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Weschler’s Memory Scale-IV

INTRODUCTION:

Memory:

Memory is the mental process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. It enables

individuals to retain past experiences, learn from them, and apply that knowledge to present

and future situations. Memory is essential for cognitive functions such as thinking, reasoning,

problem-solving, and decision-making.

Modal Model of Memory:

One of the most influential frameworks for understanding human memory is the Atkinson-

Shiffrin Multi-Store Model (1968), also known as the Modal model of memory. This model

conceptualizes memory as a system composed of three distinct but interrelated stores:

Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory (STM), and Long-Term Memory (LTM).

1. Sensory Memory

Sensory memory is the initial stage where sensory information from the environment is

briefly registered. It has a large capacity but an extremely short duration (milliseconds to a

few seconds). If attention is paid to the information, it proceeds to short-term memory;

otherwise, it fades rapidly.

I. Iconic memory: Visual input which lasts for <1 second.

II. Echoic memory: Auditory input which lasts for ~3–4 second.

2. Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory holds information temporarily for immediate processing and

manipulation. It has a limited capacity (approximately 7 ± 2 items) and a short duration of

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around 15–30 seconds. Information in short-term memory is retained through rehearsal, and

without it, the content is quickly lost.

I. Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

II. Elaborative rehearsal: Linking new information to existing knowledge, aiding transfer

to long-term memory.

3. Long-Term Memory

Long-term memory represents the final store, characterized by potentially unlimited capacity

and long-lasting duration. Information encoded into long-term memory can be retrieved when

needed, although retrieval may sometimes be effortful or influenced by interference.

I. Declarative memory (Explicit): Facts and events

II. Non-declarative memory (Implicit): Skills and procedures

Working Memory:

The Working Memory Model, proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974, is a cognitive

framework that redefined the earlier concept of short-term memory as a dynamic and multi

component system responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of information

necessary for complex tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension.

Unlike earlier linear models, working memory is conceptualized as an active workspace

consisting of four main components: the central executive, which functions as the attentional

control system; the phonological loop, which processes auditory and verbal material; the

visuo-spatial sketchpad, which handles visual and spatial information; and the later-added

episodic buffer, which integrates data across domains and links working memory with long-

term memory. This model has been instrumental in explaining how we hold and work with
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information simultaneously, and it has substantial empirical support from both cognitive

experiments and neuroimaging studies.(Ciccarelli & White, 2015; Feldman, 2015)

Weschler’s Memory Scale (WMS):

The Wechsler Memory Scale is one of the most widely used standardized tools for assessing

different aspects of human memory functioning. Developed by David Wechsler in 1945, the

WMS was designed to evaluate memory abilities in a more comprehensive and clinically

relevant manner than earlier intelligence tests, reflecting Wechsler’s view that memory was a

crucial component of overall intelligence.

Historical development and revisions of scale:

Over the years, the WMS has undergone several major revisions to enhance its clinical utility

and psychometric robustness. The original version, WMS-I, was followed by the WMS-R in

1987, which expanded the subtest range and improved reliability. The WMS-III, released in

1997, aligned more closely with cognitive theories by including components of working

memory and delayed recall, along with age-based norms.

The WMS-IV was developed as a revision of the WMS-III in 2009 with several key

improvements. It introduced a Brief Cognitive Status Exam to assess cognitive difficulties

potentially indicative of conditions like dementia or other cognitive impairments. The

revision also resulted in two separate test batteries: one for adults (ages 16-69) and another

for older adults (ages 65-90). These changes were made to reduce testing time, minimize

examinee fatigue, and enhance the psychometric performance of subtests for older

populations. The older adult battery eliminated the need for manipulatives, making the kit

more portable. Additionally, individuals aged 65-69 can be administered either battery.

During development, it was found that memory performance declined during lengthy testing

sessions, so the WMS-IV was designed to be more efficient. Furthermore, to ensure the
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WAIS-IV and WMS-IV didn't assess memory in the same way, certain subtests, such as the

Digit Span and Letter-Number Sequencing tasks, were removed from the WMS-IV. While

the WAIS-IV focuses on auditory working memory, the WMS-IV emphasizes visual working

memory.

Standardization:

The WMS-IV was co-normed with the WAIS-IV, with data collection continuing beyond the

completion of the WAIS-IV. The standardization process involved 1,400 examinees, of

which 900 completed the adult battery, and 500 completed the older adult battery. Both

groups had an equal number of male and female participants, though the older age group had

more females than males. The sample was stratified by race/ethnicity according to the 2005

Census and by education level, categorized into five groups: 0-8 years, 9-11 years, 12 years,

13-15 years, and 16 or more years.

Test Structure of WMS-IV:

The WMS-IV is organized into five key index scores and includes a Brief Cognitive Status

Exam to assess cognitive function. The index scores provide a comprehensive measure of

different memory components:

Five Index Scores:

I. Auditory Memory Index (AMI): Assesses the ability to recall auditory (verbal)

information both immediately and after a delay.

II. Visual Memory Index (VMI): Measures the ability to recall visual (non-verbal)

information, focusing on memory for designs and visual stimuli.

III. Visual Working Memory Index (VWMI): Evaluates the ability to retain and

manipulate visual information in working memory.

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IV. Immediate Memory Index (IMI): Measures the immediate recall of information, both

auditory and visual, without a delay.

V. Delayed Memory Index (DMI): Assesses memory performance following a delay,

measuring both verbal and visual memory after a certain time period.

In addition to these index scores, the Brief Cognitive Status Exam is included to screen for

potential cognitive impairments that may indicate conditions such as dementia.

Seven Subtests:

I. Brief cognitive examination

II. Logical Memory: Evaluates immediate and delayed recall of a short story, testing

verbal memory.

III. Verbal Paired Associates: Assesses the ability to recall paired words immediately and

after a delay, measuring associative verbal memory.

IV. Designs: A visual memory task that involves recalling and reproducing abstract visual

designs.

V. Visual Reproduction: Assesses the ability to reproduce geometric figures both

immediately and after a delay, focusing on visual memory.

VI. Spatial Addition: Tests the ability to mentally manipulate spatial information and

solve problems based on spatial relationships.

VII. Symbol Span: Measures visual working memory by asking the participant to repeat a

sequence of symbols presented in a particular order.

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PROBLEM:

To assess the five memory indices – Auditory memory, Visual memory, Visual Working

memory, Immediate memory and Delayed memory of the examinee using the Weschler’s

Memory Scale.

PLAN:

The WMS is administered on the examinee in one sitting and scored and interpreted based on

norms in the manual. The five memory indices are determined – Auditory memory, Visual

memory, Visual Working memory, Immediate memory and Delayed memory. The

examinee’s global cognitive functioning was also measured by the Brief Cognitive status

exam.

MATERIALS:

I. The WMS battery of tests

II. Response sheet

III. Scoring manual with norms

IV. Writing materials

V. Stop clock

PROCEDURE:

The subject was seated comfortably in a well-ventilated room. The WMS battery of tests was

conducted on the examinee. Each of the tests had specific instructions, timing and scoring,

which was followed according to the details in the administrative and scoring manual.

Brief Cognitive Status exam:

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This optional subtest assesses a variety of cognitive functions. The examinee performs simple

tasks in a number of different areas including: Orientation to time, Mental control, Clock

drawing, Incidental recall, Automatically and inhibitory control, and Verbal production.

Logical Memory

Assesses narrative memory:

Logical Memory I has two short stories which are presented orally. For older adults, one

story is presented twice. The examinee is asked to retell each story from memory

immediately after hearing it.

Logical Memory II - Examinee is asked to retell both stories and asked yes/no questions

about both stories after 20-30 minutes.

Verbal Paired associates:

Assesses verbal memory for associated word pairs.

Verbal Paired Associates I - Examiner reads 10- or 14-word pairs. Then examiner reads first

word of each pair, and asks examinee to provide the corresponding word.

Verbal Paired Associates II – After 20-30 minutes Examiner provides first word and

examinee provides corresponding word. The Examinee is read a list of word pairs and asked

to identify if the word pair is one, they already heard or a new word pair. During the optional

word recall task, examinee is asked to say as many of the words from the pairs as he or she

can recall.

Visual Reproduction

Assesses memory for nonverbal visual stimuli.

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Visual Reproduction I - A series of 5 designs is shown, one at a time, for 10 seconds each.

After each design is presented, the examinee is asked to draw the design from memory.

Visual Reproduction II – After 20-30 minutes, first, examinee is asked to draw designs, from

memory, in Visual Reproduction I. Second, examinee is asked to choose which of six designs

on a page match the original design. Third, for an optional copy task, the examinee is asked

to draw designs while looking at them.

Designs

Assesses spatial memory for unfamiliar visual material

Designs 1 - Examiner shows examinee a grid with 4-8 designs on a page for 10 seconds, then

removes the page from examiner view. Examinee then selects the design from a set of cards

and places the cards in a grid in the same place as shown.

Designs 2 – after 20-30 minutes, the Examinee is asked to recreate the pages shown earlier

with the cards and grid. Then he or she is shown a series of grids and asked to select the two

designs that are correct and in the same place as on the pages shown in Design 1.

Spatial Addition

Assesses visual-spatial working memory using a visual addition task. Examiner shows

examinee, sequentially, two grids with blue and red circles. Then examinee is asked to add or

subtract the location of the circles based on a set of rules.

Symbol Span

Assesses visual working memory using novel visual stimuli. Examinee is briefly shown a

series of abstract symbols on a page and then asked to select the symbols in an array of

symbols, in the same order that they were presented on the previous page. The experiment is

stopped after three consecutive failures.

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INSTRUCTIONS:

For each of the subtests there are specific instructions given in the test administration booklet.

Logical Memory I:

“I am going to read out a short story to you. Listen carefully and try to remember it the just

the way I said it, as close to the same words as you can remember. When you are through, I

want you to tell me everything I read to you. Are you ready?”

Logical Memory II:

“Please recall the story and tell me whatever you remember of the story. I will also call out

certain questions pertaining to the story and you have to answer yes or No.”

Verbal Paired Associates - I:

“I am going to call out a list of paired words. Listen carefully. I will then call out only the

first word of the pair and you have to recall the second word of the pair.”

Verbal Paired Associates – II (Recognition)

“I will call out a list of paired words and you have to tell me whether those pairs were part of

the original list.”

Visual Reproduction - I

“I will show you some designs one by one. See them carefully. I will ask you to reproduce it

later.”

Visual Reproduction – II (After 20-30 mins)

“Try and remember the designs I showed you some time back and draw it as much as you can

remember.” “I will show you several designs, point out the design which I had shown you

first”.
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Designs – I

“I will show you a grid with 4-8 designs on a page for 10 seconds. I will then remove it from

your view. You will then have to select the design from a set of cards and place the cards in

the grid in the same place as shown.”

Designs – II

“Please recreate the designs you saw 20-30 mins before.”

Spatial Addition:

“I will show you two grids sequentially with blue and red circles. Based on a set of rules for

each grid, you will have to add or subtract the location of the circles.”

Symbol Span:

“I will briefly show you a series of abstract symbols on a page. Later I will ask you to select

symbols from an array of symbols in the same order that they were presented on the previous

page.”

PRECAUTIONS/ CONTROLS:

 The administration of each subtest should be followed according to the administration

manual.

 Time limit for each sub test should be followed strictly.

 Make sure the subject has understood the instructions before starting each subtest.

 Scoring should be followed according to the scoring manual.

ANALYSIS OF DATA:

1. Each of the sub tests has a separate scoring procedure according to the manual.
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2. First the Raw Score for each sub test is computed, after which the Scaled Score is

calculated for each sub test.

3. Based on the table below Separate memory indexes are calculated:

Auditory AMI Logical memory I, II +Verbal Paired Associates I, II

Memory
Visual VMI Designs I, II + Visual Reproduction I, II
Memory
Visual VWMI Spatial Addition + Symbol Span
Working
Memory
Immediate IMI Logical memory I +Verbal paired associates I +
Memory Designs I + Visual Reproduction I
Delayed DMI Logical memory II +Verbal paired associates II +
Memory Designs II + Visual Reproduction II

4. For each of the Index’s percentiles are calculated based on Age group norms.

5. Percentiles describe the position of the examinee in a group of 100 people.

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DISCUSSION

1.1 Table showing Examinee’s Raw Score and Scaled for Each of the sub tests

Subtest Raw score Scaled score

Logical memory-1 27 11
Logical memory-2 38 16
Verbal paired associations-1 24 6
Verbal paired associations-2 13 11
Designs-1 84 11
Designs-2 60 9
Visual reproduction-1 42 12
Visual reproduction-2 42 16
Spatial addition 15 10
Symbol span 38 15

1.2 Table showing Examinee’s Total Scaled score for each of the Memory Indexes and percentiles

Memory Indexes Total Scaled Percentile

Scores
Auditory memory 44 63
Visual memory 48 79
Visual working memory 25 84
Immediate memory 40 50
Delayed memory 52 92

The Wechsler Memory Scale – Fourth Edition (WMS-IV) is a comprehensive and

psychometrically robust tool for assessing different dimensions of memory functioning in

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adolescents, adults, and older individuals. The present report aimed to explore the structural

and functional aspects of the WMS-IV, alongside its clinical relevance and application across

diverse populations.

