EXCRETORY/URINARY SYSTEM
The excretory system is a vital biological system that removes excess and waste products from
the body to maintain homeostasis. Most of these products are in fact used and broken down
components of metabolism that leave the body in the form of urine, sweat, or feces.
Excretory System Organs
The human excretory system organs include:
A pair of kidneys(forming urine)
A pair of ureters (transporting urine)
A urinary bladder(storing urine)
A urethra(carry urine outside the body)
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Kidneys are bean-shaped, reddish brown structures located on either side of the backbone and
are protected by the ribs and muscles of the back. Each human adult kidney has a length of 10-12
cm, a width of 5-7 cm , Thickness-3cm and weighs around 120-170g. There are two
kidneys(right and left). Each Kidney extends from T12 to L3 vertebrae. Right Kidney is lower
than the left due to presence of liver.
Kidneys are divided into three regions. Namely, the renal cortex which is the outer layer. Next,
the renal medulla which is the inner layer. And lastly, the renal pelvis which carries the urine
from the kidney to the ureter.
COVERINGS OF KIDNEY
From within outwards-
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Fat
COVERIN
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Capsule G OF [Link] Fascia
KIDNEY
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Fat
[Link] Capsule- Also known as Renal Capsule- is a tough layer of tissue that surrounds and
protects the kidney. It’s made up of collagen and elastin, which are fibrous proteins.
[Link] Fat- This is adipose tissue. It lies next to fibrous capsule fills the renal sinus and
is abundant along the borders.
3. Renal Fascia-is a fibrous tissue that surrounds the kidneys and is located outside the perirenal
fat.
[Link] fat-This is located outside of the renal fascia and is frequently present in
considerable amounts. It is a component of the retroperitoneal fat.
GROSS FEATURES OF KIDNEYS
Two Poles-UPPER(Superior) AND LOWER(Inferior)
Two Borders-Lateral(Convex) and Medial(Concave)
Two Surfaces-Anterior and Posterior
Hilum-The hilum of the kidney is a vertical slit in the kidney's medial border where the
renal artery, renal vein, and ureter enter and exit the kidney. The hilum is also known as
the renal pedicle.
POLES OF KIDNEY-The two poles of the kidney are the superior (upper) pole and
the inferior (lower) pole. The kidney is bean-shaped, and the midportion is often called the
midpole.
Explanation
Superior pole: This pole is thick and round, and is closer to the median plane.
Inferior pole: This pole is thin and pointed, and is closer to the pelvis. It's the part of the kidney
that's typically oriented toward the bottom of the body when a person is standing upright.
The lower pole of the kidney contains the renal pelvis and calyces, which are important for urine
collection, filtration, and elimination. The lower pole can also be significantly affected by kidney
stones.
BORDERS OF KIDNEY-The two borders of the kidney are the medial border and
the lateral border.
Explanation
The lateral border faces away from the midline and is convex.
The medial border faces the midline and is concave. The medial border has a vertical slit called
the hilum, which is the entry and exit point for the kidney's vessels and ureter.
SURFACES OF KIDNEY-
The kidney has an anterior surface, a posterior surface, and lateral
and medial borders.
Anterior surface Faces the anterior abdominal wall and Convex.
Posterior surface Faces the posterior abdominal wall and Flat.
Lateral borders major convexity.
Medial borders -Minor [Link] the hilum, which is a passageway for the renal
vessels and ureter
RENAL STRUCTURE
The kidney is divided into an outer renal cortex and an inner renal medulla. The
cortex is lighter in color and has a grainy texture, while the medulla is darker and
smoother.
Renal cortex: It is the outer part of the kidney, located just below the
capsule. Bowman’s Capsules and the glomeruli, proximal and distal
convoluted tubules are located in this part. It is divided into two parts:
Outer cortical lobules- over the renal pyramids
Renal columns extending between pyramids of renal medulla.
Renal medulla: It is the inner part of the kidney. It has 10-12 dark coloured
pyramids, The base of each pyramid is towards the cortex and the apex
(renal papilla) opens in minor calyx. It contains loops of Henle, collecting
tubules and collecting ducts. Extension of medulla into the cortex forms
medullary rays (containing collecting tubules).
Each medullary pyramid and the associated cortical tissue at its base and sides (one
half of each adjacent renal column) constitutes a lobe of the kidney.
Renal sinus: It is a space between the renal parenchyma and hilum. It
contains:-Minor calyces, Major calyces,Pelvis of kidney (which at the lower
pole of kidney continues as ureter), Blood vessels and nerves,Perinephric fat.
