8
Hempcrete block - 600 × 300 × 150 mm no. 171 2 078 11.7
Hempcrete block - 600 × 300 × 200 mm no. 227 2 771 15.6
Hempcrete block - 600 × 300 × 300 mm no. 341 4 157 23.4

168
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
19.3% Road Transport

MJ/m³
6 319
11.4% Sawmill Product Manufacturing MJ/m³

8.7% Forestry and Logging

Process IO Hybrid
1140 7554 6319

TOP THREE INPUTS

90.3% Lime, hydraulic, at plant/CH U/ WATER

AusSD U

76 976
L/m³

3.0% Forestry and Logging

L/m³

1.8% Sawmill Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
70058 8443 76976

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
23.2% Lime, hydraulic, at plant/CH U/
AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

Lime, hydrated, loose, at plant/

434
13.4%
CH U/AusSD U kgCO2e/m³

9.3% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
189 374 434
169
 kg Magnesium oxide board

Magnesium oxide (MgO) board is a multi-purpose construction board Category Miscellaneous

MISCELLANEOUS

manufactured from magnesium oxide and reinforced with multiple Type Boards
layers of glass fibre mesh. The manufacturing process combines Functional kg
magnesium and oxygen with pressure and heat to create magnesium unit

oxide (MgO). After being ground into powder, it gets mixed with water, Specific heat 874 J/(kg·K)
chloride, sulfate and wood dust, and perlite. Magnesium oxide board Density 778 kg/m³
is fire resistant, water resistant, mould resistant, insect resistant, and
Common uses
highly durable. External cladding, internal wall
lining, internal ceiling lining
The boards are availble in various lengths, widths (generally 900 and
Process name
1 200 mm), and thicknesses (generally 6, 9, 10 and 12 mm). They can Magnesium oxide board
be used for indoor and outdoor applications for commercial and non- Input-output sector
commercial purposes, including for ceiling linings, roof construction, Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product
Manufacturing
floor construction, wall cladding, internal partitions and linings. They
Further information
are often used as an alternative to gypsum and Portland cement
[Link]
based products, such as plasterboard for internal linings.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Magnesium oxide board kg 25.2 27.9 2.3
Magnesium oxide board - 6 mm m2 118 130 10.7
Magnesium oxide board - 9 mm m2 177 196 16
Magnesium oxide board - 10 mm m2 196 217 17.8
Magnesium oxide board - 12 mm m2 235 261 21.3
Magnesium oxide board - 18 mm m2 353 391 32
Magnesium oxide board - 20 mm m2 392 435 35.5

170
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
13.6% Road Transport

MJ/kg
25.2
7.3% Magnesium oxide, at plant/RER MJ/kg
U/AusSD U

6.9% Structural Metal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
5.4 41 25.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

9.8%
Tanned Leather, Dressed
Fur and Leather Product WATER
Manufacturing

27.9
L/kg

7.8% Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining

L/kg

7.5% Magnesium oxide, at plant/RER

U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
5.5 27.2 27.9

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
33.3% Magnesium oxide, at plant/RER
U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Structural Metal Product

2.3
5.5%
Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

4.7% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
1 2.9 2.3
171
 m2 Strawboard - 50 mm

Strawboard is a construction board/panel made from wheat or rice Category Miscellaneous

MISCELLANEOUS

straw fibres. The manufacturing process involves compressing the Type Boards
straw fibres under heat and pressure to release lignins in the straw Functional m²
that act as a natural binder for the straw fibres. The compressed straw unit

core is lined with a kraft paper liner on both sides using PVA glue. The Specific heat 1 050 J/(kg·K)
boards are 100% biodegradable at the end of their useful life Density 370 kg/m³

While the boards are available in various lengths and thicknesses, Common uses
Internal walls, roof, ceilings, floors
they are most commonly available as 50 mm thick. Strawboard can
Process name
be used for internal walls, or as part of a panelised roof, ceiling, wall or
Strawboard, 50mm
floor system for commercial, industrial and residential applications.
Input-output sector
The boards can be finished in a range of coatings, including paint, Other Wood Product Manufacturing
wallpaper, cement sheet, plywood, and steel sheet.
Further information
[Link]/10.26188/22896623

172
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
19.5% Road Transport

MJ/m²
259
11.9% Sawmill Product Manufacturing MJ/m²

11.9% Electricity Generation

Process IO Hybrid
23.2 304 259

TOP THREE INPUTS

23.2% Forestry and Logging WATER

396
L/m²

21.9% Kraft paper, unbleached, at

plant/RER U/AusSD U L/m²

13.9% Sawmill Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
106 340 396

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
23.9% Electricity Generation GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m²

15.1
11.1% Road Transport
kgCO2e/m²

7.9% Sawmill Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1.8 15 15.1
173
 m² Nylon carpet

Carpet is a common flooring material, widely used for residential and Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

commercial flooring applications. It has good insulative properties Type Nylon

and medium - high durability. It is typically graded using surface pile Functional m²
mass (g/m²), with a higher g/m² generally indicating a higher quality unit

and more durable product. Specific heat 2 500 J/(kg·K)

Density 350 kg/m³
Tufted carpet is available in three standard styles: ‘cut pile’, ‘loop
pile’ and ‘cut and loop pile’. Within these styles, there are significant Common uses
Residential and commercial flooring
variations in durability, aesthetic qualities and cost. During
Process name
production, carpet fibre is sewn directly onto a primary backing fabric
Carpet, tufted, 100% nylon, 600-
and then bonded (commonly using latex) onto a secondary backing 700g/m2 (custom)
layer (hessian, or similar). Common carpet fibres include: nylon, Input-output sector
polypropylene, wool, wool-blends, polyester and acrylic. Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
Nylon carpet is generally cheaper than wool alternatives. It is stain [Link]/10.26188/5da5521a352db
resistant and holds its colour well. High durability and toughness
make it ideal for use in high-traffic areas.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Nylon tufted carpet - average m² 465 1 149 31.2
Nylon tufted carpet - quality m² 484 1 161 33.3
Nylon tufted carpet - prestige m² 785 1 866 55.3
Nylon woven carpet - average m² 364 908 23.9
Nylon woven carpet - quality m² 376 911 24.8

174
TOP THREE INPUTS

Nylon 6, at plant/RER U/AusSD ENERGY

16.9%
U

MJ/m²
465
8.4% Thermoforming, with MJ/m²
calendering/RER U/AusSD U

8.2% Latex, at plant/RER S/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
211 854 465

TOP THREE INPUTS

24.2% Thermoforming, with WATER

calendering/RER U/AusSD U

1 149
L/m²

17.9% Other Agriculture

L/m²

11.8% Nylon 6, at plant/RER U/AusSD

U

Process IO Hybrid
572 745 1 149

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
21.6% Nylon 6, at plant/RER U/AusSD
U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m²

Thermoforming, with
31.2
9.9%
calendering/RER U/AusSD U kgCO2e/m²

4.0% Latex, at plant/RER S/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
14.6 41.3 31.2
175
 m² Wool carpet

Carpet is a common flooring material, widely used for residential and Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

commercial flooring applications. It has good insulative properties Type Wool

and medium - high durability. It is typically graded using surface pile Functional m²
mass (g/m²), with a higher g/m² generally indicating a higher quality unit

and more durable product. Specific heat 1 360 J/(kg·K)

Density 530 kg/m³
Tufted carpet is available in three standard styles: ‘cut pile’, ‘loop pile’
and ‘cut & loop pile’. Within these styles, there are significant variations Common uses
Residential and commercial flooring
in durability, aesthetic qualities and cost. During production, carpet
Process name
fibre is sewn directly onto a primary backing fabric and then bonded
Carpet, tufted, 80% wool 20% nylon,
(commonly using latex) onto a secondary backing layer (hessian, or 1000-1100g/m2 (custom)
similar). Common carpet fibres include: Nylon, Polypropylene, Wool, Input-output sector
Wool-blends, Polyester and Acrylic. Textile Product Manufacturing

Further information
Wool carpet is generally more expensive than nylon alternatives. It is [Link]/10.26188/5da55236c5619
often blended with nylon to reduce cost of production and increase
durability and toughness. Wool is easy to maintain and is naturally
stain resistant, although is highly absorbent making it more prone to
stains from spillages.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Wool tufted carpet - average m² 360 1 343 41
Wool tufted carpet - quality m² 407 1 545 49.1
Wool tufted carpet - prestige m² 509 1 945 64.2

176
TOP THREE INPUTS

Thermoforming, with ENERGY

11.3%
calendering/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/m²
360
8.8% Road Transport MJ/m²

6.2% Nylon 6, at plant/RER U/AusSD

U
Process IO Hybrid
165 385 360

TOP THREE INPUTS

20.9% Thermoforming, with WATER

calendering/RER U/AusSD U

1 343
L/m²

12.4% Wool, sheep, at farm/US U/

AusSD U L/m²

6.6% Textile Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
637 3 131 1 343

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
38.0% Wool, sheep, at farm/US U/
AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m²

Thermoforming, with
41
7.5%
calendering/RER U/AusSD U kgCO2e/m²

Nylon 6, at plant/RER U/AusSD

4.7%
U

Process IO Hybrid
26.5 57.5 41
177
 kg Silicone

Silicone is a synthetic polymer compound, with a molecular chain Category Miscellaneous

MISCELLANEOUS

consisting of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms. Depending on the Type Other polymers
production process, it can take the form of a liquid, gel, elastomer or Functional kg
resin. It is widely used for plumbing applications, due to its adhesive unit

properties, ability to repel water, flexibility, stability in high/low Specific heat 1 460 J/(kg·K)
temperatures and antimicrobial properties. Density 960 kg/m³

Silicone is derived from silicon, which is extracted from quartz, sand Common uses
Sealant, adhesive, electrical
or other sources. To produce silicone, the base material (silicon) goes insulation, fittings, coatings
through several chemical and distillation processes.
Process name
Silicone product, at plant/RER U/
In construction, silicone is used as a sealant, adhesive or electrical AusSD U
insulation amongst other uses. It is also widely used in manufacturing, Input-output sector
for production of gaskets, moulds, coatings, caulks, household goods Polymer Product Manufacturing

and plumbing hardware. Further information

[Link]/10.26188/5da55771ca8cf

178
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
8.7% Polymer Product Manufacturing

MJ/kg
224
5.6% Road Transport MJ/kg

Natural gas, burned in

5.2% industrial furnace low-NOx
>100kW/RER U/AusSD U Process IO Hybrid
57.7 446 224

TOP THREE INPUTS

18.2% Other Agriculture WATER

589
L/kg

2.7% Polymer Product Manufacturing

L/kg

1.4% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
260 389 589

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
6.5% Polymer Product Manufacturing GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Natural gas, burned in 13.8

5.4% industrial furnace low-NOx
>100kW/RER U/AusSD U
kgCO2e/kg

2.8% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
3.2 21.6 13.8
179
 no. Solar hot water system

Solar hot water systems are used as an alternative to more Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

conventional electric or gas storage systems. They use energy from Type Other
the sun to heat water that is used for a range of purposes within Functional no.
buildings. unit

Common uses
The system consists of two flat plate collectors, a storage tank, and Water heating
associated plumbing and electrical components, suitable for a one-
Process name
family dwelling. The water is pumped from the storage tank to the Solar system, flat plate collector,
one-family house, hot water/CH/I U/
collectors, where it is passed through thin tubes to be heated by AusSD U
direct solar radiation. Heated water is then stored in the storage tank
Input-output sector
until it is needed. Domestic Appliance Manufacturing

Further information
The flat plate collectors consist of an insulated steel absorber plate, [Link]/10.26188/5da557a8720ed
encased in an aluminium frame and toughened glass. The storage
tank is manufactured from steel and aluminium alloy and is insulated
with polyurethane foam.

180
TOP THREE INPUTS

Propylene glycol, liquid, at ENERGY

4.5%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/no.
24 537
4.1% Road Transport MJ/no.

2.2% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
22 863 19 535 24 537

TOP THREE INPUTS

10.4% Propylene glycol, liquid, at WATER

plant/RER U/AusSD U

30 097
L/no.

3.0% Wholesale Trade

L/no.

1.7% Tube insulation, elastomere, at

plant/DE U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
20 472 17 539 30 097

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
3.7% Propylene glycol, liquid, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/no.

1 863
1.9% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/no.

1.7% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
1 799 1 388 1 863
181
 kg Straw bale

Straw has been used as a building material for centuries for thatch Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

roofing and also mixed with earth for cob walls, and wattle and daub Type Other
walls. Straw is the springy tubular stalk of grasses such as wheat and Functional kg
rice that are high in tensile strength. It is not hay, which is used for unit

feeding livestock and includes the grain head. Straw is composed Specific heat 1 000 J/(kg·K)
of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignins, and silica. Different grasses have Density 112.9 kg/m³
slightly different qualities: rice straw, for example, has a significant
Common uses
amount of silica which adds density and resists decomposition. External walls

Process name
Straw bale walls are rendered and are resistant to fire, pests and
Straw, from wheat, central east,
decay. Straw bales are typically 900 mm long × 450 mm wide × 350 NSW, at farm/AU U
to 400 mm high, and weigh 16 to 20kg. Larger bales are also available Input-output sector
which can be used for large structures and require mechanical lifting. Other Agriculture

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/22896632

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Straw bale kg 3.1 113 0.29
Straw bale - 900 × 450 × 350 mm no. 49.6 1 815 4.7
Straw bale - 900 × 450 × 400 mm no. 56.7 2 074 5.4
Straw bale - 2 400 × 900 × 600 mm no. 454 16 593 42.9
Straw bale - 2 400 × 900 × 900 mm no. 681 24 889 64.4
Straw bale - 2 400 × 1 200 × 900 mm no. 907 33 185 85.8

182
TOP THREE INPUTS

Wheat, central east, NSW, at ENERGY

8.4%
farm/AU U

MJ/kg
3.1
7.9% Electricity Generation MJ/kg

2.9% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
0.43 3.76 3.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

0.6% Wheat, central east, NSW, at WATER

farm/AU U

113
L/kg

0.1% Poultry and Other Livestock

L/kg

0.1% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services

Process IO Hybrid
0.72 117 113

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
9.8% Electricity Generation GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Wheat, central east, NSW, at

0.29
8.5%
farm/AU U kgCO2e/kg

1.2% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
0.038 0.3 0.29
183
 kg Water

Water is used in significant quantities for construction activities, site Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

preparation and as a material additive/solvent. It is also essential for Type Other

all known forms of life on earth. Functional kg
unit
Although water covers approximately 70% of the earth’s surface, Specific heat 4 200 J/(kg·K)
only a small proportion is readily available for use in construction
Density 1 000 kg/m³
projects. With a growing population, and increasing demand for
housing, construction and infrastructure projects, water is becoming Common uses
Site preparation, construction
an increasingly scarce resource. activities, material additive, solvent

Process name
Tap water, at user, Australia/AU U

Input-output sector
Water Supply, Sewerage and
Drainage Services

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da558d1e3aa6

184
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
1.9% Construction Services

MJ/kg
0.017
1.4% Water Supply, Sewerage and MJ/kg
Drainage Services

1.4% Diesel, burned in building

machine/GLO U/AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
0.01 0.01 0.017

TOP THREE INPUTS

0.8% Water Supply, Sewerage and WATER

Drainage Services

1.02
L/kg

0.0% Other Agriculture

L/kg

0.0% Construction Services

Process IO Hybrid
1 0.27 1.02

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
1.8% Water Supply, Sewerage and
Drainage Services
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

1.4% Diesel, burned in building 0.0013

machine/GLO U/AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

1.2% Construction Services

Process IO Hybrid
0.0009 0.0011 0.0013
185
 kg Wood glue (PVA)

Polyvinyl acetate (PVA), also known as wood glue, is clear drying, non- Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

toxic, water-based adhesive commonly used as a binding agent for Type Adhesive
timber, paper, cloth and other natural fibres. It provides a flexible and Functional kg
strong bond that dries quickly at room temperature. unit
Specific heat 1 546 J/(kg·K)
There are different grades of PVA glue, used for different purposes.
Density 1 191 kg/m³
‘White glue’ or ‘craft glue’ is used for interior applications only. ‘Yellow
glue’ or ‘carpenters glue’ is water-resistant, but not suitable for full Common uses
Adhesive, sealer, primer, filler
exterior use. There are also exterior grade, fully waterproof variations,
Process name
that are suitable for not-structural exterior purposes. These are
Vinyl acetate, at plant/RER U/AusSD
generally slower drying, and cure at a lower temperature. U

Input-output sector
In addition to being used as a wood binding agent, PVA can also be Basic Chemical Manufacturing
used as a sealer, primer and filler.
Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da558f73d913

186
TOP THREE INPUTS

Acetic acid, 98% in H2O, at ENERGY

28.2%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
106
4.5% Road Transport MJ/kg