The five index scores Auditory Memory, Visual Memory, Visual Working Memory,

Immediate Memory, and Delayed Memory collectively capture both the modality and

temporal dimensions of memory performance.

The test was administered on a 21-year-old Female college student, with reference to table

1.2,

Auditory Memory Index measures the ability to encode, retain, and retrieve verbal

information presented orally. The examinee obtained a scaled score of 44, corresponding to

the 63rd percentile, indicating an above-average ability to recall and process auditory

information. This suggests that the individual is likely to perform well in contexts requiring

verbal comprehension, such as following spoken instructions or learning through auditory

methods. The performance is consistent with intact auditory attention and working memory,

and there are no indications of auditory processing deficits.

Visual Memory index assesses the ability to remember visual stimuli, such as geometric

designs, both immediately and after a delay. The examinee’s scaled score of 48, falling in the

79th percentile, reflects a well-developed visual memory capacity. Such a profile indicates

strong visual encoding and retrieval abilities, which are critical for tasks involving maps,

diagrams, or visual-spatial learning. The performance suggests efficient visual recall and may

be a cognitive strength relative to other domains.

Visual Working Memory reflects the ability to temporarily hold and manipulate visual

information. The examinee scored scaled score of 25, which places them in the 84 th

percentile. This high score implies a robust ability to manage visual-spatial information in
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real-time, essential for multitasking, mathematical reasoning, and spatial problem-solving.

Despite the lower scaled score compared to the VMI, the high percentile indicates above-

average competence in this domain, which could enhance performance in fast-paced or

visually demanding environments.

Immediate Memory Index captures how well new verbal and visual information is initially

registered and recalled without any delay. A scaled score of 40 placing them in the 50 th

percentile suggests average performance. The individual demonstrates adequate attention and

initial encoding abilities. While the score is within the normal range, it may imply that the

individual benefits more from delayed retrieval or may require repetition for optimal initial

encoding.

Delayed Memory index measures the ability to retain and retrieve information after a time

delay. The examinee earned a scaled score of 52, placing them in the 92 nd percentile,

reflecting exceptional delayed memory capacity. This indicates that once information is

encoded, it is well retained over time. Such performance is indicative of strong long-term

consolidation and retrieval, an essential skill for academic and occupational success where

retention over time is required.

CONCLUSIONS:

The examinee's performance across the five core memory indexes of the Wechsler Memory Scale –

Fourth Edition (WMS-IV) reveals a varied cognitive profile:

 Auditory Memory Index (63rd percentile): Indicates above-average ability in encoding and

recalling verbally presented information.

 Visual Memory Index (79th percentile): Reflects strong capacity to remember and retrieve

visual material.
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 Visual Working Memory Index (84th percentile): Demonstrates superior ability to

temporarily hold and manipulate visual-spatial information.

 Immediate Memory Index (50th percentile): Suggests average performance in initial

registration and recall of new information.

 Delayed Memory Index (92nd percentile): Highlights excellent retention and delayed retrieval

of both verbal and visual stimuli.

Overall, the examinee shows particularly high strengths in delayed memory and visual working

memory, with solid functioning in other domains, indicating a well-preserved memory profile with

potential cognitive advantages in tasks involving visual processing and long-term recall.

APPLICATION VALUE:

WMS-IV has wide application value across various settings:

 Clinical Diagnosis: Used to assess and diagnose memory impairments in various

neurological and psychiatric conditions (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, traumatic brain

injury, schizophrenia, depression).

 Differential Diagnosis: Helps distinguish between different types of memory deficits

(e.g., auditory vs. visual, immediate vs. delayed), aiding in more accurate clinical

formulation.

 Cognitive Profiling: Provides a detailed profile of an individual’s memory functioning

across multiple domains, useful for treatment planning and rehabilitation.

 Neuropsychological Evaluations: Commonly used in neuropsychological batteries for

comprehensive cognitive assessment, especially in cases involving cognitive decline

or brain injury.

 Forensic and Medico-Legal Applications: Applied in legal contexts to evaluate

cognitive capacity, memory-related disability claims, and malingering detection.

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 Educational and Vocational Planning: Assists in identifying memory-related learning

difficulties and helps educators and occupational psychologists in designing support

strategies.

 Research Tool: Extensively used in cognitive and clinical research to study memory

processes and outcomes across populations.

LIMITATIONS:

 Cultural and Linguistic Bias: The test was developed and standardized primarily in

Western populations, which may limit its cultural applicability and accuracy in non-

Western settings, including India, unless adapted.

 Language Dependency: Many subtests, especially those in the auditory memory

domain, require strong language comprehension, which may disadvantage individuals

with language or communication difficulties.

 Limited Ecological Validity: Some tasks may not fully reflect real-world memory

demands, thus raising concerns about how well test performance translates to

everyday functioning.

 Time-Consuming Administration: Despite being shorter than previous versions, the

full battery can still be lengthy, particularly in clinical populations prone to fatigue or

reduced attention span.

 Requires Trained Professionals: Administration and interpretation must be carried out

by qualified psychologists, which may limit access in rural or underserved areas.

REFERENCES:

1. Drozdick, L. W., Holdnack, J. A., & Hilsabeck, R. C. (2011). The Wechsler Memory

Scale—Fourth Edition (WMS–IV): Technical overview and interpretive guidelines.

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Applied Neuropsychology, 18(2), 91–103.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09084282.2011.595458

2. Holdnack, J. A., Drozdick, L. W., Satz, P., & Hebben, N. (2013). Assessment of older

adults with diminished capacity: A handbook for psychologists. American

Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13952-000

3. Pearson Clinical. (2009). WMS-IV technical and interpretive manual. NCS Pearson.

4. Tulsky, D. S., Chiaravalloti, N. D., & Holdnack, J. A. (2013). Using the WAIS–IV

and WMS–IV in neuropsychological assessment. In L. G. Weiss, D. H. Saklofske, D.

Coalson, & S. E. Raiford (Eds.), WAIS–IV, WMS–IV, and ACS: Advanced clinical

interpretation (pp. 109–182). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-

386934-0.00005-6

5. Wechsler, D. (2009). Wechsler Memory Scale–Fourth Edition (WMS-IV). Pearson

Assessment.
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Davis’s Battery of Differential Abilities-R

INTRODUCTION

Aptitude:

The term aptitude is derived from the Latin word “Aptos”, meaning “fitted for.” It is

commonly used in association with terms such as potential, talent, and capacity, although

aptitude holds a distinct meaning within educational and psychological contexts. In essence,

Aptitude refers to an individual's natural ability or potential to acquire specific skills or

knowledge, particularly with the aid of training.

According to the Dictionary of Education, Aptitude is defined as a "pronounced innate

capacity for or ability in a given line of endeavor such as a particular art, school subject or

vocation."

Similarly, Warren’s Dictionary of Psychology conceptualizes Aptitude as “a condition or set

of characteristics regarded as symptomatic of an individual’s ability to acquire with training

some (usually specified) knowledge, skill, or set of responses, such as the ability to speak a

language, to produce music”.

English and English (1958) further describe aptitude as “the capacity to acquire proficiency

with a given amount of training,” while Traxler (1957) defines it as “a condition, a quality or

a set of qualities which is indicative of the probable extent to which an individual may be

able to acquire, under suitable training, some knowledge, understanding, or skill.”

Characteristics of Aptitude:
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1. Indicative of Potential: Aptitude is symptomatic or indicative of an individual's future

capabilities or potential in a given area.

2. Heredity and Environment: Aptitude results from the interaction of genetic

predispositions and environmental influences. While individuals are born with certain

inherent potentials, their development depends significantly on the environment.

3. Broad and Inclusive: The concept of aptitude is not limited to specific talents like

music or painting. It is a broad construct encompassing intelligence, skills, interests,

personality traits, and previous achievements, all of which contribute to learning.

Measurement of Aptitude:

The development of aptitude tests gained significant momentum due to two major factors.

Firstly, the advancement of the statistical technique known as factor analysis played a crucial

role. Psychologists such as Spearman and Kelley and Thurstone among others, challenged the

idea of intelligence as a single, unified construct. Instead, they proposed that intelligence is

composed of multiple, distinct abilities or aptitudes that better represent an individual's

psychological profile. This led to the creation of multiple aptitude test batteries, designed to

assess individuals across various specific domains. These batteries consisted of subtests

developed based on factor analytic findings. A notable early example is Thurstone’s Primary

Mental Abilities Test, which included seven subtests derived from such analyses.

Secondly, the practical demand for aptitude assessment during World War II accelerated test

development. Special aptitude batteries were constructed to effectively recruit and assign

military personnel to roles such as pilots, bombardiers, and flight engineers. The success of

these tests in military settings further encouraged the development of aptitude assessments for

civilian use, particularly in areas like educational guidance, vocational counselling, and

personnel selection.
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Uses of Aptitude tests:

Aptitude tests serve various functions:

 Career Counseling: Help students choose suitable courses and careers.

 Clinical Services: Assist in diagnosing learning and behavioral problems.

 Personnel Selection: Used by employers to hire individuals with relevant skills.

 Training Needs Analysis: Identify employee strengths and areas for development.

 Educational Admission: Serve as criteria for admission to academic programs.

 Curricular Planning: Help schools tailor courses to students’ strengths.

Davis’s Battery of Differential Abilities:

The Davis Battery of Differential Abilities (DBDA) is a psychological assessment tool

developed to measure specific aptitudes and abilities across a range of domains. Designed

primarily for educational and vocational guidance, the DBDA is structured to evaluate

individual differences in cognitive functions, thereby aiding in the prediction of future

academic or occupational performance. It is particularly useful for identifying strengths and

weaknesses in students and job candidates, allowing educators and career counselors to make

informed decisions about suitable educational paths or career options.

The DBDA assesses eight specific abilities that are essential for educational and vocational

guidance. Each subtest targets a distinct domain, helping to create a comprehensive profile of

an individual’s strengths and areas for development.

1. Verbal Ability: assesses understanding and use of language, including vocabulary,

synonyms, antonyms, and verbal analogies. It reflects one’s potential in communication,

reading comprehension, and language-based tasks.

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2. Numerical Ability: measures basic mathematical operations, number series, and arithmetic

problem-solving. It indicates how comfortably a person can handle numbers and calculations.

3. Spatial Ability: assesses the ability to visualize and manipulate objects in space. Test items

include mental rotation and figure transformation tasks.

4. Mechanical Ability: tests understanding of basic physical and mechanical principles such

as levers, pulleys, and gears,

5. Clerical Ability: evaluates attention to detail, speed, and accuracy in tasks like data

matching and error detection.

6. Closure Ability: measures the ability to perceive incomplete visual patterns and mentally

"complete" them. It reflects visual-perceptual organization.

7. Reasoning Ability: tests logical thinking, problem-solving, and pattern identification.

Involves analytical tasks such as identifying relationships and drawing conclusions.

8. Psychomotor Ability: assesses coordination between cognitive functions and physical

movement, including speed, precision, and motor control.

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PROBLEM:

To assess subject’s verbal ability, closure ability, clerical ability, spatial ability, numerical

ability, psychomotor ability, mechanical ability and reasoning ability using DBDA-R (Part I

and II).

PLAN:

The above eight subtests of DBDA-R are administered and subject’s aptitude for mechanical,

verbal, psychomotor, clerical, closure, reasoning, spatial and numerical abilities are

determined with the help of scoring key and norms.

MATERIALS:

1. verbal ability, closure ability, clerical ability, spatial ability, numerical ability,

psychomotor ability, mechanical ability and reasoning ability tests of DBDA-R.

2. Response sheet

3. Stencil key/ Scoring key

4. Stop clock

5. Writing materials

PROCEDURE:

Seat the subject comfortably and place the answer sheet before the subject. Read loudly and

slowly the instructions for each test, with examples. The subtests have varying time limits

which has to be followed strictly. With the single start, subject reads each question careful

and form the options given below chooses the best option among various choices and marks

the appropriate answer in the answer sheet. A time interval of 10-20 seconds is given between
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each subtest. The subject has to answer quicky. Time limit for every subtest should be

disclosed except clerical ability and spatial ability.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Follow working time strictly.

