EEE 51101 -

Computers
Networks

Lecture
2
 Network Protocols
 In today’s networks, it is possible for
different types of computers to
communicate.
 Macs, PCs, and mainframes can all share
devices, data, and information, as long as
they all speak the same language, or
protocol.
 Protocol - a set of rules, or an agreement,
that determines the format and
transmission of data.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 2

 Network Growing Pains
 Emerging network technologies were built
using different kinds of hardware and
software.
 Many of the new network technologies were
incompatible.

Hardware Hardware
& &
Software Software

IOS Windows
EEE51101 – Computers Networks 3
 Towards Standardization
 To address the problem, the
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) researched
leading networks schemes.
 The ISO recognized there was a need to
create a network model that would help
vendors create networks that would
work compatibly with other networks.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 4

 The ISO’s Standard
 ISO is an International standards organisation
responsible for a wide range of standards,
including many that are relevant to
networking.
 In 1984 in order to aid network
interconnection without necessarily requiring
complete redesign, the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model was
approved as an international standard for
communications architecture.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 5

 The OSI Model
 It is now considered the primary Architectural
model for inter-computer communications.
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model is a descriptive network
scheme. It ensures greater compatibility and
interoperability between various types of
network technologies.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 6

 The OSI Model
 The OSI model describes how information or
data makes its way from application programmes
(such as spreadsheets) through a network
medium (such as wire) to another application
programme located on another network.
 The OSI reference model divides the problem
of moving information between computers over a
network medium into SEVEN smaller and more
manageable problems .
 This separation into smaller more manageable
functions is known as layering.
EEE51101 – Computers Networks 7
 Layered Task
 We use the concept of layers in our daily
life.
 As an example, let us consider two
friends who communicate through
postal mail. The process of sending a
letter to a friend would be complex if
there were no services available from
the post office

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 8

 Tasks involved in sending Letter…

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 9

 Network Protocols Analogy

virtual communication

Interface Interface

virtual communication

Interface Interface

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 10

 Why?! … A Layered Network Model
 The OSI Reference Model is composed of seven
layers, each specifying particular network
functions.
 The process of breaking up the functions or
tasks of networking into layers reduces
complexity.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer
above it in the protocol specification.
 Each layer communicates with the same
layer’s software or hardware on other
computers.
EEE51101 – Computers Networks 11
 Note:

The Open Systems

Interconnection (OSI) model
is a theoretical model that shows
how any two different systems
can communicate with each other.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 12

 OSI Model

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 13

 Way to Remember:
All Application
People Presentation
Seem Session
To Transport
Need Network
Data Data Link
Processing Physical

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 14

 Conceptual path of data

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 15

 Protocols in a layered architecture
 Network communication is possible only if
machines speaking the same languages
(protocols)
 Since each layer work independently, each layer
speaks different languages (protocols)
 Lead to the concept of a Protocol Stack
 Network communication is possible only if the
Protocol Stacks on two machines are the same
 To identify the language (protocol) of each layer,
identifier (header and trailer) are added to data

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 16

 Flow of data in the OSI model

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 17

 Layer 7: The Application Layer
 The application layer is the OSI layer that is
closest to the user.
 It is responsible for providing services to the user.
 It provides network services to the user’s
applications.
 It differs from the other layers in that it does not
provide services to any other OSI layer, but rather,
only to applications outside the OSI model.
 Examples of such applications are spreadsheet
programs, word processing programs, and bank
terminal programs.
EEE51101 – Computers Networks 18
 Examples of Application layer Protocols

 The most traditional network task

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

 Hyper-Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

Client Server
PictureTel

PictureTel

Network

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 19 19

 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
 The presentation layer ensures that the
information sent out by the application layer of
one system is readable by the application layer of
another system.
 It is responsible for translation, compression, and
encryption.
 It deals with the fact that different systems use
different coding methods.
 Compress and decompress data
 Encrypt and decrypt data
 Examples :-JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, HTML.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 20

 Layer 5: The Session Layer
The session layer defines how to start, control
and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.

It coordinates communication between

systems and serves to organize their
communication by offering three different
modes: simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 21

 Types of data communication

 Simplex Communication System

 Half–Duplex Communication System

 Full-Duplex Communication System

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 22

 Simplex Communication System

 Communication is possible only in one direction (

TV. And Radio ).
 Data is transmitted from the sender to receiver
only. The communication can only take place in one
direction and it is not possible for the receiver to
send data back.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 23

Half–Duplex Communication System
 A half-duplex (HDX) system provides
communication in both directions, but only one
direction at a time (not simultaneously). Ex: PTT
(Push to talk)

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 24

Full– Duplex Communication System

 A full-duplex (FDX), or sometimes double-duplex

system, allows communication in both directions,
and, unlike half-duplex, allows this to happen
simultaneously.
 EX: land telephone line. since they allow both callers
to speak and be heard at the same time.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 25

 How a session is established
Creating a connection – session/communication
session between an APPLICATION in one computer
and another APPLICATION in another computer
 THREE-WAY-HANDSHAKE: a method widely used to
establish and end connection
Sender sends SYN message to request a session to the
receiver
Receiver replies by sending ACK message to acknowledge
the SYN message sent by the sender, and SYN message to
request a session to the sender
Sender replies by sending ACK message to acknowledge
the SYN message sent by the receiver

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 26

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 27
 Example
 Managing multiple sessions
 A computer can establish multiple sessions with
several other computers
e.g., session 1: exchanging information over the
World Wide Web with www.yahoo.com
session 2: exchanging information over the
World Wide Web with www.google.com
session 3: exchanging information over the
World Wide Web with www.espn.com