1.2% Oxygen, liquid, at plant/RER U/

AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
70.8 177 106

TOP THREE INPUTS

35.3% Acetic acid, 98% in H2O, at WATER

plant/RER U/AusSD U

171
L/kg

4.1% Sheep, Grains, Beef and Dairy

Cattle L/kg

3.8% Meat and Meat product

Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
104 84.1 171

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
24.3% Acetic acid, 98% in H2O, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

5.4
3.0% Road Transport
kgCO2e/kg

Oxygen, liquid, at plant/RER U/

2.7%
AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
3 10.6 5.4
187
 kg Solvent-based paint

Paint is used to protect surfaces from moisture, UV and wear. It can Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

protective coating for timber, metals, plastics and plaster products. Type Paint
There are two main types of paint: water-based paint (including Functional kg
waterborne acrylics, and acrylic latex paints) and solvent-based paint unit

(also known as alkyd or oil-based enamel paints). Density 1 200 kg/m³

Paint is produced by combining resin, solvents, pigment, and Common uses

Exterior and internal finishes,
additives. Resins are used to bind together the ingredients. For sealant, weatherproofing
solvent-based paint these include: dammar, mastic, copal and alkyd Process name
resin. Pigments are added to create colour and sheen, and can Alkyd paint, white, 60% in solvent, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
include calcium carbonate, talc, oxides and mica amongst others.
Solvents such as mineral spirits or turpentine are used to dilute and Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing
thin the paint. Other additives are included to reduce drying time and
Further information
give the paint particular properties. [Link]/10.26188/5da557baa95ce

Solvent-based paints are becoming less common, due to the high

levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) present. Paints with
high levels of VOCs are toxic to the environment, have a harsh odour
and can be dangerous to inhale. Solvent-based paints are cheaper
and tougher than the water-based alternative, and are commonly
used in high-traffic areas (although they are more susceptible to UV
deterioration). They are more abrasion resistant and have a more
brilliant gloss, with a smooth finish. They are difficult to clean, and
require mineral turpentine, rather than water.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Solvent-based paint kg 124 197 6.3
Solvent-based paint - per m² m² 9.3 14.7 0.5

188
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
3.5% Road Transport

MJ/kg
124
1.0% Wholesale Trade MJ/kg

0.9% Air and Space Transport

Process IO Hybrid
71.1 182 124

TOP THREE INPUTS

22.3% Other Agriculture WATER

197
L/kg

1.7% Wholesale Trade

L/kg

1.3% Textile Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
68.2 159 197

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
2.4% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

6.3
1.8% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/kg

1.1% Other Agriculture

Process IO Hybrid
3.2 8.8 6.3
189
 kg Water-based paint

Paint is used to protect surfaces from moisture, UV and wear. It can Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

protective coating for timber, metals, plastics and plaster products. Type Paint
There are two main types of paint: water-based paint (including Functional kg
waterborne acrylics, and acrylic latex paints) and solvent-based paint unit

(also known as alkyd or oil-based enamel paints). Density 1 250 kg/m³

Paint is produced by combining resin, solvents, pigment, and Common uses

Exterior and internal finishes,
additives. Resins are used to bind together the ingredients. For water- sealant, weatherproofing
based paint these include: poly vinyl acetate, butyl methacrylate and Process name
methyl. Solvents such as water and mineral turpentine are used to Alkyd paint, white, 60% in H2O, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
dilute and thin the paint. Pigments are added to create colour and
sheen, and can include calcium carbonate, talc, oxides and mica Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing
amongst others. Other additives are included to reduce drying time
Further information
and give the paint particular properties. [Link]/10.26188/5da558e47158f

Water-based paints have several advantages over oil-based

alternatives. They are excellent for external applications, and have
high tolerance to UV. They have a low odour, are easy to clean, and
are less hazardous to dispose of. They also have better flexibility, dry
faster, and are generally more environmentally friendly due to the low
amounts of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are commonly
found in solvent-based paints. Paints with high levels of VOCs are
toxic to the environment, have a harsh odour and can be dangerous
to inhale.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Water-based paint kg 111 206 6.8
Water-based paint - per m² m² 8.7 16.1 0.5

190
TOP THREE INPUTS

Penta-erythritol, at plant/RER ENERGY

4.3%
U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
111
4.2% Road Transport MJ/kg

1.2% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
47.9 196 111

TOP THREE INPUTS

22.9% Other Agriculture WATER

206
L/kg

4.4% Penta-erythritol, at plant/RER

U/AusSD U L/kg

1.8% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
65.1 171 206

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
4.2% Penta-erythritol, at plant/RER
U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

6.8
2.3% Road Transport
kgCO2e/kg

1.8% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
3 9.5 6.8
191
 kg Wallpaper

Wallpaper is a decorative wall finish that gained popularity as early as Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

the 16th Century. There are two main types of wallpaper - woven and Type Paper
non-woven. Both include a decorative colour or print on the front and Functional kg
an adhesive paste to fix it to the wall. unit
Specific heat 1 336 J/(kg·K)
Woven wallpapers are typically made from fabric, or heavy cotton,
Density 920 kg/m³
which is coated (often with an acrylic or polyvinyl coating). Non-
woven wallpaper is made from paper, natural fibres, or synthetic Common uses
Interior decoration
materials. A backing adhesive is either applied manually, or included
Process name
as a precoated layer. The backing paste is typically made from starch,
Kraft paper, bleached, at plant/RER
wheat-derived, or a vinyl-based adhesive. Patterns are printed using U/AusSD U
a variety of printing techniques depending on the aesthetic style, and Input-output sector
backing material used. Paper Stationery and Other
Converted Paper Product
Manufacturing
Wallpaper is predominantly used for decorative purposes. It varies
Further information
significantly in cost, depending on the production quality and [Link]/10.26188/5da558bf3c7d7
materials used.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Wallpaper kg 263 448 16
Wallpaper - per m² m² 45.5 77.5 2.8

192
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
11.4% Road Transport

MJ/kg
Paper Stationery and Other
263
10.8% Converted Paper Product MJ/kg
Manufacturing

6.2% Polymer Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
32.4 464 263

TOP THREE INPUTS

11.6% Water Supply, Sewerage and WATER

Drainage Services

Paper Stationery and Other 448

L/kg

9.4% Converted Paper Product

Manufacturing
L/kg

3.4% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services

Process IO Hybrid
106 669 448

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Paper Stationery and Other
10.7% Converted Paper Product GAS EMISSIONS
Manufacturing
kgCO2e/kg

16
5.7% Road Transport
kgCO2e/kg

4.3% Polymer Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
2.5 29.2 16
193
 kg Natural rubber

Rubber is a highly elastic polymer (elastomer) that can be obtained Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

naturally, or produced synthetically using oil-based production Type Rubber

methods. It has a high tensile strength, resistance to fatigue and Functional kg
tearing, abrasion resistance and a high resilience/ability to return to unit

its original shape and size. In addition to this, it has good insulative Specific heat 2 010 J/(kg·K)
qualities and adheres well to itself and other materials. Density 1 100 kg/m³

Natural rubber is harvested in the form of latex from the sap of rubber Common uses
Expansion joints, window and
trees, which is refined and converted into rubber. Variations in quality building seals, flooring, fittings
can be observed in natural rubber, due to the geographical area,
Process name
weather and soil conditions. Natural rubber based sealing, at
plant/DE U/AusSD U
In comparison with natural rubber, synthetic rubber is generally Input-output sector
tolerant to a broader range of temperatures, is resistant to oil and Natural Rubber Product
Manufacturing
grease, and ages well against weathering. Natural rubber is favoured
Further information
for its high performance and low cost, which is not directly tied to the [Link]/10.26188/5da555f8c2b02
price of petroleum.

194
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
0.7% Road Transport

MJ/kg
75.2
0.5% Other Agriculture MJ/kg

Electricity Transmission,
0.5% Distribution, On Selling and
Electricity Market Operation Process IO Hybrid
83.4 30.1 75.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

21.4% Other Agriculture WATER

Electricity Transmission, 92.1

L/kg

0.8% Distribution, On Selling and

Electricity Market Operation
L/kg

0.5% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services

Process IO Hybrid
63.4 34.7 92.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
1.6% Other Agriculture GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

2.5
1.2% Oil and gas extraction
kgCO2e/kg

Electricity Transmission,
1.1% Distribution, On Selling and
Electricity Market Operation
Process IO Hybrid
2.4 1.8 2.5
195
 kg Synthetic rubber

Rubber is a highly elastic polymer (elastomer) that can be obtained Category Miscellaneous
MISCELLANEOUS

naturally, or produced synthetically using oil-based production Type Rubber

methods. It has a high tensile strength, resistance to fatigue and Functional kg
tearing, abrasion resistance and a high resilience/ability to return to unit

its original shape and size. In addition to this, it has good insulative Specific heat 2 010 J/(kg·K)
qualities and adheres well to itself and other materials. Density 1 100 kg/m³

There are many different types of synthetic rubber. Most are Common uses
Expansion joints, window and
synthesised from petroleum by-products. Some are produced with building seals, flooring, fittings
distinctive properties or qualities for specific products.
Process name
Synthetic rubber, at plant/RER U/
In comparison with natural rubber, synthetic rubber is generally AusSD U
tolerant to a broader range of temperatures, is resistant to oil and Input-output sector
grease, and ages well against weathering. Natural rubber is favoured Polymer Product Manufacturing

for its high performance and low cost, which is not directly tied to the Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da558867e249
price of petroleum.

196
TOP THREE INPUTS

Carbon black, at plant/GLO U/ ENERGY

30.2%
AusSD U

MJ/kg
92.8
6.4% Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/ MJ/kg
AusSD U

1.6% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
91.7 52.8 92.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

18.6% Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/ WATER

AusSD U

111
L/kg

11.5% Other Agriculture

L/kg

2.5% Carbon black, at plant/GLO U/

AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
84.3 46.1 111

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
19.5% Carbon black, at plant/GLO U/
AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/

3.7
14.2%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

1.5% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
3.6 2.6 3.7
197
 kg High-density polyethylene (HDPE) film

Polyethylene (PE) is the most common plastic and is a thermoplastic Category Plastics
PLASTICS

polymer. It has low strength and rigidity but high impact strength and Type High Density
Polyethylene
ductility and low friction. It is highly waterproof.
Functional kg
PE is produced by polymerising ethylene monomers using different unit

catalysts (typically metal chlorides or metal oxides). Different Specific heat 1 555 J/(kg·K)

densities can be obtained with different properties. Multiple additives Density 940 kg/m³
are also used to obtain different grades and properties of PE. PE is
Common uses
thermoformed into moulds or extruded. Geomembranes

Process name
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) has improved strength and HDPE, extruded film (custom)
durability compared to LDPE. HDPE films are usually used as
Input-output sector
geomembranes. Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5551da9cb9

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) film kg 147 172 6.4
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) film - 100 μm m² 13.8 16.2 0.6
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) film - 200 μm m² 27.6 32.4 1.2

198
TOP THREE INPUTS

Extrusion, plastic film/RER U/ ENERGY

5.4%
AusSD U

MJ/kg
147
2.9% Road Transport MJ/kg

1.6% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
99.6 152 147

TOP THREE INPUTS

26.1% Extrusion, plastic film/RER U/ WATER

AusSD U

172
L/kg

21.2% Other Agriculture

L/kg

2.0% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
63 132 172

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
11.4% Extrusion, plastic film/RER U/
AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

6.4
2.4% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/kg

2.2% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
3.3 7.3 6.4
199
 kg High-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe

Polyethylene (PE) is the most common plastic and is a thermoplastic Category Plastics
PLASTICS

polymer. It has low strength and rigidity but high impact strength and Type High Density
Polyethylene
ductility and low friction. It is highly waterproof.
Functional kg
PE is produced by polymerising ethylene monomers using different unit

catalysts (typically metal chlorides or metal oxides). Different Specific heat 1 555 J/(kg·K)

densities can be obtained with different properties. Multiple additives Density 940 kg/m³
are also used to obtain different grades and properties of PE. PE is
Common uses
thermoformed into moulds or extruded. High-pressure pipes

Process name
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) has improved strength and HDPE, extruded pipe (custom)
durability. HDPE pipes are usually used for high pressure systems and
Input-output sector
are typically larger than LDPE pipes. Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5552ee9ccf

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipe kg 135 130 5.6
HDPE pipe - 32 mm inner dia., 1.88 mm thick m 12.3 11.9 0.5
HDPE pipe - 63 mm inner dia., 3.75 mm thick m 47.7 46.1 2
HDPE pipe - 125 mm inner dia., 7.35 mm thick m 188 181 7.8
HDPE pipe - 250 mm inner dia., 14.71 mm thick m 752 726 31
HDPE pipe - 500 mm inner dia., 29.41 mm thick m 3 007 2 903 124
HDPE pipe - 800 mm inner dia., 47.06 mm thick m 7 698 7 433 318

200
TOP THREE INPUTS

Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/ ENERGY

4.4%
AusSD U

MJ/kg
135
2.7% Road Transport MJ/kg

1.5% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
97.3 127 135

TOP THREE INPUTS

23.6% Other Agriculture WATER

130
L/kg

15.9% Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/

AusSD U L/kg

2.2% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
38.1 111 130

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
9.6% Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/
AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

5.6
2.4% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/kg

2.1% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
3.1 6.2 5.6
201
 kg Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) film

Polyethylene (PE) is the most common plastic and is a thermoplastic Category Plastics
PLASTICS

polymer. It has low strength and rigidity but high impact strength and Type Low Density
Polyethylene
ductility and low friction. It is highly waterproof.
Functional kg
PE is produced by polymerising ethylene monomers using different unit

catalysts (typically metal chlorides or metal oxides). Different Specific heat 1 555 J/(kg·K)

densities can be obtained with different properties. Multiple additives Density 910 kg/m³
are also used to obtain different grades and properties of PE. PE is
Common uses
thermoformed into moulds or extruded. Vapour barrier, geomembrane,
general purpose membrane
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is cheaper than HDPE. LDPE films Process name
are usually used as vapour barriers, geomembranes and as general LDPE, extruded film (custom)
purpose membranes on site. Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55582e7c62

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) film kg 136 122 6.4
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) film - 100 μm m² 12.3 11.1 0.6
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) film - 200 μm m² 24.7 22.2 1.2

202
TOP THREE INPUTS

Low density polyethylene, at ENERGY

70.7%
plant/AU U

MJ/kg
136
5.8% Extrusion, plastic film/RER U/ MJ/kg
AusSD U

1.9% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
111 90.8 136

TOP THREE INPUTS

36.9% Extrusion, plastic film/RER U/ WATER

AusSD U

122
L/kg

17.9% Other Agriculture

L/kg

8.8% Low density polyethylene, at

plant/AU U

Process IO Hybrid
57.9 79.2 122

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
58.1% Low density polyethylene, at
plant/AU U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Extrusion, plastic film/RER U/

6.4
11.4%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

1.5% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
4.8 4.4 6.4
203
 kg Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) pipe

Polyethylene (PE) is the most common plastic and is a thermoplastic Category Plastics
PLASTICS

polymer. It has low strength and rigidity buy high impact strength and Type Low Density
Polyethylene
ductility and low friction. It is highly waterproof.
Functional kg
PE is produced by polymerising ethylene monomers using different unit

catalysts (typically metal chlorides or metal oxides). Different Specific heat 1 555 J/(kg·K)

densities can be obtained with different properties. Multiple additives Density 910 kg/m³
are also used to obtain different grades and properties of PE. PE is
Common uses
thermoformed into moulds or extruded. Low-pressure pipes

Process name
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is generally cheaper than HDPE. LDPE, extruded pipe (custom)
LDPE pipes are usually used for lower pressure systems and are
Input-output sector
typically smaller than HDPE pipes. Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5559330846

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) pipe kg 130 89.6 6
LDPE pipe - 13 mm inner dia., 3.95 mm thick m 11 7.6 0.5
LDPE pipe - 19 mm inner dia., 4.4 mm thick m 17.3 11.9 0.8
LDPE pipe - 25 mm inner dia., 5.2 mm thick m 26.6 18.4 1.2
LDPE pipe - 32 mm inner dia., 6.7 mm thick m 43.9 30.3 2

204
TOP THREE INPUTS

low density polyethylene, at ENERGY

74.0%
plant/AU U

MJ/kg
130
4.6% Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/ MJ/kg
AusSD U

1.7% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
108 79.1 130

TOP THREE INPUTS

23.1% Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/ WATER

AusSD U

89.6
L/kg

21.3% Other Agriculture

L/kg

12.0% Low density polyethylene, at

plant/AU U

Process IO Hybrid
33 69 89.6

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
61.7% Low density polyethylene, at
plant/AU U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/

6
8.9%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

1.4% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
4.6 3.8 6
205
 kg Nylon 66