2. The working time is disclosed for all the test except clerical and spatial test.

3. Allow 20-30 seconds break between each test.

4. The subject has to mark only one box per item.

5. The subject is asked not to write anything in the test book.

6. Make sure the subject has understood all the instructions with examples before

starting the test.

INSTRUCTIONS:

Verbal Ability (VA):

"This test is in two parts, each timed separately. In Part 1, first look at the word in capital

letters. Then from the five words that follow, find the one that means the same thing as the

word in capitals and mark the answer in the response sheet. In Part II, first read the saying or

proverb in capital letters. Then, from the five sayings under it, find the one that means the

same thing and mark the answer in the response sheet. Work as quickly and accurately as you

can on both parts. You will have 4 minutes, for Part 1 and 3 minutes and 30 seconds for Part

II. If you are not sure of the right answer for an item, mark the choice that is your best guess.

Numerical Ability (NA):

This is a test of short number problems. Each problem is followed by 5 choices. You have to

choose the correct answer and mark it in the box in your answer sheet. Work as quickly and
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accurately as you can. You will have 5 minutes 30 seconds) You can make a guess if you do

not know the right answer".

Closure Ability (CA):

"In this test, you will see a word at the left side of the page, with part of the letters missing.

The incomplete' word is followed by five jumbled" words. You have to first figure out what

the incomplete word is. Then find, among the five scrambled choices, the one that has the

right letters to spell the incomplete word. You will have 5 minutes for this test, work fast".

Spatial Ability (SA):

"Here, there are some figures. In each row, left of the vertical line, there is one figure called

'sample figure', which is followed by 'S test figures'. Some of the test figures are the same as

the sample figure, but just turned 'around" some of the test figures are reversed from the

sample figure, that is, they will look like the sample figure would look if it was turned 'over.

In some cases, the test figure will be turned 'over' and turned "around", other times, it will

just be turned over. If the test figure is the same as the sample figure, fill in the 'S' box for that

number given below the figure. If the test figure is reversed, then fill in the 'R' box. "Time of

6 minutes is not disclosed.

Mechanical Ability (MA):

"This is a test of mechanical facts and principles. Sometime there will be a picture with

questions, sometimes not. Each question has 5 choices. Observe the picture, understand the

question and mark the correct answer on the response sheet. Work as quickly as you can. You

will be given 9 minutes to complete the test".

Clerical Ability (CL):

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"This test contains 72 pairs of letters or numbers, which are either same or different. If the

pair is exactly the same, you have to mark 'S' box. If pair is different in any way, you have to

mark 'D'. Work quickly." Time of 3 minutes is not disclosed.

Reasoning Ability (RA):

"Here, these are 12 rows of letters. In each row, you have to look at 5 sets of letters. Four of

the five sets follow a certain rule. One set does not. On your response sheet, you have to mark

the letter of the one set that does not follow the rule. You time limit is 5 minutes. Work fast".

Psychomotor Ability (PM):

"In this test, you have to draw lines on figures Firstly, draw a line freehand all the way

around between the outer and inner squares and secondly, draw a circle around the dot. You

must not let your line touch either of the squares or the dot and the lines must be complete.

You will be given 5 minutes for this test.

ANALYSIS OF DATA:

1. Each correct answer is given a score of one with the help of a scoring key/ Stencil.

2. For Psychomotor Ability test, the score is the number of figures with correctly drawn

lines.

3. Total number of correct answers for each ability is computed.

4. The raw score for each ability is converted to Sten scores by referring to the gender

norms.

5. Sten scores are interpreted in terms of high, average and low abilities.
 26

DISCUSSION:

Table 2.1 showing the individual’s scores on DBDA-R

Ability Raw score Sten score Interpretation

Verbal Ability 16 7 Average

Clerical Ability 36 4 Average

Closure Ability 13 6 Average

Reasoning Ability 8 7 Average

Spatial Ability 30 3 Low

Numerical Ability 10 4 Average

Mechanical Ability 11 4 Average

Psychomotor Ability 64 10 High

The Davis’s Battery for Differential Ability (DBAD-R) is designed to assess a wide range of

cognitive abilities, each of which is crucial in determining an individual's overall intellectual

functioning and suitability for various educational and vocational tasks. The ability scores

from the DBAD-R provide insight into both strengths and weaknesses across multiple

domains of cognitive processing, helping to guide decisions related to academic training,

career development, and personal growth. Below we discuss the table 2.1 interpreting the

subject’s ability scores.

 27

Verbal ability is vital in many educational settings, especially in fields that require strong

reading, writing, and verbal communication skills, such as education, law, or social sciences.

In vocational training, this ability would be beneficial for careers involving teaching,

customer service, or roles that require frequent interaction with others. In Verbal Ability Test,

the subject has scored a raw score of 16 and a Sten score of 7, which places their verbal

ability in the average range. This indicates that the individual has a typical level of

competence in verbal reasoning, comprehension, and communication. Factors influencing

verbal ability include linguistic exposure, reading habits, and the development of expressive

language skills in early childhood.

Clerical ability involves tasks that require attention to detail, organizational skills, and

accuracy in handling data or information. In educational contexts, this ability may influence

the subject's performance in subjects requiring administrative skills or attention to detail, such

as accounting or business administration. Vocationally, the subject would likely perform well

in roles such as data entry, administration, and office management. In Clerical Ability test the

subject scored raw score of 36 and a Sten score of 4, the subject’s clerical ability is also rated

as average. The development of clerical skills can be influenced by training in administrative

tasks, personal organizational habits, and exposure to tasks requiring precision and attention

to detail.

Closure ability is the skill to complete incomplete or fragmented information, a crucial aspect

of problem-solving and pattern recognition. In educational settings, this ability is important in

subjects such as mathematics, logic, and visual arts, where recognizing patterns and

completing missing pieces of information are essential. Vocationally, individuals with strong

closure abilities tend to excel in roles that require troubleshooting, design, and creative

problem-solving. In Closure Ability test the subject scored a raw score of 13 and a Sten score

of 6 for closure ability, which falls within the average range. The ability to improve closure
 28

ability can be influenced by cognitive exercises, exposure to puzzles or problem-solving

tasks, and the development of attention to detail.

Reasoning ability involves logical thinking, abstract reasoning, and the ability to make

inferences based on available information. This ability is critical in almost every educational

field, particularly in subjects like mathematics, science, and philosophy, which require logical

deduction and problem-solving. Vocationally, this skill is essential in careers such as

engineering, management, and research. In the Reasoning Ability test the subject scored a

raw score of 8 and a Sten score of 7, which places reasoning ability in the average range.

Enhancements in reasoning ability can be achieved through engagement in critical thinking

exercises, complex problem-solving tasks, and exposure to abstract concepts in education.

Spatial ability involves the capacity to visualize and manipulate objects or images in space,

and it plays a vital role in tasks such as navigation, architecture, and design. In educational

settings, students with lower spatial abilities may find subjects such as geometry,

engineering, or visual arts more challenging. Vocationally, careers in architecture, design,

and engineering often require strong spatial reasoning skills, so this might indicate the need

for additional training or compensatory strategies in those fields. In the Spatial Ability test

the subject's raw score of 30 and Sten score of 3 indicate low performance in spatial ability

Factors influencing spatial ability include visual-spatial experiences in childhood, exposure to

certain types of learning materials (e.g., puzzles), and genetic predispositions.

Numerical ability is essential for tasks that involve mathematical reasoning, problem-solving

with numbers, and data analysis. In educational contexts, students with average numerical

ability may perform adequately in subjects like basic mathematics, economics, or statistics.

Vocationally, they would likely perform well in jobs that involve financial analysis, data

interpretation, or administrative roles that require number-based decision-making, In

 29

Numerical Ability test the subject achieved a raw score of 10 and a Sten score of 4 in

numerical ability, which places them in the average range. Numerical ability can be

influenced by early exposure to mathematical concepts, practice with arithmetic tasks, and

cognitive development in early schooling.

Mechanical ability measures an individual’s understanding of mechanical systems and their

capacity to apply mechanical principles. In educational settings, this is particularly important

for students pursuing vocational training in fields such as engineering, construction, or

industrial design. Vocationally, this ability is critical for roles in mechanical engineering,

automotive repair, and machinery operation. In Mechanical Ability test the subject scored a

raw score of 11 and a Sten score of 4, placing mechanical ability in the average range.

Factors that influence mechanical ability include practical experience with tools and

machinery, hands-on training, and an individual’s familiarity with how mechanical systems

function.

Psychomotor ability refers to the coordination of cognitive and physical tasks, such as fine

motor skills and hand-eye coordination. This ability is crucial in various practical tasks,

including sports, surgery, and arts and crafts. In educational settings, the subject may excel in

hands-on learning experiences and practical demonstrations. Vocationally, careers requiring

high psychomotor skills, such as surgery, laboratory work, or skilled trades, would be areas

of strength. In Psychomotor Ability test with a raw score of 64 and a Sten score of 10, the

subject excels in psychomotor ability, placing them in the high range. The development of

psychomotor ability is influenced by physical coordination, practice, and the subject’s

involvement in activities that require dexterity and precision.

CONCLUSION
 30

 The subject demonstrates a high level of psychomotor ability, which suggests strong

coordination and fine motor skills, valuable in practical and physical tasks.

 Verbal ability, reasoning ability, and closure ability are average, indicating solid

competency in communication, logical reasoning, and problem-solving.

 However, spatial ability is low, which may present challenges in tasks requiring

visualization and manipulation of objects in space, potentially impacting performance

in fields like engineering or design.

 The profile suggests the subject is well-suited for roles that leverage strong verbal,

reasoning, and psychomotor skills, such as in healthcare, administrative work, or

hands-on professions. Further development in spatial reasoning could enhance career

prospects in areas requiring visual-spatial skills, such as architecture or engineering

APPLICATION VALUE:

1. This battery is majorly used in Career counselling, to help the client to decide the

most suitable career for himself based on his level of ability.

2. It is majorly used by educators as well as students to help them understand the next

steps of the educational options such as choosing a major course at college or

university.

3. It is even used for appropriate selection of applicants for employment.

LIMITATIONS:

1. Cultural Bias: The test may not be equally applicable to individuals from different

cultural backgrounds, potentially influencing the accuracy of results for people from

non-dominant cultures.
 31

2. Limited Scope: The test measures only a subset of abilities and may not fully capture

all aspects of an individual's cognitive functioning, such as creativity, emotional

intelligence, or social skills.

3. Context-Dependent Results: Performance on the test can be influenced by factors

such as test anxiety, fatigue, or the testing environment, leading to inconsistent

results.

4. Static Measurement: The test provides a snapshot of abilities at a single point in time

and may not reflect long-term changes or improvements in skills due to training,

learning, or experience.

REFERENCES:

1. Anastasi, A., & Urbina, S. (1997). Psychological testing (7th ed.). Prentice Hall.

2. Bennett, G. K., Seashore, H. G., & Wesman, A. G. (1984). Differential Aptitude

Tests: Manual. The Psychological Corporation.

3. Dash, M. (n.d.). Aptitude: Concept and Measurement. In Self Learning Material.

Indira Gandhi National Open University. (Add year if known)

4. Gregory, R. J. (2014). Psychological testing: History, principles, and applications

(6th ed.). Pearson Education.

5. Ojha, J. M. (1965). Revision of Differential Aptitude Tests for Higher Secondary

Schools (Doctoral dissertation, M. S. University, Baroda).

6. Spearman, C. (1927). The abilities of man: Their nature and measurement.

Macmillan.

7. Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. Psychometric Monographs No. 1.

 32

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-III

INTRODUCTION:

Personality:

Personality refers to the enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that

characterize an individual. These patterns are relatively consistent over time and across

different situations, distinguishing one person from another. Personality is shaped by a

combination of genetic factors, environmental influences, and personal experiences, and it

encompasses traits such as emotionality, sociability, and impulsivity.

Methods to assess personality:

Personality assessment is the process of measuring and evaluating the traits, behaviors, and

characteristics that constitute an individual's personality. It involves using various tools,

methods, and techniques to understand the complex dimensions of personality. There are both

objective and projective methods of personality assessment.

1. Objective Personality Tests: These assessments are structured and rely on

standardized questions and scoring systems. They aim to objectively measure

personality traits or characteristics. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

(MMPI) is one of the most widely used objective tests for assessing personality. It is
 33

designed to measure a variety of psychological conditions, personality traits, and

emotional functioning. The MMPI consists of a large number of true/false questions

and is scored using specific algorithms to identify patterns that indicate mental health

issues or personality disorders.

2. Projective Personality Tests: These tests are unstructured and require individuals to

respond to ambiguous stimuli, such as inkblots or pictures. The goal is to uncover

unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires that influence behavior. The Rorschach

Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are examples of projective

tests.

