GEOLOGY REVIEWER support the structure without fear of

History of London Bridge any serious movement in the future.

Completed in the early 13th century,
the SPECIAL PRELIMINARY WORK
iconic London Bridge was known Considerations in Bridge Location and
for its multi-arched structure. Foundation
The bridge reduced the waterway, Primary Factors: Bridge location is
creating swift rapids that led to mainly driven by convenience and
numerous fatalities. economy, with the goal of connecting
In 1756, an Act of Parliament ordered terminals by the shortest route that
the removal of buildings and the fits the topography.
reconstruction of the central arches Cost Limitations: For deep canyon
into one large arch. crossings, cost often restricts site
This change diverted the water flow, selection to the shortest feasible
causing serious scouring and eventual structure.
bridge collapse. Engineer’s Challenge: The bridge
The bridge was eventually demolished engineer must adapt the design to the
and replaced with a modern structure. available foundation conditions.
Geological Information:
Comprehensive geological data is
IMPORTANCE OF BRIDGE essential due to the limited site
FOUNDATIONS selection options.
The foundation bed must support the
entire weight of the bridge and its Importance of Geologic
loads, regardless of the pier design. Information in Bridge Design
While piers and abutments might
seem less exciting to structural Irreversible Construction: Once
engineers, foundation materials are bridge piers are built, their locations
just as critical to the design process. can't be easily changed, making
Choosing the right foundation involves geologic information critical for design
challenging considerations similar to certainty.
the mathematical calculations for the Design Certainty: High confidence is
superstructure (steel, concrete, needed in the design and performance
timber). of piers and abutments.
IMPORTANCE OF BRIDGE Topographic Challenges: Bridges
FOUNDATIONS typically cross valleys or rivers, which
It has not always been fully are often formed by geological
recognized that concern should always irregularities, requiring careful
be given to the pier and abutment- geologic consideration.
bearing surfaces and whether they can
Common Issues in Ancient Bridge
Pier Design Importance of Geological
Scouring: Erosion of the foundation Investigations in Bridge
beds around bridge piers due to water Construction
currents was a major cause of failure Thorough geological investigations are
in ancient bridges. essential for bridge construction,
Loading Limitations: Ancient bridges particularly in river crossings where
typically had shorter spans, reducing much of the foundation is hidden
the risk of failure from excessive underwater.
loading on the piers. Georges River Bridge Case:
Main Failure Causes: Emphasized the need for professional
Scouring: Erosion weakening the supervision of test borings to prevent
foundation. structural issues.
Foundation Strength: Geological San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge
conditions affecting the stability of the Case:
piers. West Bay: Stable piers due to solid
Geological Factors: Both scouring rock foundation and caisson
and foundation issues are construction.
fundamentally related to geological East Bay: No solid rock; relied on
conditions, emphasizing the need for unconsolidated materials, requiring
proper soil and site analysis in bridge careful core sampling and testing to
design. ensure stability.

Importance of Geologic Survey in The La Salle River Bridge failure in

Bridge Foundations Manitoba underscores the
consequences of inadequate
Riverbed Deposits: Riverbeds may geological surveys.
contain varying deposits, including Underlying Problem:
boulders, which can be mistaken for Unknown layer of
solid rock if not properly studied. bentonitic clay (slippery and weak)
Necessity of Careful Borings: Proper was present below the foundation
geologic borings should be closely Caused excessive settlement
monitored by a trained observer to of the abutment (dropped 1.2m/4ft)
avoid errors. Geological Challenge:
Neglect of Geology: The absence of Local soils formed from
geological references in related ancient glacial deposits
studies suggests that neglecting Unexpected subsurface
geologic features may have variations led to instability
contributed to construction issues. Key Lesson:
 Glacial deposits are
unpredictable Solutions for Weak Foundation
Deeper and more thorough borings are Materials:
essential to detect weak layers Hollow piers or open framework
Proper geological assessments designs (e.g., Mortimer E. Cooley
prevent costly structural failures Bridge, Michigan).
Artificial consolidation methods:
Grouting, chemical treatments, or
DESIGN OF BRIDGE PIERS retaining steel piling in place.
General speaking, there are four types Historical example: Wade Bridge,
of bridge-pier loading, one or more of England (1538) – used artificial
which may have to be provided for in reinforcement.
design; Tappan Zee Bridge (New York):
1. Vertical Load:Varying intensity Bedrock too deep (420m/1,400ft below
from truss/girder spans or suspension- water level).
bridge towers Friction-bearing piles driven into
2. Inclined Load:Varying intensity & riverbed silt, sand, and gravel for
direction for arched spans support.