Nylon 66 (nylon 6-6, nylon 6/6, or nylon 6,6) is a polyamide made from Category Plastics
PLASTICS

two monomers with six carbon atoms each. It has high mechanical Type Nylon
strength, rigidity, good stability under heat and chemical resistance. Functional kg
unit
Nylon 66 is synthesised by polycondensating hexamethylenediamine Specific heat 1 464 J/(kg·K)
and adipic acid. The same amount of each monomere are mixed with
Density 1 140 kg/m³
water and crystallised to produce a nylon salt. The salt is polymerised
and nylon 66 is formed. It can be extruded, granulated or spun into Common uses
Membrane, rods, tubes, screws,
fibres. washers, spacers, rope

Process name
Nylon 66 is mostly used as a sheet in construction, but also in rods, Nylon 66, at plant/RER U/AusSD U
tubes, screws, washers, ropes and spacers.
Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55609d0f6f

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Nylon 66 kg 335 910 22.2
Nylon 66 sheet - 1.5 mm m² 572 1 556 37.9
Nylon 66 sheet - 3 mm m² 1 145 3 113 75.8
Nylon 66 sheet - 5 mm m² 1 908 5 188 126

206
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
21.2% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

MJ/kg
335
4.8% Electricity Generation MJ/kg

3.8% Petroleum and Coal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
115 290 335

TOP THREE INPUTS

7.7% Other Agriculture WATER

910
L/kg

3.0% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

L/kg

1.2% Water Supply, Sewerage and

Drainage Services

Process IO Hybrid
663 253 910

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
20.3% Basic Chemical Manufacturing GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

22.2
8.7% Electricity Generation
kgCO2e/kg

2.6% Polymer Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
8.3 14 22.2
207
 kg Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is a thermoplastic with high Category Plastics

PLASTICS

mechanical strength. It is tough, resistant to impacts, offers a good Type Other polymers
surface quality and is a good electrical insulator. Functional kg
unit
ABS is derived from three polymers, namely acrylonitrile, butadiene Specific heat 1 423 J/(kg·K)
and styrene, mostly through emulsion. It can be moulded or extruded.
Density 1 070 kg/m³

ABS is generally used for pipes and fittings and sometimes for general Common uses
purpose panels within the construction industry. Pipes, fittings, general purpose
panels

Process name
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
copolymer, ABS, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U

Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55178a8ecb

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) kg 270 359 16
ABS panel - 2mm m² 577 767 34.3
ABS panel - 3mm m² 866 1 151 51.4
ABS pipe - 21.4 mm outer dia., 2.1 mm thick m 36.8 48.9 2.2
ABS pipe - 48.3 mm outer dia., 3.6 mm thick m 146 194 8.7
ABS pipe - 168.3 mm outer dia., 7.7 mm thick m 1 122 1 491 66.6

208
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
23.0% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

MJ/kg
270
5.2% Electricity Generation MJ/kg

4.1% Petroleum and Coal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
89.5 253 270

TOP THREE INPUTS

17.0% Other Agriculture WATER

359
L/kg

7.2% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

L/kg

2.7% Polymer Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
155 221 359

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
24.6% Basic Chemical Manufacturing GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

16
10.5% Electricity Generation
kgCO2e/kg

3.2% Polymer Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
4.6 12.3 16
209
 kg Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE)

Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) is a fluorine-based plastic Category Plastics

PLASTICS

with high corrosion resistance, self-cleaning properties, ultraviolet Type Other polymers
resistance and resistant to a broad range of temperatures. Functional kg
unit
ETFE is produced by polymerising tetrafluoroethylene using water. Specific heat 1 950 J/(kg·K)
ETFE is then extruded to the required thickness and welded into large
Density 1 700 kg/m³
sheets. Due to its high resistance to the outdoor environment, ETFE is
used in tensile architecture as a membrane and can also be used in Common uses
Tensile architecture, inflatable
inflated cushions. cushions

Process name
Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE),
film

Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da554446a581

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) kg 12 063 22 606 798
ETFE film - 25.4 μm (0.001”) m² 306 574 20.3
ETFE film - 50.8 μm (0.002”) m² 613 1 148 40.5
ETFE film - 127 μm (0.005”) m² 1 532 2 871 101

210
TOP THREE INPUTS

Petroleum and Coal Product ENERGY

11.6%
Manufacturing

MJ/kg
12 063
7.1% Road Transport MJ/kg

3.9% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
227 30 177 12 063

TOP THREE INPUTS

32.2% Other Agriculture WATER

22 606
L/kg

3.0% Wholesale Trade

L/kg

2.0% Textile Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
462 26 324 22 606

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
6.1% Petroleum and Coal Product
Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

798
3.9% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/kg

3.5% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
93 1 460 798
211
 kg Glass reinforced plastic (GRP)

Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite laminate material Category Plastics

PLASTICS

including glass fibres to reinforce a plastic, typically a polyethylene Type Other polymers
(PE) resin. GRP is strong, lightweight, weather-resistant and heat Functional kg
resistant. It is also commonly referred to as glass reinforced polyester, unit

glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP), fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) or Specific heat 700 J/(kg·K)
fibre reinforced polymer (FRP). Density 1 350 kg/m³

GRP is made by laying the glass fibres in two or three dimensions and Common uses
Roofing, storage tanks, door and
embedding them into the plastic resin. This is typically done through window surrounds, piping, cladding
moulding. GRP is thus available in multiple shapes, including flat
Process name
sheets and curved objects. Glass fibre reinforced plastic,
polyester resin, hand lay-up, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GRP can be used for roofing, storage tanks, door and window
surrounds, piping and cladding. Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55484429d7

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) kg 299 529 18.8
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) panel - 10 mm m² 4 037 7 144 254
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) panel - 20 mm m² 8 075 14 288 509
Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) panel - 50 mm m² 20 187 35 719 1 271

212
TOP THREE INPUTS

Polyester resin, unsaturated, at ENERGY

12.5%
plant/RER U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
299
8.4% Glass fibre, at plant/RER U/ MJ/kg
AusSD U

8.3% Petroleum and Coal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
79.7 533 299

TOP THREE INPUTS

24.2% Other Agriculture WATER

529
L/kg

16.5% Polyester resin, unsaturated, at

plant/RER U/AusSD U L/kg

4.0% Glass fibre, at plant/RER U/

AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
116 465 529

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
14.7% Polyester resin, unsaturated, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Glass fibre, at plant/RER U/

18.8
10.2%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

5.7% Polymer Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
5.9 25.8 18.8
213
 kg Linoleum

Linoleum is a composite material used for floor covering or underlay Category Plastics
PLASTICS

that is durable and shock-absorbing. Type Other polymers

Functional kg
Linoleum is made from a mixture of oxidised linseed oil, gums, resin unit
and other additives, which are applied to a felt or canvas backing. The Specific heat 1 260 J/(kg·K)
oil is heated in kettles, oxidises and increases in viscosity. It is blended
Density 1 200 kg/m³
with resin to produce a plastic material that is in turn mixed with
wood flour. Additives are added and the mixture is calendered into Common uses
Flooring
a sheet and applied to the backing. The sheets are hardened before
Process name
being sent to market.
Linoleum, average on mass basis,
from EPDs

Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da555a381ad3

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Linoleum kg 58.2 195 4.4
Linoleum sheet - 2 mm m² 140 469 10.6
Linoleum sheet - 2.5 mm m² 175 586 13.3
Linoleum sheet - 3.2 mm m² 223 750 17
Linoleum sheet - 4 mm m² 279 937 21.2

214
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
5.9% Road Transport

MJ/kg
58.2
3.2% Wholesale Trade MJ/kg

1.7% Air and Space Transport

Process IO Hybrid
25.4 121 58.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

1.4% Wholesale Trade WATER

195
L/kg

0.7% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services L/kg

0.7% Forestry and Logging

Process IO Hybrid
149 106 195

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
2.2% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

4.4
2.2% Oil and gas extraction
kgCO2e/kg

1.7% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
2.1 5.9 4.4
215
 kg Polycarbonate

Polycarbonate represents a family of thermoplastic polymers. Category Plastics

PLASTICS

Polycarbonate is a strong material and the grade used for Type Other polymers
construction is most often transparent. Polycarbonate has high Functional kg
mechanical strength and can withstand temperature fluctuations unit

without cracking. Specific heat 1 250 J/(kg·K)

Density 1 200 kg/m³
Polycarbonate is made by mixing bisphenol A and phosgene through
multiple chemical reactions. The resulting polycarbonate can be Common uses
Skylights, flat glazing, curved
extruded or moulded, like other thermoplastics. glazing, sound walls

Process name
Polycarbonate is mostly used in construction to replace glass in Polycarbonate, at plant/RER U/
glazing, for skylights, flat or curved glazing and for sound walls. AusSD U

Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da556966a461

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Polycarbonate kg 190 265 14
Polycarbonate roofing sheet - 1 mm m² 228 318 16.7
Polycarbonate roofing sheet - 2 mm m² 457 635 33.5
Polycarbonate roofing sheet - 3 mm m² 685 953 50.2
Polycarbonate roofing sheet - 6 mm m² 1 371 1 905 100

216
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
17.9% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

MJ/kg
190
2.2% Polymer Product Manufacturing MJ/kg

1.9% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
95 153 190

TOP THREE INPUTS

13.9% Other Agriculture WATER

265
L/kg

5.4% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

L/kg

2.1% Water Supply, Sewerage and

Drainage Services

Process IO Hybrid
142 133 265

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
16.2% Basic Chemical Manufacturing GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

14
1.9% Polymer Product Manufacturing
kgCO2e/kg

0.9% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
8.2 7.4 14
217
 kg Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is a transparent thermoplastic that Category Plastics

PLASTICS

is light-weight has a good tensile strength, flexural strength and UV Type Other polymers
tolerance. It is commonly known as plexiglass, acrylic or acrylic glass. Functional kg
unit
PMMA is made by polymerising monomers of methyl-methacrylate. It Specific heat 1 500 J/(kg·K)
is moulded or extruded into its final shape, which is often flat sheets.
Density 1 190 kg/m³
Common additives include acrylate monomers for heat processing,
butyl acrylate for impact strength, dyes for colouring and ultraviolet Common uses
Skylights, flat glazing, sound walls,
resistance and fillers to reduce cost. bathtubs

Process name
PMMA is most often used in construction as a substitute to glass. Polymethyl methacrylate, sheet, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U

Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da556a82dd9d

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) kg 230 215 15.4
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) sheet - 3 mm m² 822 768 54.9
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) sheet - 4 mm m² 1 096 1 023 73.2
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) sheet - 5 mm m² 1 370 1 279 91.4
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) sheet - 6 mm m² 1 644 1 535 110
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) sheet - 8 mm m² 2 192 2 047 146
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) sheet - 10 mm m² 2 740 2 558 183

218
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
16.5% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

MJ/kg
230
3.6% Electricity Generation MJ/kg

3.0% Petroleum and Coal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
124 148 230

TOP THREE INPUTS

16.6% Other Agriculture WATER

215
L/kg

7.0% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

L/kg

2.7% Polymer Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
96 129 215

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
15.4% Basic Chemical Manufacturing GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

15.4
6.4% Electricity Generation
kgCO2e/kg

2.1% Polymer Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
8.7 7.2 15.4
219
 kg Polypropylene (PP) sheet

Polypropylene (PP) is a thermoplastic polymer and second most Category Plastics

PLASTICS

produced plastic. It has similar properties to polyethylene (PE), Type Polypropylene

including high impact strength and ductility, but is harder and more Functional kg
resistant to heat. unit
Specific heat 1 622 J/(kg·K)
PP is produced by polymerising chains of propylene monomers
Density 900 kg/m³
through different catalysts. Different catalysts can result in different
PP properties. PP is then moulded or extruded. Different additives Common uses
Vapour barrier, general purpose
can enhance the properties of PP, e.g. antistatic, dust resistant, and membrane
colouring.
Process name
Polypropylene, extruded film
PP is mostly used in construction as a membrane (including as a (custom)
water vapour membrane). Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da556bad2165

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Polypropylene (PP) sheet kg 159 186 7.4
Polyproylene (PP) sheet - 2 mm m² 287 335 13.4
Polyproylene (PP) sheet - 3 mm m² 431 502 20
Polyproylene (PP) sheet - 4 mm m² 574 670 26.7
Polyproylene (PP) sheet - 6 mm m² 861 1 005 40.1
Polyproylene (PP) sheet - 10 mm m² 1 435 1 675 66.8
Polyproylene (PP) sheet - 12 mm m² 1 722 2 010 80.2
Polyproylene (PP) sheet - 15 mm m² 2 153 2 512 100

220
TOP THREE INPUTS

Polypropylene, PP, at factory ENERGY

50.9%
gate/AU U

MJ/kg
159
5.1% Petroleum and Coal Product MJ/kg
Manufacturing

5.0% Extrusion, plastic film/RER U/

AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
99.6 176 159

TOP THREE INPUTS

24.1% Extrusion, plastic film/RER U/ WATER

AusSD U

186
L/kg

22.7% Other Agriculture

L/kg

6.4% Polypropylene, PP, at factory

gate/AU U

Process IO Hybrid
59.4 153 186

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
34.2% Polypropylene, PP, at factory
gate/AU U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Extrusion, plastic film/RER U/

7.4
9.8%
AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

Petroleum and Coal Product

3.8%
Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
3.8 8.5 7.4
221
 kg Polyurethane (PU) flexible foam

Polyurethane (PU) is a polymer with a low density, low thermal Category Plastics
PLASTICS

conductivity and high durability. Type Polyurethane

Functional kg
PU is produced by mixing a stream of isocyanate and a stream of unit
polyol, including any other additives. The proportion of each stream Specific heat 1 800 J/(kg·K)
in the mix is often used to alter the material properties. The resulting
Density 69 kg/m³
mixture is poured into a mould or onto a surface. Once cured, the PU
is demoulded. Common uses
Floor underlay

In construction, flexible PU foam consists of thin flexible foam rolls Process name
Polyurethane, flexible foam, at
that are typically used as floor underlay. plant/RER U/AusSD U

Input-output sector
Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da556dde71cd

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Polyurethane (PU) flexible foam kg 127 443 7.7
Polyurethane (PU) foam underlay - 7 mm, 64 kg/m³ m² 56.8 198 3.4
Polyurethane (PU) foam underlay - 7 mm, 69 kg/m³ m² 61.4 214 3.7
Polyurethane (PU) foam underlay - 10 mm, 73 kg/m³ m² 92.5 323 5.6
Polyurethane (PU) foam underlay - 10 mm, 123 kg/m³ m² 156 543 9.4

222
TOP THREE INPUTS

Polyols, at plant/RER U/AusSD ENERGY

41.0%
U

MJ/kg
127
19.3% Toluene diisocyanate, at plant/ MJ/kg
RER U/AusSD U

3.5% Petroleum and Coal Product

Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
83.8 94.7 127

TOP THREE INPUTS

56.6% Polyols, at plant/RER U/AusSD WATER

U

443
L/kg

21.5% Toluene diisocyanate, at plant/

RER U/AusSD U L/kg

5.1% Other Agriculture

Process IO Hybrid
370 82.6 443

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
33.8% Polyols, at plant/RER U/AusSD
U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Toluene diisocyanate, at plant/

7.7
24.3%
RER U/AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

2.7% Polymer Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
5.3 4.6 7.7
223
 kg Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a plastic polymer characterised by good Category Plastics

PLASTICS

thermal and electrical insulation properties. PVC can be rigid (see Type Polyvinyl
Chloride
uPVC) or soft. PVC is the third most produced plastic, globally.
Functional kg
PVC is produced by polymerising vinyl chloride monomers, mostly unit

through suspension polymerisation, followed by emulsion and bulk Specific heat 950 J/(kg·K)

polymerisation. This generates heat and requires cooling and water. Density 1 390 kg/m³
The resulting sludge is filtered, centrifuged, and dried, before being
Common uses
converted to pellets. These can be molten for moulding or extrusion. Electrical cable insulation, flooring,
cladding
Multiple additives can be added to PVC to enhance its properties,
most importantly phthalate to soften the PVC. Process name
PVC, calendered (custom)
PVC film is used in construction for flooring and electrical cable Input-output sector
insulation. Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5571457bf1

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film kg 190 758 11.2
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film - 19 μm m² 5 20 0.3
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) film - 25 μm m² 6.6 26.3 0.4

224
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
30.5% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

MJ/kg
190
5.9% Thermoforming, with MJ/kg
calendering/RER U/AusSD U

3.4% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
63.4 226 190

TOP THREE INPUTS

13.7% Thermoforming, with WATER

calendering/RER U/AusSD U

758
L/kg

7.2% Other Agriculture

L/kg

3.0% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
592 197 758

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
32.4% Basic Chemical Manufacturing GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Thermoforming, with
11.2
9.5%
calendering/RER U/AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

2.1% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
3.4 10.9 11.2
225
 kg Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (uPVC)

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a plastic polymer characterised by good Category Plastics

PLASTICS

thermal and electrical insulation properties. Unplasticised PVC is Type Polyvinyl