3. Behavioral Assessments: These assessments focus on observing and measuring an

individual’s behavior in real-world settings. Through methods like self-report

questionnaires, observation, or interviews, psychologists can assess how individuals

react in various environments and situations, revealing underlying personality traits.

4. Self-Report Questionnaires: These tools allow individuals to report on their own

personality traits, preferences, and behaviors. Common examples include the Big Five

Inventory and the NEO-PI-R, which focus on measuring the five-factor model of

personality(neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and

conscientiousness).

Importance of assessing personality:

 Understanding Individual Differences: Helps differentiate people based on traits,

behaviors, and emotional patterns.

 Diagnosis and Treatment: Aids in diagnosing mental health disorders and tailoring

treatment plans.

 Predicting Behavior: Helps forecast how individuals may act in various situations.
 34

 Improving Relationships: Enhances communication and conflict resolution in

personal and professional relationships.

 Career Counseling: Assists in identifying suitable career paths based on personality

traits.

 Personal Growth: Promotes self-awareness and personal development by

understanding strengths and weaknesses.

 Psychological Research: Facilitates studies on personality traits and their impact on

life outcomes.

 Treatment Planning: Guides the development of tailored therapeutic interventions.

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory:

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a widely used psychological

test that aids clinicians in assessing personality traits, detecting and diagnosing

psychopathology, and selecting appropriate treatment methods. Multiple forms of the MMPI

have been adapted from the original version for use with various populations (i.e.

adolescents, adults, ethnic groups) in a variety of settings (i.e. personnel screening,

correctional facilities, inpatient mental health settings). Additionally, the MMPI is often used

in legal proceedings to determine an individual’s competence to stand trial or as evidence

during the trial.

Historical background:

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was originally developed in 1942

by clinical psychologist Starke R. Hathaway and neuropsychiatrist J. Charnley McKinley at

the University of Minnesota Hospital. Their aim was to create an efficient, empirical tool for

assessing psychopathology in adult patients, improving upon previous self-report personality

inventories.
 35

Prior to the MMPI, self-report personality inventories were widely used, but they were

criticized for several shortcomings. These earlier inventories failed to validate how

individuals actually responded to items, relying more on the researcher’s anticipated

responses. Furthermore, the items used in these tests were often too transparent, making it

easy for respondents to understand the intent behind the questions and manipulate their

answers. There was also a lack of tools that could assess response manipulation—whether a

person was trying to present themselves in an overly positive light or intentionally distort

their answers.

In 1989, the MMPI-2 was released, incorporating updated norms and language to reflect a

more diverse adult population and improving its psychometric properties. The MMPI-A

(1992) was designed for adolescents, addressing the unique concerns and developmental

issues of teenagers with modified items and norms specific to that age group. The MMPI-2-

RF (2008) streamlined the MMPI-2 by reducing item overlap and intercorrelations between

scales, enhancing efficiency and clinical utility.

The latest version, the MMPI-3 (2020), further reduced the number of items to 335,

introducing new norms based on a broader, more diverse sample. It refined the clinical scales,

made the test more efficient, and simplified its administration and interpretation, ensuring it

remains a relevant and practical tool for contemporary psychological assessment.

Each revision aimed to improve the MMPI’s accuracy, efficiency, and applicability to

modern clinical needs, ensuring it remains a reliable and essential instrument for assessing

personality and psychopathology.

MMPI-III scales:

Validity Scales:

These scales help assess the reliability and accuracy of a respondent’s answers:
 36

1. Combined Response Inconsistency (CRIN): Measures inconsistent responding, both

random and fixed.

2. Variable Response Inconsistency (VRIN): Detects random or inconsistent answers to

pairs of items.

3. True Response Inconsistency (TRIN): Identifies inconsistent responses to pairs of

items that should logically be answered the same way.

4. Infrequent Responses (F): Measures rare responses to detect unusual patterns or

exaggerations.

5. Infrequent Psychopathology Responses (Fp): Identifies infrequent responses that are

typically associated with psychiatric populations.

6. Infrequent Somatic Responses (Fs): Assesses infrequent somatic complaints, which

are rare in medical patient populations.

7. Symptom Validity Scale (FBS): Examines the credibility of somatic and cognitive

complaints.

8. Response Bias Scale (RBS): Identifies exaggerated complaints related to memory

issues.

9. Uncommon virtues (L): Rarely claimed moral attributes and activities.

10. Adjustment Validity (K): Assesses exaggerated claims of psychological well-being or

adjustment.

Higher Order (H-O) scales:

These three broad scales are derived from the RC scales and provide an overarching view of

psychological functioning:
 37

1. Emotional/Internalizing Dysfunction (EID): Reflects problems related to mood,

anxiety, and emotional distress (e.g., depression, demoralization, and low positive

affect).

2. Thought Dysfunction (THD): Assesses disordered thinking, including unusual

perceptions, suspiciousness, and psychotic-like experiences.

3. Behavioral/Externalizing Dysfunction (BXD): Measures under-controlled behaviors

such as impulsivity, aggression, and rule-breaking.

Restructured Clinical (RS) scales:

These scales aim to assess specific psychological difficulties:

1. Demoralization (RCd): Measures general unhappiness and dissatisfaction.

2. Somatic Complaints (RC1): Focuses on physical health concerns and related issues.

3. Low Positive Emotions (RC2): Reflects a lack of emotional responsiveness and

enjoyment.

4. Antisocial Behaviour (RC4): Measures rule-breaking behaviors and irresponsibility.

5. Ideas of Persecution (RC6): Focuses on feelings of being persecuted or threatened by

others.

6. Dysfunctional Negative Emotions (RC7): Assesses anxiety, anger, irritability, and

related negative emotions.

7. Aberrant Experiences (RC8): Identifies unusual perceptions or thoughts, often linked

to thought dysfunction.

8. Hypomanic Activation (RC9): Measures over-activity, impulsiveness, and

grandiosity.
 38

Specific Problems (SP) scales:

These scales address particular emotional and behavioral difficulties:

Somatic/Cognitive Scales:

1. Malaise (MLS): General sense of physical debilitation.

2. Neurological Complaints (NUC): Includes dizziness, weakness, and other

neurological symptoms.

3. Eating Concerns (EAT): Focuses on problematic eating behaviors.

4. Cognitive Complaints (COG): Reflects memory issues and concentration difficulties.

Internalizing Scales:

1. Suicidal/Death Ideation (SUI): Measures thoughts of suicide or recent suicide

attempts.

2. Helplessness/Hopelessness (HLP): Assesses feelings of being unable to solve

problems.

3. Self-Doubt (SFD): Reflects lack of self-confidence and feelings of uselessness.

4. Inefficacy (NFC): Assesses indecisiveness and lack of efficacy in life.

5. Stress (STR): Focuses on issues related to stress and nervousness.

6. Worry (WRY): Measures excessive worry and preoccupation.

7. Compulsivity (CMP): Identifies compulsive behaviors.

8. Anxiety-Related Experiences (ARX): Covers various anxiety-related issues such as

panic and dread.

9. Anger Proneness (ANP): Covers the idea of becoming easily angry with others or

impatient with others.

10. Behavior-Restricting fears (BRF): measures fear that significantly inhibit normal

behaviour.
 39

Externalizing Scales:

1. Family Problems (FML): Focuses on conflictual family relationships.

2. Juvenile Conduct Problems (JCP): Measures problems such as stealing and

behavioral issues at school.

3. Substance Abuse (SUB): Assesses past and present substance abuse issues.

4. Impulsivity (IMP): Measures poor impulse control.

5. Activation (ACT): Reflects heightened energy levels and excitation.

6. Aggression (AGG): Assesses physical aggression and violent behavior.

7. Cynicism (CYN): Focuses on distrust and negative views of others.

Interpersonal Scales

1. Self-importance (SFI): Reflects how well an individual holds beliefs related to having

special talents and abilities.

2. Dominance (DOM): Measures the degree to which a person is domineering or

assertive in relationships.

3. Disaffiliativeness (DSF): Assesses a dislike for people or social situations.

4. Social Avoidance (SAV): Reflects avoidance of social situations.

5. Shyness (SHY): Measures discomfort in social situations.

Personality Psychopathology five (PSY-5):

These scales focus on broad dimensions of personality disorders:

1. Aggressiveness (AGGR): Measures goal-directed aggression.

2. Psychoticism (PSYC): Assesses disconnection from reality or odd behaviors.

3. Disconstraint (DISC): Measures under-controlled behavior and impulsivity.

4. Negative Emotionality/Neuroticism (NEGE): Focuses on anxiety, insecurity, and

emotional instability.
 40

5. Introversion/Low Positive Emotionality (INTR): Reflects social disengagement and

lack of positive emotional responses.

PROBLEM:

To provide a comprehensive and reliable assessment of an individual's personality traits,

psychopathological symptoms, and behavioral tendencies using the MMPI - 3

PLAN:

MMPI – 3 booklet is administered on the subject, and the personality profile is determined

with the help of stencil keys, T scores and norms.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

 MMPI-3 Test Booklets

 Administration Manual

 Answer Sheets

 Profile Forms

 Stencil Keys

 materials such as pencils, erasers

 41

PROCEDURE OF ADMINISTRATION:

Seat the subject comfortably, and place the MMPI booklet and the answer sheet before the

subject. Every question has two options, true or false, which the subject has to choose

according to his/her preference. The subject should pick the first answer that comes to him or

her and not think too much about the question.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The subject should mark only one option.

2. The subject is asked not to write anything in the MMPI book.

3. There is no time limit however the subject should mark the first option that comes to

his/her mind.

4. Make sure the subject understands the instructions before starting the test.

5. Make sure the individual reading and comprehension abilities are assessed and

sufficient to 6th grade level.

6. Clarify the subject's doubt regarding the meanings of the word however detailed

explanation must be retained.

7. The tester can supportively restate the standard instruction.

INSTRUCTIONS:

“This is an inventory that will help you know more about yourself and your personality, there

are 335 questions each with two options true or false. Shade the option which is truest of you

in the answer sheet and not on the test book, do not think too much for each question and

answer according to the first thought that comes to you. There’s no right or wrong answer.

Answer honestly and as quickly as you can. If you have any doubt regarding any meaning of

words can be raised. There is no time limit”.

ANALYSIS OF DATA:
 42

1. Each scale has a separate scoring stencil which is placed on top of the answer sheet

for scoring,

2. If the subject has chosen the option according to the key, a score of one is given.

3. Total score for each scale is calculated and raw score is computed.

4. The raw score is converted into t score based on the conversion norms in the manual.

5. Interpretation of each scale of the 52 MMPI (3 scales-higher order scale, the

restructured clinical scales RC, 26 specific problem scales, psy-5 scales, 10 validity

scales) is based on the t score.

6. The raw score and t score are marked on a graph and the profile is given.

7. While discussing each subscale the raw score, t score, interpretation, and item

analysis are done.

 43

DISCUSSION:

Table 3.1 showing the subject’s raw scores, t scores and interpretation on the higher order

scales, restructured clinical scales and PSY-5 scales of MMPI 3

SCALES RAW T SCORES INTERPRETATION

SCORES
EID (H-O) 13 52 Average
THD (H-O) 1 44 Average
BXD (H-O) 2 39 Higher than average level
of behavior constraint
RCD 3 48 Average
RC1 3 50 Average
RC2 6 59 Average
RC4 1 41 Average
RC6 0 41 Average
RC7 4 46 Average
RC8 1 44 Average
RC9 0 32 Below average
INTR (PSY-5) 9 65 Higher than average
AGGR (PSY-5) 4 39 Below average
PSCYH (PSY-5) 1 46 Average
 44

DISC (PSY-5) 0 33 Overly-constrained

behavior
NEGE (PSY-5) 5 50 Normal

The test was administered on 21-year-old female, the interpretation of scores and item

analysis of each scale is discussed below in detail.

Higher Order Scales:

The Emotional/Internalizing Dysfunction (EID) scale is a 42-item measure designed to assess

a broad spectrum of emotional and internalizing difficulties.The test taker's EID score

provides an overall gauge of his or her emotional functioning. Low EID scores reflect a

below-average level of emotional difficulties, whereas elevated scores indicate that the test

taker reported a broad range of emotional and internalizing difficulties. The subject obtained

a raw score of 13 and a corresponding T-score of 52. This score falls within the range of

normal emotional functioning, although it is slightly elevated compared to the average,

suggesting the presence of mild internalizing difficulties.

Item-Analysis:

The item-level analysis reveals that the subject generally perceives herself as competent and

expects success in her endeavours. However, there are instances where she experiences self-

doubt and feels inadequate. This inconsistency indicates that while the overall emotional

functioning remains within normal limits, there are occasional experiences of mild emotional

or internalizing dysfunction.