Inclined tensions from suspension
bridge cables Geological Considerations in
3. Horizontal Thrust:Pressure from Bridge Pier Foundations
ice, debris, water flow, and wind on Cantilever Main-Channel Span Piers
piers & superstructure Founded on buoyant
4. Seismic Forces (Earthquake reinforced-concrete boxes, carrying ⅔
Regions):Additional loads due to of the dead load.
earthquake activity 75-cm concrete-filled pipe piles
(up to 102 m deep) & 35-cm steel H
Estimation of Foundation Load in piles for support.
Bridge Construction Piles driven through clay,
General Approach: gravelly clay, sand, and gravel, then
Similar to other foundation work but grouted to consolidate gneiss and
with unique considerations. sandstone bedrock.
Weak strata below surface require Impact of Geology on Pier Settlement
special attention. Waterloo Bridge (London,
Factors Affecting Load Reduction: 1811-1817): Timber raft foundation
Displacement Allowance: failed due to settlement, requiring
Excavated material and pier complete reconstruction.
displacement of water. Causes of settlement:
Skin Friction: Large surface area of
piers reduces net load
 - Scour displacement - Bridge Abutments on Sloping
Soil consolidation (only Ground
controllable factor)
- Lateral displacement - Challenges:
Stratum failure Earth pressure and surcharge
Hillside instability
Structural Stability in Rigid-Frame Asymmetrical forces during
Bridges construction
Unequal settlement is critical in Ideal vs. Adapted Foundations
modern rigid-frame designs. Ideal: Solid rock foundations
Broadway Bridge for stability
(Saskatoon, 1932): Uneven arch Adapted: Solutions for varying
concreting led to tilting piers (15 mm conditions
deflection). Grosvenor Bridge (England):
Vaudreuil (Quebec): Uneven Timber piles used to support abutment
loading during construction must be on loose sand
mitigated.
Inclined Tension & Anchorage Stability : Engineering Innovation
Île d'Orléans Bridge Ivy Lea International Bridge
(Quebec): Used rock and sand (Canada-USA)Strong gneiss
foundations for cable tension stability. bedrock allowed:
H-beams driven into sand to
increase pier stability. - Arch abutment support
Unique Geological Adaptations - Suspension cable anchorage
Burford Bridge (Surrey, - Vertical column support
UK): Built over chalk formations with
underground cavities.
Concrete domes constructed Bridge abutments must be carefully
over dissolution channels for stability. designed to account for geological
Inspection access shafts included to conditions and structural stability. The
monitor future erosion. Volta River Bridge in Ghana required
DESIGN OF BRIDGE ABUTMENTS design modifications due to
unexpected rock formations. When
Bridge abutments must support bedrock is unavailable, bearing
structural loads and resist earth piles are used, but they must
pressure, requiring careful design. resist lateral movement. In Ontario,
Proper fill placement, effective the Macdonald-Cartier Freeway
drainage, and monitoring of experienced abutment shifts due to
settlement are essential for stability. settlement in sensitive clay. These
cases highlight the need for thorough
geological studies and flexible Solution: Modern freeway system
engineering solutions to ensure long- built over restricted development zone
term stability. Engineering Adaptations:Designed
for vertical and horizontal movements
The Kohala Bridge faced instability Movable support piers (600 tonnes) on
due to landslides at its Punjab adjustable bearings
abutment. After damage and collapse, Jacking system compensates for
engineers redesigned it with a ground shifts
cantilevered span and a suspended Result: Safe and adaptable
section to accommodate future infrastructure despite geological
movements. Drainage measures were challenges
also added to improve stability. This
solution minimized damage risks and EARTHQUAKES AND BRIDGE
allowed for easy repairs, DESIGN
demonstrating engineering
adaptability to geological challenges. Bridges in earthquake-prone areas
require careful seismic design,
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST especially when piers are tall. The Pitt
SETTLEMENT River Bridge in California, with piers
The Clifton Bridge in Nottingham reaching 108 m (360 ft), underwent a
was designed to accommodate seismic study by the U.S. Bureau of
potential settlements from coal Reclamation. The study found that
mining. submerged piers would not behave as
rigid structures during earthquakes. As
Challenge: Possible settlement from a result, the design first ensured
coal mining stability under static loads, with
Design Solution:Prestressed- earthquake forces added separately to
concrete spans with cantilever and concentrate at the pier base,
suspended sections improving overall structural resilience.
