Initial setting time: referred to as the time that is
CEMENT INDUSTRY measured from the instant water is added into the
cement up to the time it starts losing its plasticity.
Cement is a binder that sets, hardens, and binds Final setting time: referred to as the time that is
materials. It can be characterized as being either measured from the instant of water added into the
hydraulic or non-hydraulic, depending upon the ability of cement up to the time it completely loses its
the cement to be used in the presence of water. plasticity and sufficient firmness to resist definite
pressure.
Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or
underwater, rather it sets as it dries and reacts with
carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some
aggressive chemicals after setting.
Hydraulic cement is made by replacing some of the
cement in a mix with activated aluminum silicates,
pozzolanas, such as fly ash. The chemical reaction
results in hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so 8. Heat of Hydration: When water is added to cement
are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack. (hydration), it generates heat (exothermic reaction)
This allows setting in wet condition and further protects 9. Specific Gravity: ratio of cement density to water
the hardened material from chemical attack (e.g., density ~3.15 for Portland cement, others have 2.90
Portland cement). Cement is essential in building homes,
roads, bridges, dams, and skyscrapers Chemical Properties of Cement
Brief History 1. C₃A (Tricalcium Aluminate): low C₃A = sulphate
resistance. Hydrates quickly with high heat
The use of cementitious materials dates to ancient 2. C₃S (Tricalcium Silicate): Fast hydration &
civilizations: hardening. Provides early strength.
3. C₂S (Dicalcium Silicate): Slow hydration. Contributes
• Ancient Times (Pre-3000 BC): Early builders used to strength after 1 week.
mud, clay, and lime as binding materials. The 4. C₄AF (Ferrite): acts as a fluxing agent; lowers kiln
Egyptians used gypsum and lime mortars in the temperature from 3,000°F to 2,600°F
pyramids. 5. MgO (Magnesia): adds strength in small amounts;
• Roman Era (300 BC - 400 AD): The Romans excess causes unsoundness. Limited content: 6%.
developed hydraulic cement by mixing volcanic ash 6. SO₃ (Sulphur Trioxide): excess causes unsound
(pozzolana) with lime, creating durable structures like cement.
the Pantheon and aqueducts. 7. Fe₂O₃ (Iron Oxide): adds strength, hardness, and
• Middle Ages: Knowledge of hydraulic cement was lost, gray color.
and lime mortar dominated until the 18th century. 8. Alkalis (Na₂O, K₂O): high alkali content causes
• 18th-19th Century: John Smeaton rediscovered setting time issues
hydraulic lime in 1756, and Joseph Aspdin patented 9. Free Lime: may cause expansion if present in
Portland cement in 1824, named for its resemblance excess.
to Portland stone. 10. Silica Fume: boosts strength, abrasion, and bonding
• 1850s–1900s: The Invention of rotary kilns increased but delays setting time. Used in high-strength mixes
production efficiency. 11. Alumina: improves cold resistance, speeds setting,
• 1930s–Present: Introduction of blended cements but weakens strength.
using waste materials (e.g., fly ash, slag) to improve
sustainability. General Raw Materials
• 1980s to Now: Focus shifted to environmentally
friendly practices, reducing carbon emissions, and 1. Limestone (Calcium Carbonate, CaCO3): main
improving energy efficiency. source of calcium oxide (CaO); provides the bulk of
the clinker essential for forming C₃S and C₂S
Physical Properties of Cement 2. Clay or Shale: source of silica (SiO₂), alumina
(Al₂O₃), and iron oxide (Fe₂O₃)
1. Fineness: size of the particles of the cement; achieved Silica: Combines with CaO to form C₃S and C₂S
by grinding clinker. Higher fineness increases the (provides strength).
hydration rate. Alumina & Iron oxide: Help lower the melting
2. Soundness: indicates resistance to volume change temperature during clinker formation
after setting, preventing expansion caused by excess 3. Sand and Iron Ore (Optional Additives): balances the
free lime and magnesia. It is to check if cement will raw mix to get the right chemical composition.
expand or shrink, helping to prevent cracks in Sand: Balances silica content for proper chemical
buildings. composition.