The Thought Dysfunction (THD) is a 27-item scale designed to assess a broad range of

difficulties associated with thought dysfunction. The test taker's score on THD provides an

overall estimate of her or his level of reported thought dysfunction. Elevated scores indicate

substantial difficulties associated with thought disturbance. The subject obtained a raw score
 45

of 1 and a corresponding T-score of 44. This score falls within the normative range,

indicating the absence of thought dysfunction and suggesting that the subject's thought

processes are within normal limits.

Item-Analysis:

The subject does not endorse experiences suggestive of thought disturbances, such as

paranoid ideation (e.g., believing others are following her or can read her mind) or perceptual

anomalies (e.g., visual hallucinations). The absence of such responses supports the

interpretation of intact and normative thought patterns.

The Behavioural/Externalizing Dysfunction (BXD) is a 24-item scale designed to assess a

broad range of behavioural problems. The test taker's score on BXD provides an overall

gauge of his or her behavioural acting- out proclivities. Low scores indicate that the test taker

reported a higher-than-average level of behavioural constraint, whereas elevated scores

indicate a broad range of externalizing, acting-out behaviours. The subject obtained a raw

score of 2 and a corresponding T-score of 39. This score indicates a higher-than-average level

of behavioural constraint, suggesting that the subject is generally well-regulated and does not

exhibit significant externalizing tendencies.

Item-Analysis:

The subject reports refraining from impulsive actions and demonstrates the ability to think

through decisions before acting. Additionally, there is no endorsement of engagement in

harmful or socially deviant behaviours such as substance abuse or theft. These responses

further support the interpretation of elevated behavioural self-control and restraint.

Restructured Clinical (RC) scales:

 46

The Demoralization (RCd) scale is a 17-item measure assessing a pervasive and affect-laden

dimension of unhappiness and dissatisfaction with life, referred to as Demoralization in the

MMPI-3. A low RCd score reflects relatively high morale and life satisfaction, whereas

elevated scores indicate significant feelings of helplessness, inefficacy, and distress. The

subject obtained a raw score of 3 and a corresponding T-score of 48, which falls within the

normal range. This suggests that the subject generally experiences positive morale and is

largely content with her life.

Item-Analysis:

The subject reports no significant difficulty initiating new activities, does not perceive life as

consistently burdensome, and rarely experiences prolonged feelings of sadness. These

responses further support the interpretation that the subject maintains a generally positive and

satisfied outlook on life.

The Somatic Complaints (RC1) scale consists of 21 items assessing a range of physical

complaints commonly associated with somatic symptom disorders. Low RC1 scores indicate

a sense of relative physical well-being, while elevated scores may reflect somatic concerns,

which could either be psychological in nature or related to genuine physical health problems.

The subject obtained a raw score of 3 and a corresponding T-score of 50, which falls within

the normal range. This suggests the absence of significant somatic concerns and indicates that

the subject perceives her physical health as generally stable.

Item-Analysis:

The subject disagrees with statements describing common somatic symptoms, such as

experiencing a lump in the throat, frequent nausea or vomiting, and persistent headaches.

These responses support the interpretation of normal physical well-being without indications

of somatoform difficulties.
 47

The Low Positive Emotions (RC2) scale is a 14-item measure designed to assess the absence

of positive emotional experiences, or anhedonia, a distinctive feature of major depressive

disorder. While demoralization (dysphoric affect) is commonly associated with depression, it

is a non-specific feature that co-occurs with various psychological conditions. The subject

obtained a raw score of 6 and a corresponding T-score of 56, which falls within the normal

range. This suggests that the subject does not exhibit significant features of low positive

affect or anhedonia.

Item-Analysis:

The subject endorses beliefs that life is worthwhile and that her capabilities are comparable to

those of others. She also reports confidence that exciting experiences can alleviate feelings of

sadness. Although there are occasional reports of diminished pleasure and a lack of

extraordinary feelings, these are mild and account for the slightly elevated, but still normal,

T-score.

The Antisocial Behavior (RC4) scale consists of 14 items assessing a range of antisocial

behaviors and related family conflict. Low RC4 scores indicate a below-average level of past

antisocial behavior, suggesting a reduced risk for acting-out tendencies empirically associated

with this scale. Given that many items are phrased in the past tense, elevated scores are best

interpreted as reflecting a reported history of antisocial behavior. The subject obtained a raw

score of 1 and a corresponding T-score of 41, indicating no significant engagement in

antisocial behaviors.

Item Analysis:

The subject reports never engaging in high-risk activities such as substance abuse.

Additionally, she indicates that she did not receive behavioral complaints from school
 48

authorities and that her parents did not express concerns about the company she kept. These

responses support the interpretation of normative and socially appropriate behavior.

The Ideas of Persecution (RC6) scale consists of 14 items designed to assess the extent to

which the test taker endorses persecutory beliefs. Although no Specific Problems (SP) scales

are directly linked to RC6, it is one of seven MMPI-3 scales designated as containing critical

content, given that significant persecutory thinking may warrant immediate intervention.

When RC6 scores are elevated, keyed item responses are flagged for closer evaluation. The

subject obtained a raw score of 0 and a corresponding T-score of 41, indicating no evidence

of persecutory ideation.

Item-Analysis:

The subject consistently rejects statements suggesting beliefs of being followed, punished

without cause, or being plotted against. These responses further support the interpretation that

the subject does not hold persecutory beliefs.

The Dysfunctional Negative Emotions (RC7) scale is a 19-item measure designed to assess

the extent to which the test taker reports experiencing various negative emotional states, such

as anxiety, anger, and fear. Low RC7 scores reflect a below-average level of reported

dysfunctional negative emotional experiences and a lower risk for related psychological

difficulties. Elevated scores on this scale have been associated with an increased risk for

anxiety-related psychopathology. The subject obtained a raw score of 4 and a corresponding

T-score of 46, indicating no significant experiences of dysfunctional negative emotions.

Item-analysis:

The subject denies experiencing heightened sensitivity to topics of conversation, does not feel

that strangers observe her critically, and does not anticipate dreadful future events or report
 49

fears during nighttime. These responses support the interpretation that the subject does not

report significant feelings of anxiety, anger, or fear.

The Aberrant Experiences (RC8) scale consists of 18 items assessing unusual thoughts and

perceptual experiences that are characteristic of disordered thinking. Elevated RC8 scores are

empirically associated with symptoms of psychotic disorders, with highly elevated scores

suggesting the possibility of significantly disorganized thinking. Although no Specific

Problems (SP) scales directly contribute to the interpretation of RC8, it is designated as a

critical content scale due to the potential need for immediate clinical attention when elevated.

The subject obtained a raw score of 1 and a corresponding T-score of 44, indicating no

significant endorsement of unusual thoughts or perceptual disturbances.

Item-Analysis:

The subject denies experiences such as being hypnotized into performing actions against her

will, seeing objects or people that others do not perceive, or hearing strange voices when

alone. These responses support the interpretation that the subject does not report unusual

thoughts or perceptual experiences.

The Hypomanic Activation (RC9) scale consists of 15 items that assess a range of emotions,

cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors associated with hypomanic activation. Specific item

content includes racing thoughts, elevated energy levels, heightened mood, impulsivity,

excitement-seeking, and aggression. Low RC9 scores indicate that the test taker reported a

below-average level of activation and engagement with the environment. The subject

obtained a raw score of 0 and a corresponding T-score of 32, suggesting a below-average

level of energy and environmental engagement.

Item-Analysis:

The subject denies acting impulsively or experiencing a rush of thoughts. She also reports not
 50

becoming angry quickly and then forgetting about it shortly thereafter, and does not engage

in activities purely for thrill-seeking purposes. These item responses are consistent with the

low T-score and support the interpretation that the subject reports a below-average level of

activation and environmental engagement.

The Personality Psychopathology five (PSY-5):

The Introversion/Low Positive Emotionality (INTR) scale is a 14-item measure that assesses

social disengagement and a lack of positive emotional experiences. The subject obtained a

raw score of 9 and a corresponding T-score of 65, which indicates elevated levels of

introversion and diminished positive emotionality.

Item-Analysis:

The subject endorses items suggesting that few activities provide her with pleasure and that

she often avoids crowds. She also disagrees with statements indicating feeling energetic or

finding social gatherings exciting. These item responses support the elevated T-score and

indicate that the subject is characterized by high levels of introversion and a reduced

experience of positive emotion

The Aggressiveness (AGGR) scale consists of 15 items that measure goal-directed

aggression. The subject obtained a raw score of 4, corresponding to a T-score of 39, which

suggests a tendency toward unassertiveness.

Item-Analysis:

The subject reports not seeking revenge and does not believe it is necessary to strongly stand

up for her own beliefs. She also disagrees with statements such as strongly defending her

views and being direct when correcting others. These item responses support the low T-score

and indicate that the subject is generally unassertive and tends to suppress her opinions and

views.
 51

The Psychoticism (PSYC) scale consists of 20 items and assesses disconnection from reality

or the presence of odd behaviours. The subject obtained a raw score of 1, corresponding to a

T-score of 46, indicating no signs of odd behaviours or disconnection from reality.

Item-Analysis:

The subject denies experiencing paranoid thoughts, such as fears of being poisoned, and does

not report hearing voices when alone. She also disagrees with statements suggesting engaging

in actions unknowingly under a hypnotic state. These item responses support the T-score and

indicate that the subject exhibits no signs of odd behaviour or disconnection from reality.

The Disconstraint (DISC) scale consists of 18 items and measures under-controlled behavior

and impulsivity. The subject obtained a raw score of 0, corresponding to a T-score of 33,

indicating an overly constrained pattern of behavior.

Item-Analysis:

The subject reports not receiving consistently poor grades in school and denies frequently

skipping school during her youth. She also indicates that she does not engage in high-risk

behaviors, such as drug abuse, and does not act impulsively. These responses justify the low

T-score and suggest that the subject exhibits high behavioral control and restraint.

The Negative Emotionality/Neuroticism (NEGE) scale consists of 15 items and focuses on

assessing anxiety, insecurity, and emotional instability. The subject obtained a raw score of 5,

corresponding to a T-score of 50, suggesting that she does not experience significant anxiety,

insecurity, or emotional instability.

Item-Analysis:

The subject reports not panicking easily and does not often worry about terrible events

occurring. She perceives her level of nervousness to be similar to that of others and does not
 52

dwell on unimportant thoughts. These responses support the T-score and indicate the absence

of notable anxiety, insecurity, or emotional instability.

CONCLUSION

 The overall MMPI-3 profile of the subject falls within the normal range across all

major scales, indicating healthy psychological functioning.

 The subject demonstrates good morale, life satisfaction, and physical well-being, with

no evidence of somatoform complaints, anhedonia, or depressive symptoms.

 There are no indications of antisocial behavior, persecutory ideation, psychotic

thinking, or unusual perceptual experiences.

 The subject does not report significant anxiety, anger, fear, or emotional instability,

suggesting good emotional regulation.

 While there are signs of introversion and a slightly reduced level of positive

emotionality, the subject remains socially functional and emotionally stable.

 The subject displays low impulsivity, under-control of behavior, and an absence of

goal-directed aggression, indicating a tendency toward unassertiveness.

 The findings reflect a psychologically stable individual with minor tendencies toward

introversion and subdued engagement in highly stimulating environments.

APPLICATION VALUE

 MMPI-3 is a comprehensive tool for assessing a wide range of psychological

functioning, including emotional, behavioural, and interpersonal characteristics.

 It is useful for identifying potential psychological disorders, personality patterns, and

areas requiring intervention, even when symptoms are subtle.

 53

 MMPI-3 can aid in clinical diagnosis, treatment planning, and monitoring therapeutic

progress by providing detailed insights into an individual's strengths and

vulnerabilities.

 It is valuable in forensic evaluations, occupational screenings (such as law

enforcement and high-risk professions), and pre-surgical psychological assessments.

LIMITATIONS

 As a self-report inventory, MMPI-3 responses may be influenced by intentional or

unintentional response biases, such as social desirability, malingering, or lack of

insight.

 Interpretation requires clinical expertise; inaccurate conclusions may arise if used by

untrained individuals.

 It may not capture momentary or situational psychological states, focusing instead on

relatively stable patterns.

 Cultural, educational, and language differences can sometimes affect item

comprehension and response style, even with updated norms.

 The test can be lengthy and may cause fatigue, leading to decreased attention or

random responding in some individuals.

REFERENCES:

1. Ben-Porath, Y. S., & Tellegen, A. (2008). MMPI-2-RF: Minnesota Multiphasic

Personality Inventory-2 Restructured Form: Technical manual. University of

Minnesota Press.

2. Ben-Porath, Y. S., & Tellegen, A. (2020). MMPI-3: Minnesota Multiphasic

Personality Inventory-3: Technical manual. University of Minnesota Press.