Chloride
rigid. PVC is the third most produced plastic, globally.
Functional kg
PVC is produced by polymerising vinyl chloride monomers, mostly unit

through suspension polymerisation, followed by emulsion and bulk Specific heat 950 J/(kg·K)

polymerisation. This generates heat and requires cooling and water. Density 1 390 kg/m³
The resulting sludge is filtered, centrifuged, and dried, before being
Common uses
converted to pellets. These can be molten for moulding or extrusion. Window frames, doors, pipes,
gutters
Multiple additives can be added to PVC to enhance its properties,
notably chloride to enhance its resistance to ultraviolet light. Process name
PVC, extruded pipe (custom)
uPVC is widely used in the construction industry. Its main uses include Input-output sector
window frames, doors, pipes, and gutters. Polymer Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da558ad914dc

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Unplasticised polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) kg 76.3 561 4.2
uPVC pipe - 21.35 mm outer dia., 1.8 mm thick m 11.7 86.2 0.6
uPVC pipe - 60.25 mm outer dia., 2.6 mm thick m 50 367 2.7
uPVC pipe - 114.3 mm outer dia., 4.85 mm thick m 177 1 301 9.7
uPVC pipe - 225.3 mm outer dia., 11.1 mm thick m 792 5 826 43.2

226
TOP THREE INPUTS

Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/ ENERGY

7.8%
AusSD U

MJ/kg
76.3
1.6% Wholesale Trade MJ/kg

0.8% Air and Space Transport

Process IO Hybrid
53.7 78.6 76.3

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.7% Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/ WATER

AusSD U

561
L/kg

3.4% Other Agriculture

L/kg

0.3% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
505 68.5 561

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
12.8% Extrusion, plastic pipes/RER U/
AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

4.2
1.9% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/kg

0.9% Other Agriculture

Process IO Hybrid
2.7 3.8 4.2
227
 kg Adobe

Adobe is a mixture of clay, sand, and silt with good plastic qualities Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
that dries to a hard uniform mass. Water and small amounts of straw
Type Brick
or other fibrous material are mixed with a clay soil, which is then
shaped into bricks in simple moulds. The addition of fibre is to prevent Functional kg
unit
the bricks from cracking during the curing process. Depending on
Specific heat 837 J/(kg·K)
the intended use, the bricks range from 80 to 130 mm thick, 250 to
Density 1 200 kg/m³
300 mm wide, and 350 to 500 mm long. Before they can be used, the
bricks must be air cured. Common uses
Cladding, loadbearing walls,
landscaping, decorative features
Adobe can be used for external and internal walls, providing good
insulating qualities. The bricks are laid in a mortar of the same Process name
Adobe
material, then finished with a coat of adobe or with lime or cement
plaster. Input-output sector
Ceramic Product Manufacturing

Given that they are typically air dried, adobe has the advantage of a Further information
[Link]
lower energy demand for drying than clay bricks, which are typically
kiln dried.

228
TOP THREE INPUTS

Diesel, burned in building ENERGY

41.5%
machine/GLO U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
3.5
4.6% Road Transport MJ/kg

3.6% Other Non-Metallic Mineral

Product Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
2.4 8.4 3.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

13.3% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

2.7
L/kg

13.0% Tap water, at user, Australia/

AU U L/kg

9.2% Diesel, burned in building

machine/GLO U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
1.2 2.1 2.7

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
38.6% Diesel, burned in building
machine/GLO U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Other Non-Metallic Mineral

0.3
4.8%
Product Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

3.2% Oil and gas extraction

Process IO Hybrid
0.21 0.32 0.3
229
 kg Clay brick

Clay bricks are widely used in the construction industry for their Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
strength, affordability and ease of construction. They have high
Type Brick
durability, weather and fire resistance, compressive strength, and
good thermal/sound insulative properties. The strength of a brick Functional kg
unit
wall is also largely dependent on the quality of the mortar and
Specific heat 835 J/(kg·K)
workmanship.
Density 2 403 kg/m³
Bricks are made from clay, which is an abundant resource across
Common uses
most of the world. Clay is prepared and mixed to ensure consistent Cladding, loadbearing walls,
particle size and mineral content. The clay is then extruded, soft landscaping, decorative features

moulded or dry pressed into brick shaped forms. The bricks are dried Process name
Brick, at plant/RER U/AusSD U
in a temperature and humidity controlled environment, and fired
in a high temperature oven/kiln. Coatings, glazing or textures are Input-output sector
Ceramic Product Manufacturing
applied to give the brick its final appearance. The colour of a brick
Further information
largely depends on the mineral content of the clay and final firing
[Link]/10.26188/5da552ad307a9
temperature.

Bricks are commonly used for external cladding, loadbearing walls,

flooring, and other construction elements. Face bricks usually have
a decorative or smooth finish, while building/common bricks are
used for internal structure. Bricks can also be hollowed, to reduce the
volume of the brick and materials needed per unit.

230
TOP THREE INPUTS

Other Non-Metallic Mineral ENERGY

5.6%
Product Manufacturing

MJ/kg
3.5
5.0% Road Transport MJ/kg

1.9% Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed

Concrete Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
2.4 7.5 3.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

6.1% Other Non-Metallic Mineral WATER

Product Manufacturing

1.8
L/kg

3.1% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services L/kg

2.7% Food and Beverage Services

Process IO Hybrid
0.49 1.9 1.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
4.6% Other Non-Metallic Mineral
Product Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed

0.32
1.9%
Concrete Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

1.8% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
0.25 0.29 0.32
231
 kg Gravel

Gravel is a course aggregate, comprised of hard, durable and weather Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
resistant rocks. It has excellent drainage properties, and is commonly
Type Other
used in construction. There are different sizes and grades of gravel
available, ranging from small smooth rounded rock, to large angular Functional kg
unit
crushed rock.
Specific heat 840 J/(kg·K)

Gravel is produced in quarries or extracted from gravel pits. It is found Density 1 840 kg/m³
naturally, in the form of eroded rock and minerals, or created by
Common uses
crushing rock such as limestone, basalt or sandstone. Landscaping, bulk fill, material
additive
It is commonly used for construction and landscaping purposes, Process name
including: as a base layer for walkways and roads, as bulk fill, as a Gravel, crushed, at mine/CH U/
AusSD U
drainage substrate, or as an aggregate for concrete.
Input-output sector
Non Metallic Mineral Mining

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da554c7241e7

232
TOP THREE INPUTS

Exploration and Mining Support ENERGY

5.9%
Services

MJ/kg
0.48
3.1% Diesel, burned in building MJ/kg
machine/GLO U/AusSD U

1.7% Coal mining

Process IO Hybrid
0.15 0.56 0.48

TOP THREE INPUTS

1.8% Exploration and Mining Support WATER

Services

1.9
L/kg

0.7% Agriculture, Forestry and

Fishing Support Services L/kg

Electricity Transmission,
0.5% Distribution, On Selling and
Electricity Market Operation

Process IO Hybrid
1.4 1.1 1.9

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
8.9% Exploration and Mining Support
Services
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

0.036
3.3% Coal mining
kgCO2e/kg

Diesel, burned in building

2.9%
machine/GLO U/AusSD U

Process IO Hybrid
0.013 0.046 0.036
233
 kg Rammed earth

Rammed earth is constructed by ramming a mixture of sand, gravel, Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
silt and a small amount of clay into place between formwork.
Type Other
Traditionally, a wooden pole was used to ‘ram’ the earth mixture
between the formwork to compress it. Modern methods use a Functional kg
unit
mechanical ram. Stabilised rammed earth includes a small amount
Specific heat 837 J/(kg·K)
of cement (typically 5–10%) to increase strength and durability. While
Density 2 000 kg/m³
rammed earth provides good thermal mass, it is not a good insulator.

Common uses
Rammed earth is typically used for loadbearing internal and external Cladding, loadbearing walls,
landscaping, decorative features
walls and landscaping elements. Rammed earth walls are usually
coated with an air-permeable sealer to increase the life of the material. Process name
Rammed earth
Most rammed earth walls are typically 300 mm thick for external walls
and 200 - 300 mm thick for internal walls. Reinforcement is rarely Input-output sector
Ceramic Product Manufacturing
required, but they may be required for more complex structures.
Further information
[Link]

234
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
8.7% Road Transport

MJ/kg
3.3
6.8% Other Non-Metallic Mineral MJ/kg
Product Manufacturing

3.0% Oil and gas extraction

Process IO Hybrid
0.44 14.9 3.3

TOP THREE INPUTS

16.1% Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U WATER

4.1
L/kg

5.1% Other Non-Metallic Mineral

Product Manufacturing L/kg

2.6% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services

Process IO Hybrid
1.2 3.7 4.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
9.8% Other Non-Metallic Mineral
Product Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

0.26
6.6% Oil and gas extraction
kgCO2e/kg

4.6% Gas Supply

Process IO Hybrid
0.062 0.577 0.26
235
 kg Recycled aggregate

Recycled aggregate is a cheap and readily available product made Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
from recycled construction materials. It is strong and durable with
Type Other
excellent drainage properties.
Functional kg
It is typically comprised of concrete, stone, brick, ceramics, mortar and unit

other common construction materials. It is produced using the waste Specific heat 837 J/(kg·K)

materials collected from the demolition of building and infrastructure Density 1 320 kg/m³
projects. Impurities such as metal, wood and timber are removed via
Common uses
magnets and other sorting techniques. The remaining materials are Landscaping, bulk fill, material
additive
sorted by size, and crushed into a coarse aggregate.
Process name
Recycled aggregate is becoming increasingly popular as a Recycled aggregate, at plant/AU U
replacement for natural aggregates. It is commonly used for: bulk fill, Input-output sector
road construction, gravel, and as an aggregate in concrete. When used Waste Collection, Treatment and
Disposal Services
in concrete, it is typically combined with fly ash or other additives to
Further information
ensure improved strength and reliability. [Link]/10.26188/5da557263ad43

236
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
1.6% Road Transport

MJ/kg
0.11
1.3% Auxiliary Finance and Insurance MJ/kg
Services

1.0% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
0.07 0.11 0.11

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.6%
Employment, Travel Agency
and Other Administrative WATER
Services

0.1
L/kg

2.3% Auxiliary Finance and Insurance

Services L/kg

2.1% Dairy Product Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
0.038 0.12 0.1

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
0.6% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Auxiliary Finance and Insurance

0.008
0.5%
Services kgCO2e/kg

Employment, Travel Agency

0.4% and Other Administrative
Services
Process IO Hybrid
0.006 0.063 0.008
237
 kg Sand

Sand is comprised of small particles of quartz (silica), feldspar and Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
calcium carbonate from various forms of life that have been eroded
Type Other
down over thousands of years. It is strong, durable, chemically inert
and has excellent drainage characteristics. Functional kg
unit

It is commonly extracted through open pit mining and is available in Specific heat 830 J/(kg·K)

many different grades and levels of purity. Due to the extended period Density 1 500 kg/m³
of time required to create sand, it is considered a non-renewable
Common uses
resource. Landscaping, concrete slabs,
material additive, external finishes
Sand can be used as a substrate for footings, pathways, and concrete Process name
slabs. It is also used as an additive in concrete, mortar, asphalt, and Sand, at mine/CH U/AusSD U
various exterior finishes. It is one of the primary materials used in the Input-output sector
production of silicon for various construction products. Non Metallic Mineral Mining

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5574945e6e

238
TOP THREE INPUTS

Exploration and Mining Support ENERGY

6.8%
Services

MJ/kg
0.34
4.5% Diesel, burned in building MJ/kg
machine/GLO U/AusSD U

1.9% Coal mining

Process IO Hybrid
0.06 0.45 0.34

TOP THREE INPUTS

1.5% Exploration and Mining Support WATER

Services

1.8
L/kg

0.6% Agriculture, Forestry and

Fishing Support Services L/kg

Electricity Transmission,
0.4% Distribution, On Selling and
Electricity Market Operation

Process IO Hybrid
1.4 0.89 1.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
10.6% Exploration and Mining Support
Services
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Diesel, burned in building

0.024
4.7%
machine/GLO U/AusSD U kgCO2e/kg

4.0% Coal mining

Process IO Hybrid
0.005 0.037 0.024
239
 kg Sanitary ceramic

Sanitary ceramics are a high quality ceramic product that is durable, Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
water proof, stain and mould resistant. Materials used in sanitary
Type Other
ceramics are generally denser and less porous than other ceramic
products. Functional kg
unit

Sanitary ceramics are commonly made from silica, sand, feldspar and Specific heat 1 070 J/(kg·K)

clays such as kaolinite that are used to make china and porcelain. The Density 2 700 kg/m³
raw materials are pulverised into fine particles and mixed together,
Common uses
before being formed into the desired size and shape. The product Washbasins, toilets, bathroom
accessories, sanitary ware
is then dried, glazed with a waterproof coating and fired in a high
temperature oven/kiln. Process name
Sanitary ceramics, at regional
storage/CH U/AusSD U
Sanitary ceramics are commonly used for washbasins, toilets,
bathroom accessories and sanitary ware. They are generally more Input-output sector
Ceramic Product Manufacturing
expensive than other ceramic products, due to their high-quality
Further information
waterproof and stain resistant finish. [Link]/10.26188/5da5575bb1595

240
TOP THREE INPUTS

Natural gas, burned in ENERGY

24.4% industrial furnace >100kW/RER
U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
98.0
8.1% Road Transport MJ/kg

2.9% Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed

Concrete Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
38.2 353 98

TOP THREE INPUTS

4.5% Kaolin, at plant/RER U/AusSD U WATER

89.8
L/kg

2.8% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services L/kg

2.5% Food and Beverage Services

Process IO Hybrid
19.7 87.6 89.8

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Natural gas, burned in
23.6% industrial furnace >100kW/RER GAS EMISSIONS
U/AusSD U
kgCO2e/kg

Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed

6.4
3.9%
Concrete Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

3.6% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
2.7 13.7 6.4
241
 kg Dimension stone

Dimension stone is the common term used for finished blocks or slabs Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
of stone used in construction. There are a variety of rock types used
Type Stone
to create dimension stone, including: marble, granite, slate, travertine
and others. These have different properties, and can vary in strength, Functional kg
unit
hardness, durability, texture, colour, size and cost.
Specific heat 837 J/(kg·K)

Dimension stone is mined from quarries, using precision saws, Density 2 243 kg/m³
burners and blasting. Slabs are then graded, cut to size, and finished
Common uses
using a variety of techniques, including: sandblasting, polishing, Countertops, flooring, walling,
cladding, interior decorations
honing, and saw cutting; each technique providing a different finish
and texture. Resin can be used to fill imperfections in the stone. Process name
Natural stone plate, cut, at regional
storage/CH U/AusSD U
Dimension stones are commonly used for bathroom vanities,
countertops, flooring and cladding. Granite is used for external and Input-output sector
Non Metallic Mineral Mining
flooring applications due to its hardness, and ability to withstand
Further information
weathering. Marble and travertine is commonly used for benchtops [Link]/10.26188/5da553562c7fa
and interior applications.

242
TOP THREE INPUTS

Diesel, burned in building ENERGY

7.1%
machine/GLO U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
16.3
3.1% Exploration and Mining Support MJ/kg
Services

0.9% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
8.9 13.4 16.3

TOP THREE INPUTS

5.3% Exploration and Mining Support WATER

Services

16.5
L/kg

1.9% Agriculture, Forestry and

Fishing Support Services L/kg

Electricity Transmission,
1.3% Distribution, On Selling and
Electricity Market Operation

Process IO Hybrid
5.4 26.5 16.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
7.0% Diesel, burned in building
machine/GLO U/AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Exploration and Mining Support

1.3
5.5%
Services kgCO2e/kg

2.1% Coal mining

Process IO Hybrid
0.73 1.1 1.3
243
 kg Ceramic tile

Ceramic tiles are popular for their decorative, hard wearing, stain Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
resistant, and water resistant qualities. Glazed tiles provide a more
Type Tiles
water and stain resistant finish, while unglazed tiles have a rougher,
more natural appearance and texture. A surface coating is often Functional kg
unit
applied to unglazed tiles, to provided additional water proofing.
Specific heat 1 070 J/(kg·K)

Ceramic tiles are made from natural clays, feldspar, silica and other Density 2 900 kg/m³
materials. Clays and additives are sorted and pulverised to ensure a
Common uses
consistent texture and consistency. The mixture is then formed into Interior and exterior finishes,
bathrooms, kitchens, flooring,
tile shaped elements, dried, and fired in a high temperature oven/
walling
kiln. Glazing and surface treatments are applied for waterproofing,
Process name
and aesthetic purposes. Ceramic tiles, at regional storage/
CH U/AusSD U
Ceramic tiles are used for interior and exterior non-structural
Input-output sector
purposes including flooring, cladding and decorative elements. They Ceramic Product Manufacturing
are commonly used in kitchens, bathrooms and wet areas. Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5529e3a6be

244
TOP THREE INPUTS

Natural gas, burned in ENERGY

29.4% industrial furnace >100kW/RER
U/AusSD U

MJ/kg
18.9
4.7% Road Transport MJ/kg

1.4% Basic Chemical Manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
13.3 46.2 18.9

TOP THREE INPUTS

5.5%
Sodium perborate,
tetrahydrate, powder, at plant/ WATER
RER S/AusSD U

15.2
L/kg

4.7% Feldspar, at plant/RER S/

AusSD U L/kg

2.4% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services

Process IO Hybrid
7.6 11.5 15.2

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Natural gas, burned in
27.8% industrial furnace >100kW/RER GAS EMISSIONS
U/AusSD U
kgCO2e/kg

Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed

1.3
2.5%
Concrete Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

2.3% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
0.96 1.8 1.3
245
 kg Clay roof tile

Clay roof tiles, also known as terracotta tiles are a common roofing Category Sand, stone and
SAND, STONE AND CERAMICS

ceramics
option. They are durable, weather resistant, fire resistant, and have a
Type Tiles
high thermal mass compared with other roofing materials. Tiles are
interlocking, to ensure a consistent weatherproof roof covering, and Functional kg
unit
require ongoing maintenance to ensure they remain weatherproof.
Specific heat 800 J/(kg·K)
Tiles can be brittle, and crack easily if not handled/treated correctly.
Density 1 860 kg/m³
The manufacturing process for clay tiles is similar to the production
Common uses
of other ceramic products. Clay is prepared and mixed to ensure Roof cladding
consistent particle size and mineral content. The clay is then
Process name
moulded or extruded into tile shaped elements. These are dried in a Roof tile, at plant/RER U/AusSD U
temperature and humidity controlled environment, and fired in a high Input-output sector
temperature oven/kiln. Coatings or glazing can be applied to ensure Ceramic Product Manufacturing

the tiles are waterproof, or provide other construction or aesthetic Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da552bc24123
qualities. The colour of the tile largely depends on the mineral
content of the clay, the final firing temperature, or the coating/glazing
applied.