RELATIONS OF KIDNEY
BLOOD SUPPLY TO KIDNEY
Arterl supply of kidney
Each Kidney is supplied by the renal artery which is a branch of abdominal aorta.
i. Renal Artery divides into-anterior and posterior trunk which enter the kidney via the hilum.
ii. Anterior trunk further divides into-4 segmental arteries and posterior trunk continues as
posterior segmental artery.
iii. Each segmental or lobal artery divides into-interlobar arteries, arcuate arteries and
interlobular arteries.
iv. The interlobular arteries give rise to afferent arterioles which further divide to form a tuft of
capillaries called the glomerulus.
v. The glomerular capillaries rejoin at the other end and form the efferents arterioles.
vi. Each efferent artriole further divides into-peritubular capillaries which surround the renal
tubules.
vii. The peritubular capillaries and vasa recta finally drain into the interlobular veins.
Venous supply of kidney
Each Kidney is drained by a renal vein which further drains into the inferior vena cava.
Lymphatic drainage of kidney
Lymphatics from kidney run along the renal vessels and drain into lateral aortic lymph nodes.
Nerve supply of kidney
The kidneys are supplied with nerves from the autonomic nervous system, which includes
sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. The renal plexus is the source of nervous tissue in the
kidneys.
NEPHRON-The nephron is the functional unit of a kidney. In fact, each kidney consists of millions
of nephrons. They all function together to filter blood and expel waste products. It consists of the
following parts:
Bowman’s capsule– The Bowman’s capsule (also called the glomerular capsule), is the
beginning of a nephron. It surrounds the glomerulus. It is the first part of the nephron.
It is a cup-shaped structure and receives the blood vessels. Glomerular filtration occurs here.
The blood cells and proteins remain in the blood.
Proximal Convoluted Tubule– The Bowman’s capsule extends downwards to form the
proximal tubule. Water and reusable materials from the blood are now reabsorbed back into
it.
The loop of Henle– The proximal tubule leads to the formation of a u-shaped loop called the
Loop of Henle. It has three parts: the descending limb, the u-shaped bend, and the ascending
limb. It is in this area in which urine becomes concentrated as water is reabsorbed. The
descending limb is permeable to water whereas the ascending limb is impermeable to it.
Distal Convoluted Tubule– The Loop of Henle leads into the distal convoluted tubule. It is
where the kidney hormones cause their effect.
Collecting Duct– The Distal Convoluted Tubule of each nephron leads to the collecting
ducts. The collecting ducts together form the renal pelvis. Through renal pelvis, the urine
passes into the ureter and then into the bladder.
FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEYS-
The primary function of the kidney is to make urine and purify the blood. Each kidney removes
waste materials, and other chemicals which are not required by the body. Most important
functions of the kidney are described below.
Removal of waste products
Purification of blood by removal of waste products is the most important function of the
kidney. Creatinine and urea are two important waste products that can easily be measured
in the blood. Their “values” in blood tests reflects the function of the kidney. When both
the kidneys fail, value of creatinine and urea will be high in blood test.
Removal of excess fluid
The second most important function of the kidney is the regulation of fluid balance by
excreting excess amount of water as urine while retaining the necessary amount of water
in the body, that is essential for living .When the kidneys, fail they lose the ability of
removing this excess amount of water. Excess water in the body leads to swelling.
Balance minerals and chemicals
The kidneys play another important role of regulating minerals and chemicals like
sodium, potassium, hydrogen, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and bicarbonate and
maintains normal composition of body fluid.
Changes in the sodium level can affect person’s mental state, while changes in the
potassium level can have serious adverse effects on the rhythm of the heart as well as
functioning of the muscles. Maintenance of normal level of the calcium and phosphorus
is essential for healthy bones and teeth.
Control of blood pressure
The kidneys produce different hormones (renin, angiotensin, aldosterone, prostaglandin
etc) which help regulate water and salt in the body, which plays vital roles in the
maintenance of good blood pressure control. Disturbances in hormone production and
regulation of salt and water in a patient with kidney failure can lead to high blood
pressure.
Red blood cells production
Erythropoietin is another hormone produced in the kidneys, it plays an important role in
the production of red blood cells (RBC). During kidney failure, production of
erythropoietin is decreased, which in turn leads to decreased production of RBC resulting
in low hemoglobin (anemia). This is the reason why in patients with kidney failure, the
hemoglobin count does not improve despite supplementation with iron and vitamin
preparations.