 54

3. Butcher, J. N., Dahlstrom, W. G., Graham, J. R., Tellegen, A., & Kaemmer, B.

(1989). MMPI-2: Manual for administration and scoring. University of

Minnesota Press.

4. Butcher, J. N., Graham, J. R., Williams, C. L., & Ben-Porath, Y. S. (1990).

Development and use of the MMPI-2 content scales. University of Minnesota

Press.

5. Butcher, J. N., Williams, C. L., Graham, J. R., Archer, R. P., Tellegen, A., Ben-

Porath, Y. S., & Kaemmer, B. (1992). MMPI-A: Manual for administration,

scoring, and interpretation. University of Minnesota Press.

6. Tellegen, A., & Ben-Porath, Y. S. (2008). MMPI-2-RF: Manual for

administration, scoring, and interpretation. University of Minnesota Press.

Tower of London

INTRODUCTION

Executive functions:

Executive functions refer to a group of high-level cognitive processes that are responsible for

purposeful, goal-directed, and adaptive behavior. They include abilities such as planning,

problem-solving, organizing, decision-making, mental flexibility, working memory, and

inhibitory control. These functions are essential for navigating everyday life tasks — from

organizing one's schedule and managing time to controlling impulses and adapting to

unexpected changes. Executive functions are primarily associated with the prefrontal cortex

of the brain, and deficits in these areas can lead to difficulties in personal, academic,

occupational, and social functioning.

We need executive functions to carry out complex behaviors that require strategic thinking

rather than automatic or habitual actions. For example, planning a trip, studying for an exam,
 55

managing a project at work, or even preparing a meal all require organizing steps,

anticipating potential obstacles, and adjusting actions when things do not go as planned.

Without efficient executive functions, individuals may struggle with setting goals, prioritizing

activities, regulating emotions, and monitoring their own behavior. Thus, assessing executive

functions is critical in both clinical and research settings to understand an individual’s

cognitive strengths and weaknesses.

One of the key components of executive functioning is planning ability — the capacity to

think ahead and create an organized sequence of actions to achieve a goal. Planning involves

not only deciding what needs to be done but also anticipating problems, evaluating strategies,

and inhibiting impulsive moves in favor of more effective solutions.

Tower of London

The Tower of London (TOL) Test was first developed by Tim Shallice in 1982 as a

neuropsychological assessment tool designed to specifically measure planning ability, a

critical component of executive functioning. Shallice introduced the TOL as an alternative to

the already existing Tower of Hanoi task, aiming to create a method that would more clearly

reflect the difficulties experienced by individuals with frontal lobe damage in real-life

planning and problem-solving situations.

The purpose behind developing the Tower of London was to assess the individual's capacity

for goal-directed behavior — that is, their ability to mentally plan ahead, organize steps

toward a goal, control impulsive actions, and monitor ongoing performance. Shallice’s

research emphasized the importance of the frontal lobes in these higher-order cognitive

processes, and the TOL was created to offer a more direct and practical way to detect

planning deficits in patients, especially those with frontal lobe lesions.

 56

The original Tower of London task consists of a wooden board with three vertical rods (of

different lengths) and three colored balls (commonly red, blue, and green). Each rod can hold

a limited number of balls (usually one, two, or three balls respectively).

The test involves presenting the participant with:

 A starting arrangement of the balls on the rods,

 A goal arrangement that the participant must recreate,

 A set of rules:

1. Only one ball can be moved at a time,

2. A ball cannot be placed on the table — it must always be on a peg,

3. The fewest number of moves possible should be used.

Before moving, participants are often asked to plan their strategy mentally without physically

touching the balls, promoting the use of internal planning rather than trial-and-error behavior.

This method assesses not just whether the participant can complete the task but also how

efficiently and thoughtfully they can plan and execute their moves.

Performance is typically scored based on:

1. Number of moves taken,

2. Number of rule violations,

3. Time taken to complete the task,

4. Number of attempts required.

PROBLEM:

To study the subject’s ability to plan and anticipate the results for his/her actions to achieve a

pre-determined goal.
 57

HYPOTHESIS:

As the complexity of the problem increases, the time taken for planning also increases.

VARIABLES:

1. Independent variable: complexity of the problem

2. Dependent variable: Time take for planning to solve the problem

3. Confounding problem: fatigue

PLAN:

The experiment is conducted using a within subject design. The complexity of the problem is

varied at four-level in terms of movement being limited to 2 moves, 3 moves, 4 moves and 5

moves. The 2-move category consists of 2 problems while the other categories consist of 4

problems.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

1. Two identical wooden boards. Each board measures 38 cm and 13 cm, each board is

plotted with three round pegs of different sizes- the first is 18cm, the second is 11cm

and the third is 7 cm in height. There are three wooden balls- painted red, blue and

green respectively. each ball has a hole in middle. the tallest peg can hold 3 balls, next

2 and last peg can hold only one ball.

2. wooden screen

3. stop-clock

4. writing materials

PROCEDURE:

The subject is presented with the goal state of the arrangement of the 3 balls on one of the

boards which is placed near the examiner. The arrangement of the balls in the other board is
 58

in the initial state. The board is placed near the subject. the subject has to arrive at the goal

state in the board placed before him/her. This can be done with a minimum of 2 moves. The

test commences with the problems at simple level. All the problems in the different

categories are presented in order. the subject is instructed to move the balls in the board next

to him/her so that the arrangement is similar to the board near the examiner.

1. The ball cannot be held in the hand while thinking. This means that the subject must

plan the moves and then pick it up.

2. Once lifted, the ball has to be placed on one of the pegs, not to be placed on the table

or kept in the other hand,

3. only one ball can be lifted at a time, simultaneously more than one ball cannot be

lifted.

4. In the smallest peg, the subject can place only one ball, in the middle only two and in

the longest one only three.

5. The subject can only use one hand while moving the ball.

INSTRUCTION:

“You see here two identical boards, there are only three pegs on each board, there are 3 balls

which are placed on the pegs. the balls are red, green and blue. Please observe the

arrangement of the balls in difference between the two boards, the board nearer to me is the

goal. You have to arrange the balls on the board near you to replicate the pattern of the goal

board. Think well and plan your moves before you pick the ball up. You should not hold the

ball in your hand and think. you can use only one hand. once you lift the ball you have to

place it on one of the pegs. Try to solve the problem as early as possible with minimum

number of moves. If you have any doubts, please clarify. Now please start.”

PRECAUTIONS:
 59

1. Instructions should be clear.

2. Avoid visual/ auditory disturbances.

3. Arrange the seating of the subject so that he/she can move hands freely to operate the

materials.

DATA COLLECTION:

In each problem, the time taken from the start to finish is noted down. This is defined as the

time taken from when the goal state board is placed in front of the subject till the time when

the subject finishes the problem.

o Mean time to solve the problem for 2 moves, 3 moves, 4 moves and 5 moves is

calculated separately.

o Mean number of moves taken to solve 2 moves, 3 moves, 4 moves and 5 moves is

noted separately.

o These is also an overall score of the total number of problems solved with the

minimum number of moves in each category of problem.

POST-TASK QUESTIONS:

1. Did you find any problem difficult to solve?

2. Were there any good sub-goals in your mind so as to reach the final goal state?

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA:

1. Compare mean time to solve different problems.

2. Compare the mean number of moves taken to solve the problems for 2 moves, 3

moves, 4 moves and 5 moves.

3. Compare mean number of problems solved with the minimum number of moves as

well.
 60

DISCUSSION:

Table 4.1 Showing the trials, time-taken and number of moves made by subject noted in

Tower of London test:

TRIALS TIME-TAKEN (IN SEC) NUMBER OF MOVES

Trial 1 3 2
Trial 2 3 2
2 Moves 3 2
2 Moves 5 2
3 Moves 6 3
3 Moves 6 3
3 Moves 5 3
3 Moves 5 3
4 Moves 10 4
4 Moves 7 4
4 Moves 19 10
4 Moves 11 12
 61

5 Moves 19 6
5 Moves 14 5
5 Moves 31 11
5 Moves 55 10

Table 4.2 Shows the mean time-taken, mean number of moves made and number of problems

solved with minimum moves:

Trials Mean Time-taken (In Mean Number of Number of Problems

sec) Moves Made solved with Minimum
Moves
Trial 3 2 2
2 Moves 4 2 2
3 Moves 5.5 3 4
4 Moves 11.75 7.5 2
5 Moves 29.5 8 1

The test was conducted on a 21-year-old female.

Table 4.1 shows the trials, number of moves and time taken by the subject under 2 moves, 3

moves, 4 moves and 5 moves problem.

Table 4.2 shows the mean time-taken, mean number of moves made and number of problems

solved by subject with minimum number of moves.

From the tables, it can be observed that the subject has taken an average time of 4 seconds

and a mean of 2 moves, the number of problems solved with minimum moves is also 2.

In 3 moves problem, the subject has taken an average time of 5.5 seconds and mean number

of moves made by subject is 3. The number of problems solved with minimum number of

moves is 4.
 62

In 4 moves problem, the subject has taken an average time of 11.75 seconds and mean

number of moves made by subject is 7.5. The number of problems solved with minimum

number of moves is 2.

In 5 moves problem, the subject has taken an average time of 29.5 seconds and mean number

of moves made by subject is 8. The number of problems solved with minimum number of

moves is 1.

The subject’s mean time-taken has increased from 4 seconds to 29.5 seconds from the 2

moves to the 5 moves problems. Thus, the subject proves the hypothesis.

CONCLUSION:

The subject proves the hypothesis which states that ‘As the complexity of the problem

increases, the time-take for the planning increases.’

APPLICATION VALUE:

1. Useful in diagnosing and monitoring conditions like Parkinson’s disease,

Huntington’s disease, schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorder, dementia, and mild

cognitive impairment.

2. It assists clinicians in designing rehabilitation programs by identifying specific

executive deficits.

3. It is helpful in research studies exploring the development of executive functions

across different age groups (children, adolescents, adults, elderly).

4. It is used as a screening tool in clinical settings to quickly evaluate cognitive

impairments.

5. Educational psychologists use it to assess planning and organization skills in children

with learning disabilities or ADHD.

 63

LIMITATIONS:

1. Cultural and Educational Bias: Performance can be influenced by an individual's

educational background, cultural familiarity with problem-solving tasks, and exposure

to similar puzzles.

2. Limited Scope: It mainly measures planning ability and does not capture other

important executive functions like working memory or emotional regulation.

3. Practice Effects: Repeated testing can lead to improved performance due to learning

the task, not necessarily actual improvement in executive function.

REFERENCES:

1. Delis, D. C., Kaplan, E., & Kramer, J. H. (2001). Delis-Kaplan Executive Function

System (D-KEFS). The Psychological Corporation.

2. Michalec, J., Brázdil, M., & Kukal, J. (2018). Normative data for the Tower of

London task: Shallice version for the Czech population. Ceskoslovenska Psychologie,

62(6), 599–610.

3. Raizner, T., Chalupová, Z., & Michalec, J. (2020). Sensitivity of the Tower of London

Task to planning development in adolescents: Is there a ceiling effect?

Ceskoslovenska Psychologie, 64(1), 17–30.

4. Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments of planning. Philosophical Transactions of

the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences, 298(1089), 199–209.

https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1982.0082
 64

Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior

INTRODUCTION

The Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation–Behavior (FIRO-B) is a psychometric

instrument developed by William Schutz, Ph.D., in the late 1950s. Designed to assess

interpersonal behavior, the FIRO-B provides insights into how individuals typically behave

toward others and how they expect others to behave toward them. Through its application, the

FIRO-B offers a deeper understanding of key aspects of interpersonal dynamics, including

self-perception versus external perception, the development of interpersonal conflict, and the

management of personal relational needs.

Widely used in both organizational and clinical settings, the FIRO-B has gained considerable

recognition for its utility in enhancing self-awareness and improving interpersonal

 65

effectiveness. Its continuing relevance is supported by a robust body of research validating its

constructs and outcomes.

Schutz's development of the FIRO-B was grounded in the theory that, beyond the basic

survival needs of food, shelter, and warmth, human beings are motivated by interpersonal

needs. These needs, which manifest in interactions both real and imagined, are classified into

three primary domains: Inclusion, Control, and Affection. Each domain reflects distinct

aspects of interpersonal behavior, and unmet needs within these domains can lead to

psychological discomfort and anxiety, motivating individuals to seek fulfillment of these

needs through interaction.

1. Inclusion

The domain of Inclusion refers to an individual's need to establish and maintain satisfying

relationships and interactions with others. It captures the extent to which a person desires

social contact, group membership, and recognition by others. Inclusion behaviors are directed

toward initiating and maintaining shared activities, finding areas of common interest, and

creating a sense of belonging. A high need for Inclusion reflects a strong desire to be part of

groups, to be noticed, and to be acknowledged as a significant member of a community.