Clay roof tiles are available in a wide range of shapes and sizes,
including specific regional styles which are influenced by roof pitch,
weather conditions, availability of raw materials and aesthetic
qualities.

246
TOP THREE INPUTS

Other Non-Metallic Mineral ENERGY

7.7%
Product Manufacturing

MJ/kg
7.5
6.9% Road Transport MJ/kg

2.6% Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed

Concrete Manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
3.5 22.1 7.5

TOP THREE INPUTS

6.7% Other Non-Metallic Mineral WATER

Product Manufacturing

4.7
L/kg

3.4% Professional, Scientific and

Technical Services L/kg

3.0% Food and Beverage Services

Process IO Hybrid
0.51 5.5 4.7

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
7.1% Other Non-Metallic Mineral
Product Manufacturing
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed

0.61
2.9%
Concrete Manufacturing kgCO2e/kg

2.7% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
0.39 0.86 0.61
247
 kg Cork slab

Cork slab is manufactured from cork material obtained from the bark Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

layer of cork oak trees. Cork slab is often made as a by-product of Type Cork
wine stopper production or from recycled cork. It is often made by Functional kg
combining ground granulated cork with a binding agent. unit
Specific heat 2 000 J/(kg·K)
Cork slab is lightweight, rot resistant, fire resistant and termite
Density 120 kg/m³
resistant. It is available in a variety of thicknesses, from 6 mm and
used for a range of purposes, including floor and wall tiles, thermal Common uses
Insulation, floor tiles, wall tiles,
insulation, benchtops and exterior cladding. exterior cladding, floor finish,
benchtops
Cork slab products are typically available as rolls up to 25 m long, as Process name
600 or 900 mm wide sheets and 300 or 600 mm square tiles. Cork slab, at plant/RER U/AusSD U

Input-output sector
Other Wood Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55336dce12

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Cork slab kg 179 199 9.5
Cork slab - 6 mm m² 129 143 6.8
Cork slab - 10 mm m² 215 238 11.4
Cork slab - 12 mm m² 258 286 13.6
Cork slab - 20 mm m² 430 477 22.7
Cork slab - 50 mm m² 1 074 1 191 56.8

248
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
25.1% Road Transport

MJ/kg
179
2.5% Polymer Product Manufacturing MJ/kg

2.5% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
25.4 278 179

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.8% Water Supply, Sewerage and WATER

Drainage Services

199
L/kg

2.7% Phenolic resin, at plant/RER U/

AusSD U L/kg

2.7% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
11.6 311 199

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
15.0% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/kg

9.5
2.5% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/kg

Other Fabricated Metal Product

2.3%
manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1.8 13.8 9.5
249
 m³ Hardwood

Timber comes in a wide range of varieties and sizes. It is used for Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

structural and non-structural purposes, and can vary significantly in Type Hardwood
density, grain texture, workability, usage and cost. It is lightweight, Functional m³
easy to handle and transport, and has a good strength to weight ratio. unit

It is typically divided into softwood varieties, such as Pine, Cypress Specific heat 1 255 J/(kg·K)
and Spruce and hardwood varieties such as Victorian Ash, Blackbutt Density 720 kg/m³
and Oak. The term hardwood and softwood is a botanical distinction,
Common uses
and not an indication of timber strength or density. The density of Beams, columns, framing, joinery,
timber is highly dependent on the species, varying from 120 kg/m³ to flooring, walling, furniture, cladding,
doors, windows
1 300 kg/m³ or higher.
Process name
Sawn timber, hardwood, planed, air
Hardwood is generally more dense and durable than softwood / kiln dried, u=10%, at plant/RER U/
varieties, with better longevity. Some hardwoods are naturally AusSD U

resistant to termites and pests and more fire resistant. It is commonly Input-output sector
Sawmill Product Manufacturing
used for high traffic areas, quality furnishings and interior joinery,
structural members, cladding and flooring. Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da554ea370a5
Commercial timber products are typically kiln, or air-dried. Kiln/oven
drying is done in a controlled environment over a relatively short
time period. It produces a uniformly dried, high quality product that
generally kills any fungi and insects in the wood. Air-drying is done
over extended periods of time, and does not require any fuel inputs. It
is cost effective, but needs to be carefully managed to reduce cracking
and ensure consistent drying.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Hardwood air-dried m³ 13 632 19 110 944
Hardwood kiln-dried - dressed m³ 41 597 58 411 2 269
Hardwood kiln-dried - structural m³ 19 389 25 332 1 178

250
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
45.9% Road Transport

MJ/m³
13 632
1.1% Wholesale Trade MJ/m³

0.8% Construction Services

Process IO Hybrid
3 247 21 378 13 632

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.7% Road Transport WATER

19 110
L/m³

1.9% Construction Services

L/m³

1.2% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
2 091 35 222 19 110

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
21.7% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

944
1.6% Construction Services
kgCO2e/m³

1.1% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
387 885 944
251
 m³ Cross laminated timber (CLT)

Cross laminated timber (CLT) is a manufactured timber product, Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

similar to plywood. Solid timber members are bonded together, Type Manufactured
timber product
with the grain alternating by 90 degrees for each lamination. CLT is
much thicker than traditional plywood and has superior structural Functional m³
unit
capabilities. It has excellent dimensional stability, strength and
Specific heat 1 300 J/(kg·K)
rigidity.
Density 490 kg/m³
CLT is fabricated using a range of different timber varieties. It is
Common uses
typically bonded together using melamine urea formaldehyde, Flooring and walling system,
structural panels, timber sheets
polyurethane or other adhesives.
Process name
CLT has different structural capabilities when compared with Glued laminated timber, indoor use,
at plant/RER U/AusSD U
conventional timber, and acts as a sheet product, rather than
a framing product. It can be used as a complete floor, wall or roof Input-output sector
Other Wood Product Manufacturing
system, without the need for additional supporting members.
Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55346af5dc

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Cross laminated timber (CLT) m³ 9 607 8 608 645
Cross laminated timber (CLT) - 60 mm m² 576 516 38.7
Cross laminated timber (CLT) - 105 mm m² 1 009 904 67.7
Cross laminated timber (CLT) - 175 mm m² 1 681 1 506 113

252
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
20.3% Road Transport

MJ/m³
Sawn timber, softwood, raw, air
9 607
6.5% dried, u=20%, at plant/RER U/ MJ/m³
AusSD U

2.0% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
4 654 12 089 9 607

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.8% Water Supply, Sewerage and WATER

Drainage Services

8 608
L/m³

2.7% Wholesale Trade

L/m³

2.3% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
3 615 13 513 8 608

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Sawn timber, softwood, raw, air
18.3% dried, u=20%, at plant/RER U/ GAS EMISSIONS
AusSD U
kgCO2e/m³

645
9.6% Road Transport
kgCO2e/m³

Wood chips, from industry,

2.6% softwood, burned in furnace
300kW/CH U/AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
377 599 645
253
 m³ Glued laminated timber

Glued laminated timber or glulam is a structurally engineered timber Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

product produced from large strips of graded timber that are bonded Type Manufactured
timber product
together. Glulam has a high degree of dimensional stability, and a
high strength to weight ratio compared to steel. Functional m³
unit

Timber members are individually selected for lamination, to Specific heat 1 300 J/(kg·K)

maximise strength and performance. Because of this, glulam can Density 430 kg/m³
be manufactured with increased strength in particular areas, to
Common uses
compensate for areas of high stress in a structure. Synthetic resin Structural members, columns,
rafters, trusses, curved beams
glues are typically used as a binding agent, commonly in conjunction
with finger joints to increase joint performance. Process name
Glued laminated timber, indoor use,
at plant/RER U/AusSD U
Glulam can be used for long structural members, which exceed the
capabilities of standard timber. It is also used for columns, rafters, Input-output sector
Other Wood Product Manufacturing
trusses and curved beams.
Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da554a55f5a5

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Glued laminated timber - indoor m³ 29 996 35 813 1 718
Glued laminated timber - outdoor m³ 28 279 31 246 1 605

254
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
24.2% Road Transport

MJ/m³
29 996
2.4% Polymer Product Manufacturing MJ/m³

2.4% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
4 654 44 926 29 996

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.4% Water Supply, Sewerage and WATER

Drainage Services

35 813
L/m³

2.4% Wholesale Trade

L/m³

2.0% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
3 615 50 219 35 813

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
14.0% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

1 718
2.7% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/m³

Other Fabricated Metal Product

2.3%
manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
377 2 225 1 718
255
 m³ Laminated veneer lumber (LVL)

Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) is a manufactured timber product Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

made from thin veneers of timber bonded together under heat and Type Manufactured
timber product
pressure. Unlike plywood, the grain is oriented in the same direction.
LVL is stronger and can span further than traditional timber members. Functional m³
unit
It has excellent dimensional stability, reliability and strength.
Specific heat 1 800 J/(kg·K)

LVL can be made from smaller varieties of trees, usually unsuitable Density 510 kg/m³
for large structural members. Veneers are bonded together using
Common uses
bonding agents that cure at high temperatures, such as phenol Long spanning structural members,
lintels, beams, purlins, trusses
formaldehyde.
Process name
LVL members are excellent for long spanning structural purposes, and Glued laminated timber, indoor use,
at plant/RER U/AusSD U
are commonly used for lintels, beams, purlins and trusses.
Input-output sector
Other Wood Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da55571d9d31

256
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
23.8% Road Transport

MJ/m³
17 479
2.4% Polymer Product Manufacturing MJ/m³

2.3% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
4 654 25 738 17 479

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.8% Water Supply, Sewerage and WATER

Drainage Services

18 025
L/m³

2.7% Wholesale Trade

L/m³

2.3% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
3 615 28 770 18 025

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
12.4% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

1 059
2.1% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/m³

Other Fabricated Metal Product

1.9%
manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
377 1 275 1 059
257
 m³ Medium density fibreboard (MDF)

Medium density fibreboard (MDF), is a manufactured timber product Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

made from reconstituted wood fibres. It is denser than particleboard Type Manufactured
timber product
or plywood, and has a smooth finish. MDF is commonly covered
with timber veneer, vinyl, or a melamine paper coating, providing Functional m³
unit
increased durability, water resistance and aesthetic qualities. MDF
Specific heat 1 300 J/(kg·K)
is cost-effective when compared with other sheet materials, and is
Density 684 kg/m³
typically stronger than particleboard.

Common uses
MDF is created by combining residual wood fibres with a resin binder Interior joinery, walling, flooring
and wax, and pressing at a high temperature. Urea-formaldehyde is
Process name
commonly used for non-waterproof applications, and melamine urea Medium density fibreboard, at
plant/RER U/AusSD U
formaldehyde for increased water resistance.
Input-output sector
MDF is commonly used for joinery and interior purposes. Depending Other Wood Product Manufacturing

on the resin used, it can have a moderate resistance to water, and is Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da555b3e3bf9
generally not suited to exterior applications.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Medium density fibreboard (MDF) sheet m³ 15 016 8 471 899
Melamine-coated MDF sheet - 16 mm m² 344 283 18.7
Melamine-coated MDF sheet - 18 mm m² 390 323 21.3
Melamine-coated MDF sheet - 25 mm m² 557 453 30.5

258
TOP THREE INPUTS

Natural gas, burned in ENERGY

11.0% industrial furnace >100kW/RER
U/AusSD U

MJ/m³
15 016
9.9% Road Transport MJ/m³

7.6% Paraffin, at plant/RER U/AusSD

U
Process IO Hybrid
10 822 9 572 15 016

TOP THREE INPUTS

8.1% Paraffin, at plant/RER U/AusSD WATER

U

8 471
L/m³

3.0% Water Supply, Sewerage and

Drainage Services L/m³

2.1% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
2 726 10 700 8 471

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
Natural gas, burned in
11.6% industrial furnace >100kW/RER GAS EMISSIONS
U/AusSD U
kgCO2e/m³

899
5.4% Road Transport
kgCO2e/m³

Wood chips, from industry,

1.9% softwood, burned in furnace
300kW/CH U/AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
698 474 899
259
 m³ Oriented strand board (OSB)

Oriented strand board (OSB) is a manufactured timber product Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

similar to particleboard. It is made from timber fibres that are bonded Type Manufactured
timber product
together in a particular orientation. The orientation varies across the
inner and outer layers, to provide increased dimensional stability. It Functional m³
unit
has superior structural capabilities compared with particleboard, and
Specific heat 1 880 J/(kg·K)
is more cost-effective than plywood. Sheets can be manufactured
Density 607 kg/m³
to have a high strength and rigidity, depending on the required
application. Common uses
Timber sheets, walling, roofing
Strands of timber are bonded together using thermal compression.
Process name
Adhesive resins such as urea-formaldehyde (non-waterproof) or Oriented strand board, at plant/RER
U/AusSD U
melamine-formaldehyde (water resistant) are used to bond the
strands together, often combined with wax. OSB sheets can utilise Input-output sector
Other Wood Product Manufacturing
timber offcuts and have very low timber wastage.
Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5561c22195
OSB sheets are commonly used as an alternative to plywood sheet
products.