3. Consistency: describes the cement paste's ability to Iron ore: additional iron oxide (Fe₂O₃). Regulates
flow; critical for mixing. cement color and chemical reactions.
4. Bulk Density: gives an idea of storage space, varies Fly Ash: By-product from coal power plants, reduces
between 62-78 lb/ft3 need for clinker and enhances sustainability.
5. Compressive Strength: how much load a cement cube Slag: Steel industry by-product, used similarly to fly
can handle without failing; most common strength test ash to reduce environmental impact.
(50mm specimen loaded in 20–80 sec). 4. Gypsum: added during grinding of clinker (about 3–
6. Flexural Strength: measures tensile strength in 5%); acts as a setting time regulator, preventing the
bending (40×40×160 mm beam test). cement from setting too quickly when water is added.
7. Setting Time: initial setting should not be too quick,
and final setting not be too slow and it is tested to
check its deterioration due to storage.
Manufacturing Process roads and suitable for cold weather construction or
when early strength is needed.
1. Quarrying and Preparing the Raw Materials: The raw 6. White Cement: Made with raw materials low in
ingredients obtained through quarrying are iron and manganese. It is effective for decorative
transported to the cement factory for further works as well as prestige construction projects,
processing after extraction. such as tile grouts.
7. High Alumina Cement: made from bauxite and
2. Crushing and Grinding: The extracted raw materials limestone, a rapid-hardening material with strong
are reduced in size using jaw crushers, impact resistance to chemical attack. Used for structures
crushers, or cone crushers. They are then mixed in a subjected to the action of seawater, chemical
ball or tube mill in precise ratios, further ground into a
plant, and furnaces.
fine powder with a uniform composition.
8. Masonry Cement: a type of cement designed for
3. Mixing and Blending: to ensure uniform chemical use in the construction of brick, block, and stone
composition and consistent cement quality, the ground structures. Formulated for use in masonry mortar
raw materials are blended in a homogenizing silo or and stucco.
blending bed. 9. Hydrophobic Cement: made water-repellent by
adding special reagents like stearic acid, oleic
4. Heating: as the raw mix passes through preheater acid, or calcium stearate, which coat the cement
cyclones, hot gases from kiln combustion raise its particles and prevent moisture absorption.
temperature to 800–1000°C. This removes chemically 10. Oil Well Cement: seals the space between the
bound moisture. well casing and the surrounding rock formations,
preventing fluid leaks, gas migration, and well
5. Burning and Calcination: The fine powder is now collapse in oil and gas drilling operations.
heated at 1300°C - 1450°C in the kiln where it
undergoes calcination, forming clinker nodules by Tests on Cement
converting carbonates to oxides. 1. Fineness test (Sieve method)
2. Standard Consistency test (Vicat’s apparatus)
6. Cooling and Milling: The clinker nodules are quickly 3. Initial setting time test (Vicat’s apparatus)
cooled with air. To regulate the cement's setting time, 4. Final setting time test (Vicat’s apparatus)
the cooled clinker is ground into a fine powder in ball
5. Comparative strength test (Vicat’s apparatus)
or tube mills with a tiny quantity of gypsum (about 3–
5%). 6. Tensile strength test (Standard briquettes test)
7. Soundness test (Le Chatelier’s apparatus)
7. Storage and Packaging: until it's time for distribution
and packaging, the finished cement product is kept in
silos. Bags or bulk containers may be used for
packaging, based on the needs of the consumer and
the mode of transportation.
Major Products
1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): the most common
type of cement used for general concrete construction.
Used in buildings, pavements, and bridges
2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC): a type of blended
cement comprising Portland clinker, pozzolana
particles, and gypsum. Useful in general construction
work and is suitable in aggressive environmental
conditions such as in dams, dykes, and sewage pipes.
3. Sulphate Resisting Cement (SRC): a special type of
hydraulic cement in building construction used to
withstand the corrosive effects of sulphates in water.
Used in sewage treatment plants.
4. Blast Furnace Slag Cement: generally used in
seawater work, like in sea walls, concrete pipes
exposed to aggressive groundwater, or in chemical
plants.
5. Rapid-Hardening Cement: used specially for repairs
and allows for quicker formwork removal and early
traffic access. It is mostly used in the construction of