Conversely, a lower need for Inclusion may indicate a preference for limited social

interaction and a greater comfort with independence. The concept of Inclusion also

encompasses the desire for prominence and visibility either within a group or through

external acknowledgment of one's group membership.

2. Control

The domain of Control encompasses an individual's need related to power, authority,

responsibility, and influence in interpersonal interactions. It reflects the degree to which a

person seeks to direct, structure, and organize the behavior of others, as well as how much
 66

responsibility they are willing to assume. Control also pertains to an individual's comfort in

leadership or subordinate roles and their desire to be perceived as competent, decisive, and in

command. Those with high Control needs may seek dominance in group settings, taking

initiative in decision-making and agenda-setting, while those with lower Control needs may

prefer a more passive or collaborative approach. The Control dimension thus addresses issues

of autonomy, leadership, and hierarchy within interpersonal and group dynamics.

3. Affection

The domain of Affection addresses the need for close, personal, and emotionally meaningful

relationships. Unlike Inclusion, which relates primarily to group interactions, Affection

focuses on one-to-one relationships and the emotional intimacy therein. It reflects the degree

of warmth, openness, and personal sharing that an individual desires in their relationships.

Individuals with high Affection needs tend to seek closeness, appreciation, and mutual

emotional support. They may also express and expect personal disclosure, trust, and

acceptance. Conversely, individuals with lower Affection needs may prefer emotional

distance, maintaining privacy and limiting personal vulnerability. This domain captures the

fundamental human drive to love and be loved, to feel liked, and to form deep interpersonal

bonds.

EXPRESSED AND WANTED NEEDS IN FIRO-B

In addition to the three core interpersonal needs (Inclusion, Control, and Affection), the

FIRO-B theory also distinguishes between Expressed and Wanted needs. These dimensions

help to explain not only how individuals behave toward others but also how they expect

others to behave toward them.

1. Expressed Needs
 67

The Expressed dimension refers to how much an individual actively demonstrates the

behaviors associated with a particular interpersonal need. It describes how often a person

takes the initiative to engage in behaviors that fulfill that need in their interactions with

others.

I. Expressed Inclusion: This reflects the degree to which a person actively seeks to

engage with others and initiate social interaction. Individuals with high Expressed

Inclusion behaviors tend to reach out to others, encourage participation, and "move

toward" others socially to form connections. They are likely to initiate group activities

and include others in social settings.

II. Expressed Control: This refers to how often an individual takes charge or attempts to

influence situations. People with high Expressed Control behaviors often seek to

direct activities, structure tasks, and make decisions. They are typically comfortable

assuming leadership roles and asserting their influence over others.

III. Expressed Affection: This dimension focuses on how often a person shows warmth,

emotional closeness, and openness toward others. High Expressed Affection involves

initiating affection, expressing warmth, and promoting personal closeness in

relationships. Individuals with high Expressed Affection are likely to be warm and

open, encouraging others to share personal thoughts and feelings.

2. Wanted Needs

The Wanted dimension refers to the degree to which a person desires to receive the behaviors

associated with a particular interpersonal need from others. It indicates how much a person

prefers others to behave in ways that fulfill their interpersonal needs.

I. Wanted Inclusion: This reflects the extent to which a person desires to be included

and engaged by others in social situations. Individuals with high Wanted Inclusion
 68

want others to make an effort to include them in activities and to "move toward" them

socially. They have a strong desire to be noticed and acknowledged by others as part

of a group.

II. Wanted Control: This dimension relates to how much an individual wants others to

assume leadership roles and influence decision-making in various situations. People

with high Wanted Control behaviors prefer to be guided by others and may seek

others' influence in making decisions. They may feel more comfortable when others

take charge in situations requiring direction or authority.

III. Wanted Affection: This refers to the degree to which a person wants warmth,

emotional closeness, and personal connection from others. Individuals with high

Wanted Affection desire others to be open, affectionate, and emotionally supportive

toward them. They seek intimacy, trust, and mutual appreciation in relationships and

want others to be emotionally forthcoming with them

PROBLEM:

To determine the nature of a person's social adaptation. To assess a person's characteristic

behavior towards other people in the area of Inclusion, Control and Affection.

PLAN:

To administer the FIRO-B test and interpret the subject’s responses with reference to the

norms.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
 69

I. F.I.R.O. - B. test questionnaire developed by William Schultz, which consists of 54

items

II. Scoring Sheet.

III. Norms.

IV. Writing materials

PROCEDURE:

The subject is seated comfortably in a well-lit room with sufficient ventilation. After

establishing a good rapport with the subject, the F.I.R.O-B. questionnaire and answer sheet

are placed in front of the subject. The subject is given instructions and doubts clarified.

He/she starts answering the questionnaire. The questionnaire is generally completed within

10-15 minutes. However, there is no time limit. After the questionnaire is completed, the

answer sheet is collected to score and interpret referring to the norms.

PRECAUTIONS:

I. It is ensured that the subject has understood the instructions clearly.

II. The subject is cautioned against the repetitive nature of the questions.

INSTRUCTIONS:

“This is a test to give you adequate feedback on the orientation of your behaviour which will

help you to improve yourself in the required direction. You should be sincere in answering.

Never look for an ideal answer and put it as your answer. There are 54 statements to which

you can agree or disagree on a scale from1 to 6. If you agree fully with a statement your

answer is one and if you disagree totally, your answer is 6. Other numbers are graded in

between. Write your answers in the space provided against each question number in the

scoring sheet. You may experience a sense of repetitiveness of items, but each item is

different and is to be answered independently.”

 70

ANALYSIS OF RESULT:

 Directions for scoring are printed on the scoring keys. The subject gets score of 1

when his answer corresponds to the alternatives given against each item serial number

in the scoring key. The highest possible score obtainable on any scale is 9.

 As denoted in the table, each variable, has 2 scores, symbolised by the letter’s 'e' and

'w’. The 'e' score represents the people 'expressed' or manifest behaviour in the areas

of Inclusion, Control and Affection.

 The ‘w’ scores represent the person's 'wanted' behaviour. These scores refer to what

the person wants from other people in the areas of Inclusion, Control and Affection.

Wanted behaviour is less directly observable and is valuable in understanding and

predicting the person's behaviour.

INTERPRETATIONS:

Score on the F.l.R.0.-B. range from 0 -9. The closer the score is to the extremes of the range,

the more applicable are the following behavioural descriptions for high and low Scores in

each area.

0-2 Low

3-6 Medium

7-9 High

Inclusion: (Reflects general social orientation)

I. Low expressed score - Subject is uncomfortable around people and will move away

from them.

II. High expressed score- Subject is comfortable in social settings and will move towards

people.
 71

III. Low wanted score -Subject is selective in his associations.

IV. High wanted score-Subject has strong need to belong and to be accepted.

Control: (Reflects Leadership behaviour)

I. Low expressed score-Subject avoids making decisions and taking great responsibility.

II. High expressed score - Subject takes on Leadership responsibility.

III. Low wanted score-Subject does not want to be controlled by others.

IV. High wanted score-Subject accepts control from others. (For some women 'high

wanted score' may be a measure of 'tolerance' rather than control desired)

Affection: (Reflects need for deep relationships)

I. Low expressed score-Subject is cautious about initiating intimate relations

II. High expressed score - Subject can readily become emotionally involved.

III. Low wanted score - Subject is cautious and selective in forming intimate

relationships.

IV. High wanted scores- Subject wants others to initiate intimate relationship.

Greater the discrepancy greater the need for intervention.

DISCUSSION:

Table 5.1 Showing the score obtained by the subject in each domain and its interpretation

INCLUSION CONTROL AFFECTION

Score Interpretation Score Interpretation Score Interpretation

EXPRESSED 3 Medium 1 Low 7 High
WANTED 0 Low 6 Medium 7 High
DISCREPENCY 3 Medium 5 Medium 0 Low

The test was conducted on a 21-year-old female.

 72

The aim of the experiment was to determine the subject’s social adaptations with respect to

behavioural in the area of inclusion, control and affection using the Fundamental

Interpersonal Relations Orientation- Behaviour (FIRO-B).

As observed in Table 5.1, In the domain of Inclusion, the individual's Expressed score is 3,

indicating a medium tendency to engage socially. They occasionally initiate social

interactions but may not actively seek out or strongly pursue participation in group activities.

The Wanted score is 0, showing a very low need to be included by others. This suggests that

the individual is highly independent in social settings and does not rely on external invitations

or group acceptance for social satisfaction. The discrepancy score in Inclusion is 3, indicating

a medium level of discrepancy. A medium discrepancy suggests that while there is some

mismatch between how much the individual initiates social interaction and how much they

desire it from others, it is not severe. However, a moderate mismatch can still create minor

discomfort in social situations. Greater discrepancies generally suggest greater need for

intervention, so in this case, attention to balancing social needs could be helpful, although it

is not urgent.

In the domain of Control, the individual's Expressed score is 1, reflecting a low tendency to

take initiative in directing others or assuming leadership roles. They are likely to avoid

decision-making responsibilities and prefer not to take charge in group settings. The Wanted

score in Control is 6, which falls within the medium range. This indicates that while the

individual does not seek to control others, they are moderately comfortable with others

providing leadership and making decisions on their behalf. The discrepancy score here is 5,

again falling within the medium range. A medium discrepancy in Control suggests that there

may be some inconsistency between the individual’s behaviour and expectations around

leadership and authority. Although not extremely high, this discrepancy could occasionally
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cause confusion or dissatisfaction in structured environments, making it an area where self-

awareness and clarity in interpersonal expectations would be beneficial.

In the domain of Affection, the individual shows a high Expressed score of 7, suggesting a

strong readiness to initiate emotional closeness and form deep, meaningful relationships.

They actively seek to create bonds that are characterized by warmth, trust, and openness. The

Wanted score is also high at 7, indicating a strong desire for others to reciprocate emotional

intimacy and closeness. The discrepancy score for Affection is 0, reflecting no discrepancy

between Expressed and Wanted needs. A low discrepancy in this area indicates a good

alignment between how much the individual gives and how much they expect to receive in

close relationships. This harmony suggests that their emotional needs are likely being met

appropriately, with minimal internal conflict or interpersonal dissatisfaction in the realm of

personal closeness.

CONCLUSION

 High alignment between expressed and wanted affection indicates strong mutual

emotional closeness with minimal interpersonal friction.

 A moderate tendency to initiate social contact combined with a low desire for

inclusion by others reflects self-driven yet independent social engagement, with only

occasional discomfort.

 Avoidance of leadership roles alongside comfort being guided suggests a preference

for supportive positions, with occasional role-clarity issues in group settings.

 Medium discrepancies in inclusion and control point to areas where enhanced self-

awareness and clearer communication could improve satisfaction.

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 An overall focus on deep, reciprocal emotional bonds over broad social participation

or directive roles highlights strengths in one-to-one connections and potential growth

in group and leadership contexts.

APPLICATION VALUE:

I. Organizational Setting: Helps in team building by matching team members with

complementary interpersonal needs, improving collaboration and reducing conflict.

Assists in leadership development by identifying individuals' leadership style,

decision-making tendencies, and readiness to take or relinquish control.

II. Clinical/Counselling Setting: Supports therapists and counsellors in understanding

clients’ interpersonal difficulties, especially around intimacy, trust, and

belongingness. Guides interventions to improve personal relationships, manage social

anxiety, or address issues related to emotional closeness and independence.

III. Educational Setting: Helps teachers and mentors recognize students' social

participation styles and leadership tendencies, aiding in better classroom management

and peer group formation. Assists students in developing self-awareness about their

interpersonal behavior, improving peer relationships and group work effectiveness.

LIMITATIONS:

 Relies on self-report data, making it vulnerable to response bias and social desirability

effects.

 Reduces complex interpersonal dynamics to just three dimensions, which can

oversimplify nuanced behaviours.

 Does not account for situational variability—scores represent a snapshot and may not

reflect how needs shift over time or across contexts.

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 Cultural differences in the expression or expectation of inclusion, control, and

affection can limit its universal applicability.

 Medium discrepancies may not always indicate a need for intervention, so results

should be interpreted in conjunction with other assessments or observations.

REFERENCES:

1. CPP, Inc. (2003). Introduction to the FIRO-B® instrument in organizations. CPP,

Inc.

2. Schutz, W. C. (1958). FIRO: A three-dimensional theory of interpersonal

behavior. Rinehart.

3. Schutz, W. C. (1992). Beyond FIRO-B: Three new theory-derived measures—

Element-B, Element-F, and Element-S. Psychological Reports, 70(2), 747–753.

https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1992.70.2.747

4. Schutz, W. C. (1994). The Human Element: Productivity, Self-Esteem, and the

Bottom Line. Jossey-Bass.