260
TOP THREE INPUTS

Phenolic resin, at plant/RER U/ ENERGY

35.0%
AusSD U

MJ/m³
14 422
13.8% Road Transport MJ/m³

1.8% Paraffin, at plant/RER U/AusSD

U
Process IO Hybrid
8 278 12 781 14 422

TOP THREE INPUTS

48.4% Phenolic resin, at plant/RER U/ WATER

AusSD U

17 997
L/m³

1.9% Water Supply, Sewerage and

Drainage Services L/m³

1.3% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
9 791 14 286 17 997

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
28.3% Phenolic resin, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U
GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

751
8.7% Road Transport
kgCO2e/m³

Wood chips, from industry,

2.5% softwood, burned in furnace
300kW/CH U/AusSD U
Process IO Hybrid
446 633 751
261
 m³ Particleboard

Particleboard, also known as chipboard, is a manufactured timber Category Timber products

TIMBER PRODUCTS

product made from reconstituted wood particles. Unlike OSB, Type Manufactured
timber product
the particles are randomly orientated, and the board has uniform
properties in each direction. Due to this, it is a relatively stable product, Functional m³
unit
and offers a cheaper alternative to other timber sheet products.
Specific heat 1 300 J/(kg·K)
It is typically weaker than plywood and highly susceptible to water
Density 680 kg/m³
damage, warping and expansion, and is generally not situatable for
outdoor applications. Common uses
Interior joinery, walling, flooring
Small wood particles are layered with a formaldehyde-based resin,
Process name
or melamine-based resin (for increased water resistance). Other Particle board, indoor use, at plant/
RER U/AusSD U
additives are commonly included to increase resistance to insect
damage, fire, and water. Input-output sector
Other Wood Product Manufacturing

Particleboard is commonly used for low cost joinery and dry area Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5562dbfbf9
construction. It is often painted, or covered with a timber veneer
or melamine coating to increase water resistance, durability and
aesthetic qualities.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Particleboard - indoor m³ 12 717 10 720 696
Particleboard - outdoor m³ 15 879 20 491 813

262
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
18.0% Road Transport

MJ/m³
12 717
Paraffin, at plant/RER U/AusSD
4.3%
U
MJ/m³

1.8% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
5 747 14 165 12 717

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.6% Water Supply, Sewerage and WATER

Drainage Services

10 720
L/m³

3.1% Paraffin, at plant/RER U/AusSD

U L/m³

2.5% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
1 860 15 833 10 720

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
10.9% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

696
2.1% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/m³

Other Fabricated Metal Product

1.8%
manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
337 702 696
263
 m³ Plywood

Plywood is a manufactured timber product made from thin veneers Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

of timber bonded together under heat and pressure. Typically the Type Manufactured
timber product
outer layers (face timbers) are a higher grade with superior aesthetic
qualities. Plywood is a high-strength, high quality sheet material, with Functional m³
unit
good dimensional stability and resistance to cracking and warping.
Specific heat 1 215 J/(kg·K)

Veneers are ‘peeled’ off a timber log to a precise thickness, and Density 625 kg/m³
laminated together with other veneers, typically at different
Common uses
orientations to provide increased strength and stability. They are Timber sheets, interior joinery,
walling, flooring, formwork,
bonded with urea formaldehyde or a water-resistant glue such as
furniture, cladding
phenol formaldehyde.
Process name
Plywood, indoor use, at plant/RER
Plywood is available in a variety of grades, and timber species. These U/AusSD U
include high grade interior plywood, formply, exterior/marine grade
Input-output sector
plywood, and structural plywood. Other Wood Product Manufacturing

Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da556748c57f

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Plywood - indoor decorative m³ 63 691 69 363 3 680
Plywood - outdoor m³ 26 790 23 083 1 777

264
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
24.4% Road Transport

MJ/m³
63 691
2.4% Wholesale Trade MJ/m³

1.7% Other Fabricated Metal Product

manufacturing
Process IO Hybrid
12 231 96 346 63 691

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.7% Water Supply, Sewerage and WATER

Drainage Services

69 363
L/m³

2.6% Wholesale Trade

L/m³

2.2% Road Transport

Process IO Hybrid
6 175 107 697 69 363

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
14.0% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

3 680
2.7% Wholesale Trade
kgCO2e/m³

Other Fabricated Metal Product

2.3%
manufacturing

Process IO Hybrid
1 029 4 772 3 680
265
 m² Structural insulated panel (SIP)

Structural insulated panels, often referred to as SIPs, are a composite Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

product containing an outer skin and inner core. As their name Type Other timber
suggest, they are typically used as a structural element for low-rise Functional m²
buildings. unit
Density 139 kg/m³
Outer layers of oriented strand board (OSB) are glued to an insulating
core made from expanded polystyrene (EPS). The core gives the Common uses
Floor structure, external walls,
panels good thermal properties while the outer skins provide a internal walls, roof structure
durable, aesthetic finish. Alternative core materials, such as extruded Process name
polystyrene (XPS) or rigid polyurethane (PU) foam and outer skin SIPS

materials, such as plywood or fibre cement sheet can also be used. Input-output sector
Other Wood Product Manufacturing
SIPs can be used as wall or roof panels and are mainly used in Further information
domestic construction. They are very lightweight and thus easy to [Link]/10.26188/5da5586fec593
move. The panels come in a range of thicknesses ranging from 100
to 300 mm. Typical panel dimensions are 300, 600, 900 and 1 200
mm wide and 2.4, 2.7 and 3 m long. Openings for windows and doors
are cut out of panels during manufacture. Panels are connected
onsite using splines with cavities cut into the core for electrical and
plumbing services.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Structural insulated panel (SIP) - 112 mm m² 2 624 4 219 135
Structural insulated panel (SIP) - 142 mm m² 3 327 5 349 171
Structural insulated panel (SIP) - 162 mm m² 3 795 6 103 195

266
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
8.0% Road Transport

MJ/m²
2 624
4.7% Sawmill Product Manufacturing MJ/m²

3.6% Forestry and Logging

Process IO Hybrid
2 023 1 299 2 624

TOP THREE INPUTS

9.3% Forestry and Logging WATER

4 219
L/m²

5.3% Sawmill Product Manufacturing

L/m²

0.8% Water Supply, Sewerage and

Drainage Services

Process IO Hybrid
3 105 1 451 4 219

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
5.2% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m²

135
3.6% Sawmill Product Manufacturing
kgCO2e/m²

2.5% Forestry and Logging

Process IO Hybrid
110 64.3 135
267
 m³ Softwood

Timber comes in a wide range of varieties and sizes. It is used for Category Timber products
TIMBER PRODUCTS

structural and non-structural purposes, and can vary significantly in Type Softwood
density, grain texture, workability, usage and cost. It is lightweight, Functional m³
easy to handle and transport, and has a good strength to weight ratio. unit

It is typically divided into softwood varieties, such as Pine, Cypress Specific heat 1 380 J/(kg·K)
and Spruce and hardwood varieties such as Victorian Ash, Blackbutt Density 510 kg/m³
and Oak. The term hardwood and softwood is a botanical distinction,
Common uses
and not an indication of timber strength or density. The density of Beams, columns, framing, joinery,
timber is highly dependent on the species, varying from 120 kg/m³ to flooring, walling, furniture, cladding,
doors, windows
1 300 kg/m³ or higher.
Process name
Sawn timber, softwood, planed, air
Softwood generally has a lower density and better workability than dried, at plant/RER U/AusSD U
hardwood varieties. It is comparably cheap due to the fast growing
Input-output sector
nature of many softwood plantation varieties. It is widely used for Sawmill Product Manufacturing
timber framing purposes, feature walls, door and windows.
Further information
[Link]/10.26188/5da5578416cc9
Commercial timber products are typically kiln, or air-dried. Kiln/oven
drying is done in a controlled environment over a relatively short
time period. It produces a uniformly dried, high quality product that
generally kills any fungi and insects in the wood. Air-drying is done
over extended periods of time, and does not require any fuel inputs. It
is cost effective, but needs to be carefully managed to reduce cracking
and ensure consistent drying.

Energy Water GHG emissions

Material variations Unit (MJ/unit) (L/unit) (kgCO₂e/unit)
Softwood air-dried m³ 9 392 13 091 549
Softwood kiln-dried m³ 9 704 13 181 583

268
TOP THREE INPUTS

ENERGY
45.0% Road Transport

MJ/m³
9 392
1.0% Wholesale Trade MJ/m³

0.8% Construction Services

Process IO Hybrid
2 086 14 443 9 392

TOP THREE INPUTS

3.6% Road Transport WATER

13 091
L/m³

1.9% Construction Services

L/m³

1.2% Wholesale Trade

Process IO Hybrid
2 678 23 796 13 091

TOP THREE INPUTS

GREENHOUSE
25.2% Road Transport GAS EMISSIONS
kgCO2e/m³

Sawn timber, softwood, raw, air 549

18.1% dried, u=20%, at plant/RER U/
AusSD U
kgCO2e/m³

1.9% Construction Services

Process IO Hybrid
181 598 549
269
6

REFERENCES AND
APPENDICES
 References
ABS (2016) 4610.0 2014-15 Water Account, Australia. Canberra, Australia: Australian Bureau of
Statistics. [Link]
F100A84BC5C0973BCA2581E00010808B?opendocument

ABS (2017a) 5209.0.55.001 Australian National Accounts: Input-Output Tables, 2014-15. Canberra,
Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics.

ABS (2017b) 5215.0.55.001 - Australian National Accounts: Input-Output Tables (Product Details), 2014-15.
Canberra, Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics.

ABS (2018) 5209.0.55.001 - Australian National Accounts: Input-Output Tables, 2014-15. Canberra,
Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics. [Link]
/5209.0.55.001Main+Features12014-15?OpenDocument

Born, P. (1996) Input-output analysis: input of energy, CO2 and work to produce goods. Journal of Policy
Modeling, 18, 217-221. [Link]/10.1016/0161-8938(95)00069-0

Crawford, R.H. (2005) Validation of the use of input-output data for embodied energy analysis of
the Australian construction industry. Journal of Construction Research, 6(1), 71-90. doi.
org/10.1142/S1609945105000250

Crawford, R.H. (2008) Validation of a hybrid life cycle inventory analysis method. Journal of
Environmental Management, 88(3), 496-506. [Link]/10.1016/[Link].2007.03.024

Crawford, R.H., Bontinck, P.-A. & Stephan, A. (2018a) Establishing a comprehensive database of
construction material environmental flow coefficients for Australia. Paper presented at the
Engaging Architectural Science: Meeting the Challenges of Higher Density: 52nd International
Conference of the Architectural Science Association 2018, Melbourne, Australia.

Crawford, R.H., Bontinck, P.-A., Stephan, A., Wiedmann, T. & Yu, M. (2018b) Hybrid life cycle inventory
methods – a review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 172, 1273-1288. [Link]/10.1016/j.
jclepro.2017.10.176

Crawford, R.H., Stephan, A. & Prideaux, F. (2022) The EPiC database: Hybrid embodied environmental
flow coefficients for construction materials. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 180,
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Department of Industry, Innovation and Science (2016) Australian energy statistics update. Canberra,
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[Link]

Department of the Environment and Energy (2015) National Greenhouse Gas Inventory - Kyoto Protocol
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272
EN 15643-5 (2017) Sustainability of Construction Works - Sustainability Assessment of Buildings and
Civil Engineering Works - Part 5: Framework on Specific Principles and Requirement for Civil
Engineering Works. European Committee for Standardisation.

EN 15978 (2011) Sustainability of Construction Works - Assessment of Environmental Performance of

Buildings—Calculation Method. European Committee for Standardisation.

Frischknecht, R., Jungbluth, N., Althaus, H.-J., Doka, G., Dones, R., Heck, T., . . . Spielmann, M. (2005) The
ecoinvent database: Overview and methodological framework. International Journal of Life
Cycle Assessment, 10, 3-9. [Link]/10.1065/lca2004.10.181.1

Grant, T. (2016) AusLCI Database Manual v1.26. [Link]

[Link]

Hendrickson, C.T., Horvath, A., Joshi, S. & Lave, L.B. (1998) Economic input-output models for
environmental life cycle assessment. Environmental Science and Technology, 32(7),
184A-191A. [Link]/10.1021/es983471i

International Energy Agency and the United Nations Environment Programme (2018) Global Status
Report 2018: towards a zero-emission, efficient and resilient buildings and construction sector.

ISO 14025 (2006) Environmental labels and declarations — Type III environmental declarations —
Principles and procedures. International Organisation for Standardisation.

ISO 14040 (2006) Environmental management - life cycle assessment - principles and framework.
International Organisation for Standardisation.

Lenzen, M. & Crawford, R.H. (2009) The path exchange method for hybrid LCA. Environmental Science &
Technology, 43(21), 8251-8256. [Link]/10.1021/es902090z

Lenzen, M. & Dey, C.J. (2000) Truncation error in embodied energy analyses of basic iron and steel
products. Energy, 25(6), 577-585. [Link]/10.1016/S0360-5442(99)00088-2

Norris, G. (2001) Empirically derived distributions of life cycle emissions, in B.P. Weidema and A.M.
Nielsen (eds). In Input/Output analysis: shortcuts to life cycle data? (pp. 52-56). Copenhagen,
Denmark: Environmental Project No. 581, Ministry for Environment and Energy.

PRé Sustainability (2018) Simapro (Version 8.4). [Link]

Roodman, D.M. (1995) A building revolution: how ecology and health concerns are transforming
construction / David Malin Roodman and Nicholas Lenssen; Jane A. Peterson (Ed.).
Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.

Stephan, A. (2018) Walkthrough the Path Exchange Hybrid Analysis Graphical User Interface. doi.
org/10.6084/[Link].5687773

Stephan, A., Crawford, R.H. & Bontinck, P.-A. (2019) A model for streamlining and automating path
exchange hybrid life cycle assessment. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment,
24(2), 237-252. doi:10.1007/s11367-018-1521-1

Image credits: [Link]/10.26188/5dc1e272cbedc

273
 Appendices

Appendix A: List of economic sectors (industry/product groups)

0 Sheep, Grains, Beef and Dairy Cattle

1 Poultry and Other Livestock
2 Other Agriculture
3 Aquaculture
4 Forestry and Logging
5 Fishing, hunting and trapping
6 Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Support Services
7 Coal mining
8 Oil and gas extraction
9 Iron Ore Mining
10 Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining
11 Non Metallic Mineral Mining
12 Exploration and Mining Support Services
13 Meat and Meat product Manufacturing
14 Processed Seafood Manufacturing
15 Dairy Product Manufacturing
16 Fruit and Vegetable Product Manufacturing
17 Oils and Fats Manufacturing
18 Grain Mill and Cereal Product Manufacturing
19 Bakery Product Manufacturing
20 Sugar and Confectionery Manufacturing
21 Other Food Product Manufacturing
22 Soft Drinks, Cordials and Syrup Manufacturing
23 Beer Manufacturing
24 Wine, Spirits and Tobacco

274
25 Textile Manufacturing
26 Tanned Leather, Dressed Fur and Leather Product Manufacturing
27 Textile Product Manufacturing
28 Knitted Product Manufacturing
29 Clothing Manufacturing
30 Footwear Manufacturing
31 Sawmill Product Manufacturing
32 Other Wood Product Manufacturing
33 Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Manufacturing
34 Paper Stationery and Other Converted Paper Product Manufacturing
35 Printing (including the reproduction of recorded media)
36 Petroleum and Coal Product Manufacturing
37 Human Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing
38 Veterinary Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing
39 Basic Chemical Manufacturing
40 Cleaning Compounds and Toiletry Preparation Manufacturing
41 Polymer Product Manufacturing
42 Natural Rubber Product Manufacturing
43 Glass and Glass Product Manufacturing
44 Ceramic Product Manufacturing
45 Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed Concrete Manufacturing
46 Plaster and Concrete Product Manufacturing
47 Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product Manufacturing
48 Iron and Steel Manufacturing
49 Basic Non-Ferrous Metal Manufacturing
50 Forged Iron and Steel Product Manufacturing
51 Structural Metal Product Manufacturing
52 Metal Containers and Other Sheet Metal Product manufacturing
53 Other Fabricated Metal Product manufacturing
54 Motor Vehicles and Parts; Other Transport Equipment manufacturing
55 Ships and Boat Manufacturing
56 Railway Rolling Stock Manufacturing

275
 57 Aircraft Manufacturing
58 Professional, Scientific, Computer and Electronic Equipment Manufacturing
59 Electrical Equipment Manufacturing
60 Domestic Appliance Manufacturing
61 Specialised and other Machinery and Equipment Manufacturing
62 Furniture Manufacturing
63 Other Manufactured Products
64 Electricity Generation
65 Electricity Transmission, Distribution, On Selling and Electricity Market Operation
66 Gas Supply
67 Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Services
68 Waste Collection, Treatment and Disposal Services
69 Residential Building Construction
70 Non-Residential Building Construction
71 Heavy and Civil Engineering Construction
72 Construction Services
73 Wholesale Trade
74 Retail Trade
75 Accommodation
76 Food and Beverage Services
77 Road Transport
78 Rail Transport
79 Water, Pipeline and Other Transport
80 Air and Space Transport
81 Postal and Courier Pick-up and Delivery Service
82 Transport Support services and storage
83 Publishing (except Internet and Music Publishing)
84 Motion Picture and Sound Recording
85 Broadcasting (except Internet)
86 Internet Service Providers, Internet Publishing, Websearch Portals & Data Processing
87 Telecommunication Services
88 Library and Other Information Services

276
 89 Finance
90 Insurance and Superannuation Funds
91 Auxiliary Finance and Insurance Services
92 Rental and Hiring Services (except Real Estate)
93 Ownership of Dwellings
94 Non-Residential Property Operators and Real Estate Services
95 Professional, Scientific and Technical Services
96 Computer Systems Design and Related Services
97 Employment, Travel Agency and Other Administrative Services
98 Building Cleaning, Pest Control and Other Support Services
99 Public Administration and Regulatory Services
100 Defence
101 Public Order and Safety
102 Primary and Secondary Education Services (incl Pre-Schools and Special Schools)
103 Technical, Vocational & Tertiary Education Services (incl undergraduate & postgraduate)
104 Arts, Sports, Adult and Other Education Services (incl community education)
105 Health Care Services
106 Residential Care and Social Assistance Services
107 Heritage, Creative and Performing Arts
108 Sports and Recreation
109 Gambling
110 Automotive Repair and Maintenance
111 Other Repair and Maintenance
112 Personal Services
113 Other Services
114 Capital - Biological resources
115 Capital - Construction
116 Capital - Machinery and weapons
117 Capital - IP Products

Source: Input-Output Industry/Product Groups (IOIG/IOPG) are based on ABS (2017a). Additional
information about goods or services produced by each group is available as Input-Output Product
Categories (IOPC) from ABS (2017b).