To maintain healthy bones
The kidneys convert vitamin D into its active form which is essential for the absorption
of calcium from food, growth of the bones and teeth, and keep the bones strong and
healthy. During kidney failure, decreased active vitamin D leads to decreased, growth of
bones and they also become weak. Growth retardation may be sign of kidney failure in
children.
URETERS
These narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. They are hollow muscular tubes
about 25-30 cm long with a diameter of 3mm. Muscles in the ureter walls continually tighten and
relax forcing urine downward, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or is allowed to stand
still, a kidney infection can develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, small amounts of urine are
emptied into the bladder from the ureters.
Ureteral tubes are made of smooth muscle that contracts to push urine from the kidneys to the
bladder. Ureters can get blocked and infected. Left untreated, conditions of the ureters can lead
to kidney damage. Ureter is enclosed within the following three coats-Tunica Adventitia, Tunica
Muscularis and Tunica Mucosa.
PARTS OF URETER
Pelvis of ureter
Abdominal part of ureter
Pelvic part of ureter
STRUCTURE OF URETER
Outer Fibrous coat
Middle smooth muscle coat
Inner Mucous membrane
FUNCTIONS- Transport urine from the renal pelvis of the kidney to the urinary bladder.
URINARY BLADDER-
The urinary bladder is a reservoir for urine. The bladder is roughly pear shaped but
becomes more balloon shaped as it fills with urine. This triangle-shaped, hollow organ is
located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments that are attached to other organs
and the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten
to empty urine through the urethra. The typical healthy adult bladder can store up to two cups of
urine for two to five hours. The total capacity is rarely more than about 600ml.
The bladder wall is composed of three layers.
The three orifices in the bladder wall form a triangle or trigone. The upper two orifices on the
posterior wall are the openings of the ureters , the lower orifice is the opening into the urethra.
URETHRA
The tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to
tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter
muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the urethra. When all the signals occur in
the correct order, normal urination occurs.
Male urethra is 20cm in length. Female urethra is shorter than males and about 4cm long.
URINE FORMATION-The kidneys filter unwanted substances from the blood and produce
urine to excrete them. There are three main steps of urine formation: glomerular filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion. These processes ensure that only waste and excess water are
removed from the body.
1. The Glomerulus Filters Water and Other Substances from the
Bloodstream
Each kidney contains over 1 million tiny structures called nephrons. Each nephron
has a glomerulus, the site of blood filtration. The glomerulus is a network of
capillaries surrounded by a cuplike structure, the glomerular capsule (or Bowman’s
capsule). As blood flows through the glomerulus, blood pressure pushes water and
solutes from the capillaries into the capsule through a filtration membrane. This
glomerular filtration begins the urine formation process.
2. The Filtration Membrane Keeps Blood Cells and Large Proteins
in the Bloodstream
Inside the glomerulus, blood pressure pushes fluid from capillaries into the
glomerular capsule through a specialized layer of cells. This layer,
the filtration membrane, allows water and small solutes to pass but blocks
blood cells and large proteins. Those components remain in the bloodstream.
The filtrate (the fluid that has passed through the membrane) flows from the
glomerular capsule further into the nephron.
3. Reabsorption Moves Nutrients and Water Back into the
Bloodstream
The glomerulus filters water and small solutes out of the bloodstream. The
resulting filtrate contains waste, but also other substances the body needs:
essential ions, glucose, amino acids, and smaller proteins. When the filtrate
exits the glomerulus, it flows into a duct in the nephron called the renal
tubule. As it moves, the needed substances and some water are reabsorbed
through the tube wall into adjacent capillaries. This reabsorption of vital
nutrients from the filtrate is the second step in urine creation.
4. Waste Ions and Hydrogen Ions Secreted from the Blood
Complete the Formation of Urine
The filtrate absorbed in the glomerulus flows through the renal tubule, where
nutrients and water are reabsorbed into capillaries. At the same time, waste
ions and hydrogen ions pass from the capillaries into the renal tubule. This
process is called secretion. The secreted ions combine with the remaining
filtrate and become urine. The urine flows out of the nephron tubule into a
collecting duct. It passes out of the kidney through the renal pelvis, into the
ureter, and down to the bladder.
5. Urine Is 95% Water
The nephrons of the kidneys process blood and create urine through a
process of filtration, reabsorption, and secretion. Urine is about 95% water
and 5% waste products. Nitrogenous wastes excreted in urine include urea,
creatinine, ammonia, and uric acid. Ions such as sodium, potassium,
hydrogen, and calcium are also excreted.