Thematic Apperception Test

INTRODUCTION

Projective method to assess personality:

Projective methods are a distinctive class of personality assessment techniques grounded in

the premise that individuals interpret and impose meaning upon ambiguous stimuli in a way

that reflects their own internal world. This principle is encapsulated in the projective

hypothesis, which posits that when confronted with unstructured or vague stimuli, an
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individual will project aspects of their personality—including unconscious conflicts, desires,

fears, and attitudes—onto the stimulus (Frank, 1939). Thus, their responses serve as windows

into the psychological processes that govern perception and behavior.

A classic analogy often used to illustrate this concept involves asking individuals to stare at a

blank chalkboard or a similarly unstructured surface, such as clouds, and then report what

they perceive. The wide variability in responses across individuals suggests that what they

“see” is not simply a reflection of the stimulus but of their internal psychological landscape.

This forms the foundation for projective assessments, which aim to access deeper layers of

personality that may not be readily expressed through direct questioning or self-report

instruments.

Projective methods differ fundamentally from structured personality assessments in that they

are indirect. The respondent is typically asked to describe, interpret, or respond to an

ambiguous image or scenario. From these responses, trained clinicians infer aspects of

personality functioning, often accessing material that is unconscious or that the individual is

unwilling or unable to articulate directly. Because the stimuli are ambiguous and the tasks

often imaginative or interpretive, these methods minimize the individual's ability to

consciously manipulate responses or respond in socially desirable ways. Moreover, certain

projective tasks, such as drawing or storytelling, demand minimal verbal ability, which

enhances their applicability across diverse linguistic and cultural populations.

Proponents argue that projective methods have the potential for greater cross-cultural

applicability than structured inventories, owing to their reliance on imagery and symbolic

representation rather than language-dependent formats. Additionally, these methods are

lauded for their capacity to elicit affect-laden content and tap into affective and cognitive

processes that lie outside of conscious awareness.

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Thematic Apperception test:

The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is a widely used projective technique developed in

1935 by Christina Morgan and Henry A. Murray at Harvard University. It was designed to

explore the unconscious dimensions of personality, including an individual’s needs,

motivations, emotional conflicts, and interpersonal attitudes. Unlike structured self-report

inventories, the TAT uses ambiguous stimuli—typically a series of pictures depicting

interpersonal scenes—allowing examinees to project their internal states onto the content.

The theoretical foundation of the TAT lies in Murray’s (1938) theory of needs, which

identifies 28 core human needs such as achievement, affiliation, dominance, and autonomy.

Among these, the need for achievement has been extensively studied, contributing to a large

body of research and establishing construct validity for the TAT.

Procedure: Respondents are shown a series of pictures and asked to create stories that

include:

 What is happening in the scene?

 What led up to it?

 What are the characters thinking and feeling?

 What will happen next?

These narrative responses are analysed to infer underlying personality traits and dynamics.

Although subjective and lacking standardized scoring, trained professionals can interpret

themes such as coping styles, interpersonal relationships, and internal conflicts.

Test structure:

TAT belongs to the projective category of personality assessment, which is both subjective

and objective. It is considered especially valuable in clinical settings because it reveals

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unconscious material such as hidden fears, internal conflicts, and unresolved needs by

analysing stories the subject creates based on ambiguous stimuli.

Structure of the Test

 The original TAT consists of 31 picture cards, including one blank card.

 Of these, 11 cards are common to all subjects regardless of age or gender.

 The remaining cards are customized based on age and gender, such as:

o Cards marked BM, M for boys/males

o GF, F for girls/females

o BG for young children

o 13MF for adolescents

 Typically, 20 cards (19 pictures + 1 blank) are selected for administration based on

the subject’s profile.

Administration

The subject is shown each card one at a time and is asked to create a detailed story around

each image, including:

o What is happening in the picture?

o What led up to the event?

o What will happen next?

o What are the characters thinking and feeling?

The blank card is used to assess free association, where the subject imagines and narrates a

scene of their own choice.

Indian Adaptation:
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Given that the original TAT cards reflect Western socio-cultural settings, an Indian

adaptation was developed to ensure greater relevance and cultural sensitivity for Indian

respondents.

Modifications Made

o Faces, attire, and background elements were modified to reflect Indian culture and

social contexts.

o Stimulus value was retained while enhancing cultural relatability.

Selection Criteria for Indian Adaptation

o Stimuli encourage imagination and fantasy.

o Include ambiguous figures allowing identification with either gender.

o Reflect important family and social relationships.

Stimulate emotionally rich themes such as:

o Anxiety, aggression, guilt, inferiority, love, fear, ambition, depression.

Address common home and school adjustment issues among Indian children and adolescents.

PROBLEM:

To assess subject’s personality traits by administrating Thematic Apperception test.

PLAN:
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The subject’s personality is assessed by administrating Thematic Apperception Test. The test

consists of 30 Cards and a blank card.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:

1. Thematic Apperception Test kit- Picture cards and scoring norms

2. Writing materials

3. Stop-clock

PROCEDURE:

The subject is seated comfortably on a chair facing the examiner. The atmosphere of the

testing room is quiet and free from any external disturbance. The examiner establishes a

rapport by being friendly and appreciative to win over the confidence of the subject and

ensure free reactivity. The subject is presented with the cards one by one and ask to observe

the card for 30 seconds and write a story on what they observed within 4 minutes.

INSTRUCTIONS:

After establishing the rapport, following instructions are given in a steady and deliberate

tone.

"I will present to you some picture cards one by one. You have to make a story on each one

of them. I want to see your imagination and have an idea that how good you are at making

stories. There are four points which you have to keep in mind while making stories on these

pictures; (1) You have to describe the scene in the picture and give the reason for that

situation (the past),

(2) You have to tell what is happening at present in this picture (the present) ?

(3) Further you have to tell who are the people in the picture, and what are they feeling and

thinking about?
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(4) Lastly, what will happen later in that picture (the future)?

You are free to make any kind of story, and will be given approximately 4 minutes to

complete one story. Is everything clear?" Immediately after this add, "You narrate the stories,

and I will write them down."

After giving the above instructions, the examiner presents the first card and says, "Now this is

the first picture. Look at it carefully, and make a story. Please keep in mind that you have to

give the past, the present, the people's feelings and thoughts in the picture, and the future or

the end of the story."

For the blank card which is given at the end, following instructions are given. "Finally, this

last card is blank. You can think of any scene on this card, keeping the same four points in

mind."

The above instructions should be adhered to as far as possible but they may be altered in

exceptional cases to suit the age, intelligence, personality and mental state of the subject. The

time limit may also be relaxed as and when necessary.

RECORDING OF THE DATA:

The examiner records the reaction time, total time, any significant pauses, facial expressions,

gestures and other behavioural observations. The story can be written by the subject or can be

told aloud, in which case, the examiner records the stories verbatim.

DISCUSSION:
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The aim of the experiment was to assess the subject’s motives, emotions, interpersonal

relationships and basic personality traits.

The test was conducted on 21-year-old female college student.

Motives, Trends and Feelings of the Hero:

The central figure in the narratives—referred to as the "hero"—exhibited a heightened need

for dependence, nurturance, succorance, and harm avoidance, coupled with a pronounced fear

of rejection. While the hero appears to be intrinsically ambitious, there exists a persistent

internal conflict between pursuing personal passions and adhering to externally imposed

standards of perfection. This dynamic seems to evoke feelings of guilt and inadequacy,

especially when the hero perceives a failure to meet these expectations.

A significant need for affection and emotional intimacy was evident throughout the stories,

although this is accompanied by a deep-seated fear of abandonment and impermanence in

relationships. The hero's interpersonal representations suggest an ambivalent attachment

style, reflecting a desire for closeness that is simultaneously restrained by fears of emotional

instability or loss. Affective tone across the narratives was marked by anxiety, internal

conflict, and dejection, indicating an underlying sense of vulnerability and emotional

turbulence.

Focuses of Hero’s environment:

The hero’s narratives reflect the influence of a patriarchal and socio-culturally rigid

environment, wherein traditional gender roles and societal expectations play a dominant role

in shaping the hero’s behavior and self-concept. While there are glimpses of freedom and

partial autonomy, these are overshadowed by recurring themes of internalized obligations and

external pressures
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The hero often assumes a submissive role or demonstrates an emotional struggle to assert

independence, reflecting an inner conflict between compliance and the desire for self-

liberation. Despite being situated within a seemingly functioning and affectionate family

system, the presence of unspoken expectations and external stressors emerges as a significant

source of psychological strain. Recurring imagery and storylines suggest a latent desire to

escape—not necessarily from relationships, but from the emotional burden and

environmental rigidity—towards a space characterized by peace, emotional safety, and

personal authenticity.

Outcomes of the stories:

An analysis of the story outcomes reveals a predominance of themes related to loss, nostalgia,

and unresolved endings. Most narratives culminate in sad or emotionally unfulfilled

resolutions, often involving separation, longing, or a passive acceptance of circumstances.

While the hero frequently demonstrates hope or desire for change, there is also an underlying

resignation to external limitations, suggesting a conflict between aspiration and perceived

powerlessness. These narrative outcomes suggest a psychological state in which hope is

present but muted by learned patterns of emotional surrender, shaped possibly by prior

experiences of unmet needs or invalidation from the environment.

Themes, interests and sentiments:

The dominant thematic undercurrent across the narratives suggests a struggle between

internal desires and external expectations, highlighting an unresolved conflict in the hero’s

self-concept. The stories reflect a search for identity, with the hero often portrayed as

navigating ambiguity in defining their role within their immediate environment. This suggests

incomplete ego integration or difficulties in achieving a coherent self-image, likely

influenced by environmental pressures and internalized norms.

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Despite this conflict, the hero consistently exhibits passion, ambition, and a striving for

emotional liberation, indicating resilient motivational trends. There is a marked yearning for

validated emotional connection, intimacy, and acceptance, which frequently emerges as a

central drive. The need for love, nurturance, and relational security appears to be strongly

expressed, often juxtaposed with fears of rejection or impermanence in relationships.

The sentimental tone throughout the narratives tends to oscillate between hope and emotional

vulnerability, reflecting a psyche that is both driven by aspiration and restrained by

psychological insecurity or fear of relational instability.

CONCLUSION:

o The hero displays high needs for dependence, nurturance, affection, and validation,

often coupled with fear of rejection and intimacy.

o There is a clear internal conflict between ambition and the pressure to conform to

external expectations (especially patriarchal or societal norms).

o Stories often show a desire for autonomy, yet the hero feels bound by emotional and

societal ropes, suggesting unresolved identity and self-definition issues.

o Recurrent endings of sadness, nostalgia, or escape reflect emotional fatigue, possible

depressive tendencies, and a sense of helplessness in changing external circumstances.

o Themes point toward an anxious-preoccupied attachment style, where the hero craves

closeness but fears it may be temporary or unattainable.

o Overall personality configuration shows high succorance, affiliation, and achievement

needs, with coexisting emotional conflict and inhibited self-expression.

APPLICATION VALUE:

o Assesses expectations and patterns in interpersonal relationships such as with parents,

peers, authority figures, and romantic partners.

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o Examiner observes not only the story content but also behavioral cues like vocal tone,

hesitation, posture, and emotional responses

o Used in assessments for people-oriented or high-stress professions such as military,

law enforcement, education, ministry, and diplomacy

o Helps in selecting appropriate psychotherapy by matching treatment approaches to

personality structure and dynamics

o Assists in forensic evaluations to understand motivations, emotional tone, and

relational patterns in individuals accused of crimes

o Can be used repeatedly in therapy to monitor psychological progress or identify

barriers in treatment.

LIMITATIONS:

o Interpretation is highly subjective and may vary significantly between examiners

o Lacks standardized scoring system, reducing reliability and validity

o Cultural bias may affect responses, especially if images are not culturally adapted

o Time-consuming to administer and interpret.

REFERENCES:

1. Abrams, M. H. (1999). A glossary of literary terms (7th ed.). Harcourt Brace.

2. Bellak, L. (1999). The TAT, CAT, and SAT in clinical use (6th ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

3. Cramer, P., & Blatt, S. J. (1990). The development of narrative content and emotional

themes in a Thematic Apperception Test. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54(3-4),

708–718. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5403&4_22

4. Frank, L. K. (1939). Projective methods for the study of personality. The Journal of

Psychology, 8(2), 389–413. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1939.9917550

5. McClelland, D. C. (1999). The achieving society. Free Press.

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6. Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality: A clinical and experimental study

of fifty men of college age. Oxford University Press.

7. Wood, J. M., Nezworski, M. T., Lilienfeld, S. O., & Garb, H. N. (2003). What's

wrong with the Rorschach? Science confronts the controversial inkblot test. Jossey-

Bass.