277
 Appendix B: Total environmental flow requirements for
economic sectors

Sector Energy Water Greenhouse gas emissions

number (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

0 7.54 175.68 2.37

1 5.72 46.27 0.82
2 7.11 221.82 0.57
3 12.93 16.98 0.59
4 14.13 49.60 0.54
5 9.11 17.31 0.47
6 6.74 98.53 0.57
7 11.96 13.53 1.51
8 11.10 8.05 1.26
9 7.70 10.59 0.54
10 12.71 19.67 0.95
11 10.77 21.29 0.88
12 9.15 11.85 0.93
13 8.21 93.46 1.42
14 8.52 13.50 0.48
15 9.66 101.75 1.59
16 7.79 64.66 0.55
17 13.21 77.18 1.39
18 9.13 78.42 1.25
19 7.50 37.76 0.61
20 9.90 72.14 0.84
21 8.52 51.42 0.72
22 7.62 19.81 0.46
23 6.87 44.21 0.72
24 7.01 48.39 0.52
25 8.16 56.27 1.06
26 6.26 39.49 0.75

278
Sector Energy Water Greenhouse gas emissions
number (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

27 5.51 44.86 0.82

28 7.22 9.58 0.75
29 4.66 8.38 0.41
30 28.09 6.31 0.52
31 11.85 19.53 0.49
32 9.92 11.09 0.49
33 17.33 29.07 1.01
34 9.85 14.21 0.62
35 6.55 6.20 0.43
36 32.85 8.48 1.20
37 6.75 13.54 0.50
38 4.97 48.51 0.83
39 20.49 9.76 1.22
40 7.23 10.81 0.47
41 12.20 10.64 0.59
42 12.02 13.89 0.71
43 9.95 7.00 0.64
44 28.47 7.06 1.10
45 11.79 8.46 0.98
46 14.49 9.52 0.97
47 13.56 9.01 0.96
48 23.15 17.34 0.94
49 25.00 16.13 1.27
50 10.21 11.34 0.68
51 7.81 7.75 0.51
52 7.24 6.21 0.47
53 9.70 9.52 0.61
54 6.44 8.11 0.43
55 5.87 6.67 0.39
56 7.44 7.37 0.47
57 6.52 6.09 0.43

279
 Sector Energy Water Greenhouse gas emissions
number (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

58 3.67 4.02 0.24

59 6.54 5.90 0.47
60 6.03 5.42 0.43
61 5.26 5.75 0.35
62 7.29 9.35 0.48
63 7.50 7.60 0.50
64 99.00 16.56 11.32
65 6.85 10.05 0.43
66 6.53 9.56 1.86
67 5.06 113.42 0.44
68 3.78 4.07 2.22
69 6.26 9.32 0.36
70 5.67 6.59 0.35
71 4.66 5.42 0.29
72 5.36 6.72 0.31
73 4.72 5.41 0.26
74 3.37 7.12 0.27
75 4.49 12.95 0.38
76 4.45 21.43 0.43
77 29.10 6.29 1.00
78 10.34 5.98 0.66
79 11.16 5.13 0.65
80 21.62 6.62 0.80
81 7.19 6.15 0.56
82 4.38 4.89 0.29
83 3.86 5.33 0.25
84 5.25 8.89 0.36
85 3.43 4.92 0.23
86 3.50 4.57 0.25
87 4.69 5.85 0.30
88 1.90 3.00 0.13

280
Sector Energy Water Greenhouse gas emissions
number (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

89 0.90 1.19 0.06

90 1.91 2.91 0.13
91 2.57 3.47 0.17
92 5.70 10.07 0.47
93 3.39 4.88 0.28
94 3.21 6.03 0.24
95 2.91 6.11 0.20
96 2.31 3.03 0.16
97 2.24 5.02 0.16
98 3.36 8.16 0.23
99 4.23 4.82 0.33
100 3.90 4.05 0.19
101 4.13 6.66 0.23
102 2.07 3.22 0.14
103 2.35 3.92 0.16
104 2.78 4.29 0.20
105 2.66 5.16 0.18
106 2.07 4.51 0.14
107 3.33 6.84 0.23
108 5.21 16.96 0.37
109 5.24 11.58 0.36
110 4.94 5.93 0.29
111 4.40 5.53 0.27
112 4.19 8.47 0.27
113 1.22 3.91 0.10
114 7.09 84.96 0.97
115 5.81 8.47 0.38
116 6.23 6.66 0.39
117 4.46 6.48 0.33

281
 Appendix C: Total environmental flow requirements of inputs to
main construction sectors

69 Residential Building Construction

Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

0 Sheep, Grains, Beef and Dairy Cattle 0.0009557 0.0222731 0.0003005

1 Poultry and Other Livestock 0.0001341 0.0010840 0.0000192

2 Other Agriculture 0.0083667 0.2611329 0.0006691

3 Aquaculture 0.0000195 0.0000256 0.0000009

4 Forestry and Logging 0.0012818 0.0044988 0.0000486

5 Fishing, hunting and trapping 0.0005505 0.0010459 0.0000282

6 Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Support Services 0.0004410 0.0064513 0.0000371

7 Coal mining 0.0148600 0.0168155 0.0018824

8 Oil and gas extraction 0.0212028 0.0153792 0.0024106

9 Iron Ore Mining 0.0064172 0.0088336 0.0004507

10 Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining 0.0175363 0.0271426 0.0013170

11 Non Metallic Mineral Mining 0.0162908 0.0322026 0.0013287

12 Exploration and Mining Support Services 0.0105149 0.0136210 0.0010733

13 Meat and Meat product Manufacturing 0.0017187 0.0195732 0.0002984

14 Processed Seafood Manufacturing 0.0003612 0.0005726 0.0000204

15 Dairy Product Manufacturing 0.0022296 0.0234910 0.0003673

16 Fruit and Vegetable Product Manufacturing 0.0006154 0.0051079 0.0000436

17 Oils and Fats Manufacturing 0.0000326 0.0001906 0.0000034

18 Grain Mill and Cereal Product Manufacturing 0.0006765 0.0058096 0.0000923

19 Bakery Product Manufacturing 0.0005170 0.0026044 0.0000422

20 Sugar and Confectionery Manufacturing 0.0013192 0.0096090 0.0001122

21 Other Food Product Manufacturing 0.0020135 0.0121494 0.0001692

22 Soft Drinks, Cordials and Syrup Manufacturing 0.0002822 0.0007334 0.0000171

282
 Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

23 Beer Manufacturing 0.0001574 0.0010124 0.0000164

24 Wine, Spirits and Tobacco 0.0005998 0.0041433 0.0000447

25 Textile Manufacturing 0.0009216 0.0063584 0.0001196

26 Tanned Leather, Dressed Fur and Leather Product Manufacturing 0.0027707 0.0174885 0.0003328

27 Textile Product Manufacturing 0.0112277 0.0914226 0.0016778

28 Knitted Product Manufacturing 0.0000927 0.0001231 0.0000097

29 Clothing Manufacturing 0.0029206 0.0052568 0.0002592

30 Footwear Manufacturing 0.0186447 0.0041893 0.0003441

31 Sawmill Product Manufacturing 0.1181311 0.1946299 0.0048887

32 Other Wood Product Manufacturing 0.5893566 0.6587864 0.0291935

33 Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Manufacturing 0.0218631 0.0366707 0.0012704

34 Paper Stationery and Other Converted Paper Product Manufacturing 0.0358786 0.0517695 0.0022618

35 Printing (including the reproduction of recorded media) 0.0090106 0.0085371 0.0005877

36 Petroleum and Coal Product Manufacturing 0.3139447 0.0810361 0.0114674

37 Human Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing 0.0021586 0.0043301 0.0001606

38 Veterinary Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing 0.0000562 0.0005486 0.0000093

39 Basic Chemical Manufacturing 0.0678030 0.0323065 0.0040514

40 Cleaning Compounds and Toiletry Preparation Manufacturing 0.0031757 0.0047484 0.0002061

41 Polymer Product Manufacturing 0.1378117 0.1202162 0.0066684

42 Natural Rubber Product Manufacturing 0.0012516 0.0014455 0.0000734

43 Glass and Glass Product Manufacturing 0.0647663 0.0456143 0.0041907

44 Ceramic Product Manufacturing 0.1132646 0.0280761 0.0043780

45 Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed Concrete Manufacturing 0.2724145 0.1954092 0.0225287

46 Plaster and Concrete Product Manufacturing 0.1206845 0.0792807 0.0081029

47 Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product Manufacturing 0.0544483 0.0361929 0.0038423

48 Iron and Steel Manufacturing 0.2331234 0.1746250 0.0094326

49 Basic Non-Ferrous Metal Manufacturing 0.0454729 0.0293306 0.0023140

50 Forged Iron and Steel Product Manufacturing 0.0014933 0.0016594 0.0000999

51 Structural Metal Product Manufacturing 0.3045755 0.3024790 0.0198991

52 Metal Containers and Other Sheet Metal Product manufacturing 0.0412651 0.0354225 0.0027069

283
 Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

53 Other Fabricated Metal Product manufacturing 0.1095553 0.1076212 0.0069157

54 Motor Vehicles and Parts; Other Transport Equipment manufacturing 0.0095718 0.0120555 0.0006375

55 Ships and Boat Manufacturing 0.0032976 0.0037485 0.0002167

56 Railway Rolling Stock Manufacturing 0.0008821 0.0008736 0.0000555

57 Aircraft Manufacturing 0.0009992 0.0009342 0.0000653

58 Professional, Scientific, Computer and Electronic Equipment Manufacturing 0.0109168 0.0119717 0.0007063

59 Electrical Equipment Manufacturing 0.0421445 0.0380720 0.0030283

60 Domestic Appliance Manufacturing 0.0029536 0.0026518 0.0002099

61 Specialised and other Machinery and Equipment Manufacturing 0.0139677 0.0152615 0.0009190

62 Furniture Manufacturing 0.0407768 0.0522756 0.0026604

63 Other Manufactured Products 0.0105764 0.0107157 0.0007031

64 Electricity Generation 0.0482962 0.0080791 0.0055218

65 Electricity Transmission, Distribution, On Selling and Electricity Market Operation 0.0039271 0.0057575 0.0002443

66 Gas Supply 0.0000668 0.0000977 0.0000190

67 Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Services 0.0498208 1.1165677 0.0043698

68 Waste Collection, Treatment and Disposal Services 0.0041877 0.0045099 0.0024568

69 Residential Building Construction 0.1946543 0.2896918 0.0113046

70 Non-Residential Building Construction 0.0678650 0.0789833 0.0041749

71 Heavy and Civil Engineering Construction 0.0560663 0.0651827 0.0034558

72 Construction Services 1.5659312 1.9625026 0.0919260

73 Wholesale Trade 0.1503792 0.1721175 0.0083571

74 Retail Trade 0.0301791 0.0637228 0.0024561

75 Accommodation 0.0020710 0.0059760 0.0001760

76 Food and Beverage Services 0.0045678 0.0219969 0.0004380

77 Road Transport 0.4550750 0.0983441 0.0157130

78 Rail Transport 0.0047050 0.0027222 0.0002980

79 Water, Pipeline and Other Transport 0.0118417 0.0054470 0.0006902

80 Air and Space Transport 0.0406952 0.0124557 0.0015111

81 Postal and Courier Pick-up and Delivery Service 0.0171183 0.0146495 0.0013242

82 Transport Support services and storage 0.0322240 0.0359641 0.0021175

83 Publishing (except Internet and Music Publishing) 0.0021243 0.0029313 0.0001366

284
 Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

84 Motion Picture and Sound Recording 0.0000531 0.0000899 0.0000036

85 Broadcasting (except Internet) 0.0009387 0.0013451 0.0000636

Internet Service Providers, Internet Publishing, Websearch Portals & Data
86 Processing 0.0064128 0.0083750 0.0004531

87 Telecommunication Services 0.0325219 0.0405260 0.0020666

88 Library and Other Information Services 0.0000082 0.0000130 0.0000006

89 Finance 0.0120425 0.0160663 0.0008276

90 Insurance and Superannuation Funds 0.0053715 0.0081694 0.0003713

91 Auxiliary Finance and Insurance Services 0.0284881 0.0384547 0.0018418

93 Ownership of Dwellings Negligible Negligible Negligible

92 Rental and Hiring Services (except Real Estate) 0.0585431 0.1034641 0.0047873

94 Non-Residential Property Operators and Real Estate Services 0.0288659 0.0542319 0.0021709

95 Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 0.1003310 0.2105216 0.0069340

96 Computer Systems Design and Related Services 0.0028737 0.0037565 0.0002009

97 Employment, Travel Agency and Other Administrative Services 0.0131038 0.0293824 0.0009131

98 Building Cleaning, Pest Control and Other Support Services 0.0100651 0.0244221 0.0007021

99 Public Administration and Regulatory Services 0.0265776 0.0302545 0.0020831

100 Defence 0.0006204 0.0006440 0.0000306

101 Public Order and Safety 0.0064367 0.0103837 0.0003579

102 Primary and Secondary Education Services (incl Pre-Schools and Special Schools) 0.0000018 0.0000028 0.0000001
Technical, Vocational & Tertiary Education Services (incl undergraduate &
103 postgraduate) 0.0016684 0.0027816 0.0001134

104 Arts, Sports, Adult and Other Education Services (incl community education) 0.0003477 0.0005354 0.0000251

105 Health Care Services 0.0001348 0.0002617 0.0000092

106 Residential Care and Social Assistance Services 0.0000656 0.0001434 0.0000045

107 Heritage, Creative and Performing Arts 0.0004775 0.0009809 0.0000331

108 Sports and Recreation 0.0025837 0.0084072 0.0001818

109 Gambling 0.0003182 0.0007031 0.0000221

110 Automotive Repair and Maintenance 0.0080253 0.0096298 0.0004733

111 Other Repair and Maintenance 0.0185704 0.0233443 0.0011591

112 Personal Services 0.0007105 0.0014359 0.0000455

113 Other Services Negligible 0.0082897 0.0002070

285
 70 Non-Residential Building Construction

Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

0 Sheep, Grains, Beef and Dairy Cattle 0.0004873 0.0113578 0.0001532

1 Poultry and Other Livestock 0.0000661 0.0005340 0.0000095

2 Other Agriculture 0.0069956 0.2183394 0.0005595

3 Aquaculture 0.0000170 0.0000223 0.0000008

4 Forestry and Logging 0.0010836 0.0038031 0.0000411

5 Fishing, hunting and trapping 0.0004771 0.0009064 0.0000244

6 Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Support Services 0.0004048 0.0059220 0.0000340

7 Coal mining 0.0178723 0.0202242 0.0022640

8 Oil and gas extraction 0.0324900 0.0235662 0.0036938

9 Iron Ore Mining 0.0070918 0.0097623 0.0004981

10 Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining 0.0210733 0.0326172 0.0015827

11 Non Metallic Mineral Mining 0.0244910 0.0484122 0.0019975

12 Exploration and Mining Support Services 0.0129630 0.0167923 0.0013232

13 Meat and Meat product Manufacturing 0.0022528 0.0256558 0.0003911

14 Processed Seafood Manufacturing 0.0003874 0.0006141 0.0000219

15 Dairy Product Manufacturing 0.0026722 0.0281539 0.0004402

16 Fruit and Vegetable Product Manufacturing 0.0005262 0.0043673 0.0000373

17 Oils and Fats Manufacturing 0.0000378 0.0002207 0.0000040

18 Grain Mill and Cereal Product Manufacturing 0.0005472 0.0046992 0.0000746

19 Bakery Product Manufacturing 0.0004331 0.0021815 0.0000354

20 Sugar and Confectionery Manufacturing 0.0014672 0.0106873 0.0001248

21 Other Food Product Manufacturing 0.0015679 0.0094608 0.0001318

22 Soft Drinks, Cordials and Syrup Manufacturing 0.0002372 0.0006162 0.0000144

23 Beer Manufacturing 0.0000321 0.0002062 0.0000033

24 Wine, Spirits and Tobacco 0.0011512 0.0079519 0.0000858

25 Textile Manufacturing 0.0014185 0.0097865 0.0001840

26 Tanned Leather, Dressed Fur and Leather Product Manufacturing 0.0009219 0.0058189 0.0001107

286
 Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

27 Textile Product Manufacturing 0.0143388 0.1167550 0.0021427

28 Knitted Product Manufacturing 0.0000349 0.0000464 0.0000036

29 Clothing Manufacturing 0.0018792 0.0033824 0.0001668

30 Footwear Manufacturing 0.0006681 0.0001501 0.0000123

31 Sawmill Product Manufacturing 0.0276655 0.0455810 0.0011449

32 Other Wood Product Manufacturing 0.1282198 0.1433249 0.0063513

33 Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Manufacturing 0.0052401 0.0087892 0.0003045