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 28

 A computer can establish multiple
sessions with several other computers

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 29

 Ending a session
 THREE-WAY-HANDSHAKE: a method widely used
to establish and end connection
Sender sends FIN message to close a session to
the receiver
Receiver replies by sending ACK message to
acknowledge the FIN message sent by the
sender, and FIN message to close a session to
the sender
Sender replies by sending ACK message to
acknowledge the FIN message sent by the
receiver

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 30

 Layer 4: The Transport Layer
 The transport layer is responsible for source-to-
destination delivery of the entire message.
 The transport layer is responsible for breaking the
entire message into several packets and deliver
them to the network layer.
 The transport layer is responsible for ensuring
that the whole message is transmitted.
 If packets arrive out of order, they must be
reorganized.
 The transport layer segments data from the
sending host's system and reassembles the data
into a data stream on the receiving host's system.
EEE51101 – Computers Networks 31
 Transport Layer Cont..
Ensure packets are delivered error free, in
sequence

Sending

1 2 3

Example protocols: TCP, UDP

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 32
 Layer 3: The Network Layer
 Logical address to physical address translation
 Logical address: IP address: 158.132.148.99
 Physical address: Ethernet address: 00:00:E2:15:1A:CA
 Determine the route from source to destination
computer/ Defines how routing works and how
routes are learned so that the packets can be
delivered.
 The network layer is responsible for the delivery of
individual packets from the source host to the
destination host.
 Routers operate at layer 3.
 Example protocols: IP, IPX, AppleTalk

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 33

 The network layer is responsible for
the delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
EEE51101 – Computers Networks 34
 Layer 2: The Data Link Layer
 The data-link layer organizes bits into logical units
called frames.
 The data link layer provides reliable transit of data
across a physical link by using the Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses.
 The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a
hardware or data link address in order for multiple
stations to share the same medium and still uniquely
identify each other.
 Concerned with network topology, network access,
error notification, ordered delivery of frames.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 35

 Data Link Layer Cont…
Make data frames

Example protocols: Ethernet, Frame Relay

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 36

 Error Detection
 Data link layers also include mechanisms to detect
transmission errors.
 For a receiver to detect transmission error, the sender
must add redundant information (in the form of bits) as
an error detection code to the frame sent.
 When the receiver obtains a frame with an error
detection code it re-computes it and verifies whether the
received error detection code matches the computer
error detection code. If they match the frame is
considered to be valid.
 The simplest error detection code is the parity bit.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 37

 Example
 Say we want to transmit the word 'HELLO'. To keep
things simple we will change each letter in the
alphabet as its position in the alphabet. Thus, the
letter A is coded as 1, B as 2, and so on:

 Adding the digits 8 + 5 + 12 + 12 + 15 = 52. Then we

add 5 + 2 = 7. We then transmit:

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 38

  If there are no errors, the receiver will get 8 5 12 12 15
7. The receiver knows that the last number received is
the error-detecting data and that all data before is the
message.
 It can recalculate the above math and if it comes to the
same data answer, it can be concluded that the data was
received without errors.
 If it receives something like 7 5 12 12 15 it can run the
check by: 7 + 5 + 12 + 12 + 15 = 51 and 5 + 1 = 6, Since 6
does not equal 7 the receiver can discard the received
data as defective.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 39

 Layer 1: The Physical Layer
 Define how cable is attached to the Network Adapter
Card
• How many pins in the connector?
• The impedance?
• Max/min electrical voltage?
 Responsible for transmitting bits from one computer
to another

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 40

 Layer 1: The Physical Layer

The physical layer is responsible

for the movement of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.
EEE51101 – Computers Networks 41
 Physical layer Cont..
 What are the Physical Layer components on
my computer?

- NIC: Network Interface Card

- Cabling

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 42

 Ethernet Cable
The name, Ethernet
Cable, always refers
to the following
category:
 Category 5
 Category 5e
 Category 6
 Or more than those
categories.
EEE51101 – Computers Networks 43
 Category

Category Data Rate Signal Frequency

Cat5 100 Mbps 100 MHz
Cat5e 100 Mbps /1 Gbps 100 MHz
Cat6 1Gbps / 10 Gbps 250 MHz
Cat6a 1Gbps / 10 Gbps 500 MHz

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 44

 Straight Cable

 You usually use straight cable to connect

different type of devices. This type of
cable will be used most of the time and
can be used to:
- Connect a computer to a switch/hub's normal
port.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 45

 Crossover Cable

 you will use crossover cable to connect

same type of devices. A crossover cable
can be used to:
- Connect 2 computers directly.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 46

 Summary of OSI Layers

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 47

 The Internet Protocol
 All devices on the Internet “speak” the
same protocol: the Internet Protocol, or
IP.

 The Internet actually uses a group, or

suite, of protocols called TCP/IP which
includes HTTP.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 48

 The Internet Protocol

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 49

 TCP/IP Model
 The Internet Protocol Suite, TCP/IP, is a suite of
protocols used for communication over the internet.
 The TCP/IP model was created after the OSI 7 layer
model for two major reasons:
 First, the foundation of the Internet was built using the
TCP/IP suite and through the spread of the World Wide Web
and Internet, TCP/IP has been preferred.
 Second, a project researched by the Department of Defense
(DOD) consisted of creating the TCP/IP protocols. The DOD's
goal was to bring international standards which could not be
met by the OSI model. Since the DOD was the largest software
consumer and they preferred the TCP/IP suite, most vendors
used this model rather than the OSI.

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 50

 TCP/IP VS. OSI

EEE51101 – Computers Networks 51

EEE51101 -
Computers
Networks

thank you
for your
attention