34 Paper Stationery and Other Converted Paper Product Manufacturing 0.0119079 0.0171820 0.0007507

35 Printing (including the reproduction of recorded media) 0.0078026 0.0073926 0.0005089

36 Petroleum and Coal Product Manufacturing 0.2055839 0.0530658 0.0075093

37 Human Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing 0.0065450 0.0131290 0.0004869

38 Veterinary Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing 0.0001858 0.0018127 0.0000308

39 Basic Chemical Manufacturing 0.3137791 0.1495081 0.0187492

40 Cleaning Compounds and Toiletry Preparation Manufacturing 0.0038269 0.0057220 0.0002483

41 Polymer Product Manufacturing 0.1120875 0.0977764 0.0054236

42 Natural Rubber Product Manufacturing 0.0083021 0.0095879 0.0004872

43 Glass and Glass Product Manufacturing 0.0514569 0.0362406 0.0033295

44 Ceramic Product Manufacturing 0.0164479 0.0040771 0.0006358

45 Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed Concrete Manufacturing 0.3008264 0.2157897 0.0248784

46 Plaster and Concrete Product Manufacturing 0.1389437 0.0912756 0.0093289

47 Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product Manufacturing 0.0407421 0.0270821 0.0028751

48 Iron and Steel Manufacturing 0.1664847 0.1247082 0.0067363

49 Basic Non-Ferrous Metal Manufacturing 0.0420792 0.0271416 0.0021413

50 Forged Iron and Steel Product Manufacturing 0.0028138 0.0031267 0.0001882

51 Structural Metal Product Manufacturing 0.1787552 0.1775248 0.0116788

52 Metal Containers and Other Sheet Metal Product manufacturing 0.0223201 0.0191598 0.0014641

53 Other Fabricated Metal Product manufacturing 0.0541454 0.0531895 0.0034179

54 Motor Vehicles and Parts; Other Transport Equipment manufacturing 0.0116787 0.0147091 0.0007778

55 Ships and Boat Manufacturing 0.0023652 0.0026887 0.0001555

56 Railway Rolling Stock Manufacturing 0.0007013 0.0006946 0.0000441

287
 Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

57 Aircraft Manufacturing 0.0007336 0.0006858 0.0000480

58 Professional, Scientific, Computer and Electronic Equipment Manufacturing 0.0153180 0.0167982 0.0009911

59 Electrical Equipment Manufacturing 0.0864290 0.0780772 0.0062104

60 Domestic Appliance Manufacturing 0.0021963 0.0019719 0.0001561

61 Specialised and other Machinery and Equipment Manufacturing 0.0294103 0.0321347 0.0019350

62 Furniture Manufacturing 0.0215544 0.0276326 0.0014063

63 Other Manufactured Products 0.0079362 0.0080407 0.0005276

64 Electricity Generation 0.1169736 0.0195677 0.0133738

65 Electricity Transmission, Distribution, On Selling and Electricity Market Operation 0.0096651 0.0141698 0.0006013

66 Gas Supply 0.0000497 0.0000727 0.0000141

67 Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Services 0.0082714 0.1853764 0.0007255

68 Waste Collection, Treatment and Disposal Services 0.0024343 0.0026216 0.0014281

69 Residential Building Construction 0.2359910 0.3512105 0.0137052

70 Non-Residential Building Construction 0.0812253 0.0945324 0.0049968

71 Heavy and Civil Engineering Construction 0.0669122 0.0777920 0.0041243

72 Construction Services 1.9057583 2.3883906 0.1118752

73 Wholesale Trade 0.1307750 0.1496794 0.0072676

74 Retail Trade 0.0211339 0.0446240 0.0017200

75 Accommodation 0.0007566 0.0021833 0.0000643

76 Food and Beverage Services 0.0029131 0.0140284 0.0002793

77 Road Transport 0.2960703 0.0639823 0.0102228

78 Rail Transport 0.0042141 0.0024382 0.0002669

79 Water, Pipeline and Other Transport 0.0084707 0.0038964 0.0004937

80 Air and Space Transport 0.0268909 0.0082306 0.0009985

81 Postal and Courier Pick-up and Delivery Service 0.0092651 0.0079289 0.0007167

82 Transport Support services and storage 0.0539004 0.0601564 0.0035419

83 Publishing (except Internet and Music Publishing) 0.0024044 0.0033178 0.0001547

84 Motion Picture and Sound Recording 0.0000446 0.0000755 0.0000030

85 Broadcasting (except Internet) 0.0004355 0.0006241 0.0000295

Internet Service Providers, Internet Publishing, Websearch Portals & Data
86 Processing 0.0032536 0.0042492 0.0002299

288
 Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

87 Telecommunication Services 0.0325393 0.0405476 0.0020677

88 Library and Other Information Services 0.0000078 0.0000123 0.0000005

89 Finance 0.0102832 0.0137191 0.0007067

90 Insurance and Superannuation Funds 0.0055122 0.0083834 0.0003810

91 Auxiliary Finance and Insurance Services 0.0204037 0.0275421 0.0013191

92 Rental and Hiring Services (except Real Estate) 0.0511099 0.0903273 0.0041794

93 Ownership of Dwellings Negligible Negligible Negligible

94 Non-Residential Property Operators and Real Estate Services 0.0106668 0.0200403 0.0008022

95 Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 0.1126087 0.2362835 0.0077825

96 Computer Systems Design and Related Services 0.0020956 0.0027393 0.0001465

97 Employment, Travel Agency and Other Administrative Services 0.0074504 0.0167059 0.0005192

98 Building Cleaning, Pest Control and Other Support Services 0.0086661 0.0210275 0.0006045

99 Public Administration and Regulatory Services 0.0224448 0.0255499 0.0017592

100 Defence 0.0006849 0.0007110 0.0000338

101 Public Order and Safety 0.0079395 0.0128079 0.0004414

102 Primary and Secondary Education Services (incl Pre-Schools and Special Schools) Negligible Negligible Negligible
Technical, Vocational & Tertiary Education Services (incl undergraduate &
103 postgraduate) 0.0010766 0.0017949 0.0000732

104 Arts, Sports, Adult and Other Education Services (incl community education) 0.0004293 0.0006609 0.0000310

105 Health Care Services 0.0003265 0.0006342 0.0000223

106 Residential Care and Social Assistance Services 0.0000726 0.0001585 0.0000050

107 Heritage, Creative and Performing Arts 0.0000524 0.0001076 0.0000036

108 Sports and Recreation 0.0020961 0.0068204 0.0001475

109 Gambling 0.0002676 0.0005913 0.0000185

110 Automotive Repair and Maintenance 0.0022753 0.0027302 0.0001342

111 Other Repair and Maintenance 0.0041709 0.0052432 0.0002603

112 Personal Services 0.0014186 0.0028669 0.0000908

113 Other Services 0.0021552 0.0069184 0.0001728

289
 71 Heavy and Civil Engineering Construction

Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

0 Sheep, Grains, Beef and Dairy Cattle 0.0002625 0.0061181 0.0000826

1 Poultry and Other Livestock 0.0000429 0.0003466 0.0000061

2 Other Agriculture 0.0024952 0.0778789 0.0001996

3 Aquaculture 0.0000321 0.0000422 0.0000015

4 Forestry and Logging 0.0019402 0.0068095 0.0000735

5 Fishing, hunting and trapping 0.0008853 0.0016820 0.0000454

6 Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Support Services 0.0008263 0.0120868 0.0000694

7 Coal mining 0.0187255 0.0211896 0.0023720

8 Oil and gas extraction 0.0163074 0.0118284 0.0018540

9 Iron Ore Mining 0.0153758 0.0211655 0.0010798

10 Non Ferrous Metal Ore Mining 0.0155784 0.0241122 0.0011700

11 Non Metallic Mineral Mining 0.0197967 0.0391328 0.0016146

12 Exploration and Mining Support Services 0.0110720 0.0143427 0.0011302

13 Meat and Meat product Manufacturing 0.0028851 0.0328573 0.0005009

14 Processed Seafood Manufacturing 0.0002845 0.0004509 0.0000161

15 Dairy Product Manufacturing 0.0026038 0.0274336 0.0004289

16 Fruit and Vegetable Product Manufacturing 0.0005769 0.0047883 0.0000409

17 Oils and Fats Manufacturing 0.0000892 0.0005212 0.0000094

18 Grain Mill and Cereal Product Manufacturing 0.0005903 0.0050686 0.0000805

19 Bakery Product Manufacturing 0.0005634 0.0028377 0.0000460

20 Sugar and Confectionery Manufacturing 0.0012065 0.0087883 0.0001027

21 Other Food Product Manufacturing 0.0015685 0.0094643 0.0001318

22 Soft Drinks, Cordials and Syrup Manufacturing 0.0003821 0.0009928 0.0000232

23 Beer Manufacturing 0.0001750 0.0011257 0.0000183

24 Wine, Spirits and Tobacco 0.0010483 0.0072409 0.0000782

25 Textile Manufacturing 0.0010322 0.0071216 0.0001339

26 Tanned Leather, Dressed Fur and Leather Product Manufacturing 0.0016641 0.0105038 0.0001999

290
 Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

27 Textile Product Manufacturing 0.0062084 0.0505526 0.0009278

28 Knitted Product Manufacturing 0.0000331 0.0000440 0.0000035

29 Clothing Manufacturing 0.0014560 0.0026207 0.0001292

30 Footwear Manufacturing 0.0006890 0.0001548 0.0000127

31 Sawmill Product Manufacturing 0.0274332 0.0451982 0.0011353

32 Other Wood Product Manufacturing 0.0544346 0.0608474 0.0026964

33 Pulp, Paper and Paperboard Manufacturing 0.0164330 0.0275629 0.0009549

34 Paper Stationery and Other Converted Paper Product Manufacturing 0.0277997 0.0401123 0.0017525

35 Printing (including the reproduction of recorded media) 0.0194450 0.0184233 0.0012683

36 Petroleum and Coal Product Manufacturing 0.3026101 0.0781104 0.0110534

37 Human Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing 0.0055552 0.0111436 0.0004133

38 Veterinary Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Product Manufacturing 0.0001608 0.0015681 0.0000267

39 Basic Chemical Manufacturing 0.1635320 0.0779190 0.0097715

40 Cleaning Compounds and Toiletry Preparation Manufacturing 0.0027992 0.0041855 0.0001817

41 Polymer Product Manufacturing 0.1410815 0.1230685 0.0068266

42 Natural Rubber Product Manufacturing 0.0073905 0.0085352 0.0004337

43 Glass and Glass Product Manufacturing 0.0309353 0.0217874 0.0020017

44 Ceramic Product Manufacturing 0.0169710 0.0042068 0.0006560

45 Cement, Lime and Ready-Mixed Concrete Manufacturing 0.1644909 0.1179931 0.0136034

46 Plaster and Concrete Product Manufacturing 0.0400779 0.0263282 0.0026909

47 Other Non-Metallic Mineral Product Manufacturing 0.0452099 0.0300519 0.0031904

48 Iron and Steel Manufacturing 0.2403768 0.1800582 0.0097261

49 Basic Non-Ferrous Metal Manufacturing 0.0601173 0.0387764 0.0030592

50 Forged Iron and Steel Product Manufacturing 0.0029620 0.0032915 0.0001981

51 Structural Metal Product Manufacturing 0.2385798 0.2369377 0.0155874

52 Metal Containers and Other Sheet Metal Product manufacturing 0.0217554 0.0186751 0.0014271

53 Other Fabricated Metal Product manufacturing 0.0940808 0.0924199 0.0059388

54 Motor Vehicles and Parts; Other Transport Equipment manufacturing 0.0146842 0.0184946 0.0009780

55 Ships and Boat Manufacturing 0.0049115 0.0055832 0.0003228

56 Railway Rolling Stock Manufacturing 0.0119605 0.0118455 0.0007526

291
 Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

57 Aircraft Manufacturing 0.0014440 0.0013500 0.0000944

58 Professional, Scientific, Computer and Electronic Equipment Manufacturing 0.0160889 0.0176436 0.0010409

59 Electrical Equipment Manufacturing 0.0615905 0.0556389 0.0044256

60 Domestic Appliance Manufacturing 0.0019628 0.0017623 0.0001395

61 Specialised and other Machinery and Equipment Manufacturing 0.0278210 0.0303980 0.0018305

62 Furniture Manufacturing 0.0048606 0.0062312 0.0003171

63 Other Manufactured Products 0.0075622 0.0076617 0.0005028

64 Electricity Generation 0.1569214 0.0262503 0.0179411

65 Electricity Transmission, Distribution, On Selling and Electricity Market Operation 0.0068307 0.0100144 0.0004250

66 Gas Supply 0.0000568 0.0000831 0.0000162

67 Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage Services 0.0085325 0.1912274 0.0007484

68 Waste Collection, Treatment and Disposal Services 0.0063133 0.0067990 0.0037038

69 Residential Building Construction 0.1255584 0.1868606 0.0072918

70 Non-Residential Building Construction 0.0481626 0.0560531 0.0029628

71 Heavy and Civil Engineering Construction 0.0442160 0.0514055 0.0027254

72 Construction Services 0.9736347 1.2202072 0.0571560

73 Wholesale Trade 0.1180308 0.1350929 0.0065594

74 Retail Trade 0.0222198 0.0469167 0.0018084

75 Accommodation 0.0008550 0.0024671 0.0000727

76 Food and Beverage Services 0.0039397 0.0189724 0.0003778

77 Road Transport 0.2457934 0.0531172 0.0084869

78 Rail Transport 0.0069640 0.0040292 0.0004411

79 Water, Pipeline and Other Transport 0.0105942 0.0048731 0.0006175

80 Air and Space Transport 0.0339154 0.0103806 0.0012594

81 Postal and Courier Pick-up and Delivery Service 0.0101478 0.0086843 0.0007850

82 Transport Support services and storage 0.0733821 0.0818992 0.0048221

83 Publishing (except Internet and Music Publishing) 0.0031091 0.0042902 0.0002000

84 Motion Picture and Sound Recording 0.0000835 0.0001413 0.0000057

85 Broadcasting (except Internet) 0.0004337 0.0006215 0.0000294

Internet Service Providers, Internet Publishing, Websearch Portals & Data
86 Processing 0.0035342 0.0046156 0.0002497

292
 Total Environmental Flow Requirement

Energy Water Emissions

Economic Sector (MJ/A$) (L/A$) (kg CO2e/A$)

87 Telecommunication Services 0.0254721 0.0317411 0.0016186

88 Library and Other Information Services 0.0000167 0.0000264 0.0000011

89 Finance 0.0041714 0.0055652 0.0002867

90 Insurance and Superannuation Funds 0.0023590 0.0035878 0.0001631

91 Auxiliary Finance and Insurance Services 0.0093316 0.0125963 0.0006033

92 Rental and Hiring Services (except Real Estate) 0.0963159 0.1702206 0.0078761

93 Ownership of Dwellings Negligible Negligible Negligible

94 Non-Residential Property Operators and Real Estate Services 0.0053527 0.0100564 0.0004026

95 Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 0.2947441 0.6184527 0.0203702

96 Computer Systems Design and Related Services 0.0036841 0.0048158 0.0002576

97 Employment, Travel Agency and Other Administrative Services 0.0305001 0.0683898 0.0021254

98 Building Cleaning, Pest Control and Other Support Services 0.0103930 0.0252177 0.0007250

99 Public Administration and Regulatory Services 0.0220452 0.0250951 0.0017279

100 Defence 0.0017773 0.0018452 0.0000876

101 Public Order and Safety 0.0071849 0.0115906 0.0003995

102 Primary and Secondary Education Services (incl Pre-Schools and Special Schools) Negligible Negligible Negligible
Technical, Vocational & Tertiary Education Services (incl undergraduate &
103 postgraduate) 0.0022212 0.0037032 0.0001509

104 Arts, Sports, Adult and Other Education Services (incl community education) 0.0005501 0.0008469 0.0000397

105 Health Care Services 0.0006065 0.0011780 0.0000415

106 Residential Care and Social Assistance Services 0.0001884 0.0004116 0.0000130

107 Heritage, Creative and Performing Arts 0.0000579 0.0001189 0.0000040

108 Sports and Recreation 0.0022939 0.0074641 0.0001614

109 Gambling 0.0005221 0.0011537 0.0000362

110 Automotive Repair and Maintenance 0.0068692 0.0082425 0.0004052

111 Other Repair and Maintenance 0.0123512 0.0155263 0.0007709

112 Personal Services 0.0026264 0.0053080 0.0001682

113 Other Services 0.0020449 0.0065641 0.0001639

293
Improving Environmental Performance in Construction

The EPiC Database contains environmental flow coefficients for a broad range of
construction materials and products. Developed using complete, transparent and
consistent methods, the EPiC coefficients can be used to assess the embodied
energy, water and greenhouse gas emissions of construction projects, assisting
with design, construction and whole of life decision-making.

The EPiC Database is the result of a four-year multi-institutional research project

funded by the Australian Government, and led by internationally recognised
experts in modelling embodied environmental flows. Their combined 40+ years
of experience in the field is testimony to their commitment to improving the
environmental performance of construction.