Adjustable supports for future
jacking if needed Seismic Considerations in Bridge
Outcome: Coal mining was avoided, Design
but the bridge was built as originally
designed Pajaro River Bridge: Originally
damaged in the 1906 earthquake, it
Gold-Mining Subsidence and was redesigned in 1914 with
Highway Design in Johannesburg continuous deck girders, rockers, and
Challenge: Ground movement due to safety triggers to withstand seismic
old gold-mining tunnels shifts along the San Andreas Fault.
Golden Gate Bridge: Engineered
with seismic allowances (0.10g for SOME CONSTRUCTION
piers, 0.075g for superstructure) to REQUIREMENTS
ensure stability against earthquakes,
utilizing strong rock foundations. BRIDGE-FOUNDATION DESIGN MUST
CONSIDER THE SPECIFIC PROBLEMS
SCOURING AROUND BRIDGE PIERS OF PIER CONSTRUCTION. GEOLOGIC
FACTORS AFFECT CONSTRUCTION
Bridge construction affects RESTRICTION OF THE WATERCOURSE
waterways by increasing water NAVIGATION REQUIREMENTS, WATER
velocity, creating eddies, and causing DEPTHS AND TIDAL RANGE, AND THE
riverbed scouring. A historic example DEPTH BELOW WATER TO
is the Thames’ Westminster and FOUNDATION-BED LEVEL.
Vauxhall Bridges, where foundation
scouring occurred after water levels THREE METHODS OF PIER
dropped due to the removal of the old CONSTRUCTION
London Bridge, leading to their  USE OF OPEN COFFERDAMS
eventual reconstruction. (WORKING EITHER IN THE DRY
Geological Impact on Bridge  OR IN WATER)
Design  USE OF OPEN DREDGING
Geological stability is crucial for bridge CAISSONS
foundations.  USE OF COMPRESSED-AIR
Some bridges are designed for CAISSONS
complete submersion in flood-prone
areas. SOME CONSTRUCTION
Case Study – Nerbudda River Bridge, REQUIREMENTS
India
166.6m long with reinforced concrete - Recent advancements in construction
arches. techniques enhance economical
Built on basalt for stability, fully bridge-pier design under poor
submerged during floods. foundation conditions.
- Construction utilizes long steel H
River Training & Scouring piles driven into rock, with potential
Prevention encasement in sheet-pile cofferdams.
Ensures even water flow around piers. - Aggregate placed within cofferdams
Prevents scouring, a major cause of can be solidified into concrete through
bridge failures. specialized grouting methods.
Engineering solutions help mitigate - The design supports structures above
geological risks. water and protects down to riverbed
level.
- Bearing capacity is achieved Cofferdams are essential in
through the column action of deeply construction, especially for bridge
embedded steel piles transferring piers and foundations, and have
loads to bedrock. historical significance dating back to
- Caisson problems often arise from ancient times. They provide a dry area
uneven settlement, influenced by for construction by preventing water
underlying geological strata, requiring inflow and retaining earth materials.
careful management to avoid
structural tilting, as demonstrated by Early use noted during the
incidents at the Mid-Hudson Bridge. construction of Waterloo Bridge
- Understanding subsurface conditions (1809-1817) and referenced in
informs innovative construction Vitruvius (about 20 B.C.).
methods, such as the "sand-island  Walls made of oaken stakes or
method" used in the Grey Street sheet piling driven into the water.
Bridge project in Brisbane, Australia.  Interior space is dredged and
leveled, then filled with concrete.
- Preliminary information  Clay and wicker baskets may
indicated soft clay at the surface, be used for sealing.
necessitating the construction of piled
"islands" filled with sand above water Most cofferdams consist of interlocking
level to facilitate controlled sinking of sheet piling. Design is often empirical,
cylinders and caissons. based on site experience and soil
- Steel piling was effectively conditions. Accurate information on
anchored into the riverbed bedrock, soil strata is crucial for planning.
employing techniques previously used Permeability is key; sandy or
in notable bridges like the Suisun Bay gravelly soils may require deeper
bridge and the Mississippi River penetration and clay blankets for
bridge. sealing. Clay layers can provide
- Cleaning of foundation beds are impermeable barriers but may deform
crucial, particularly for bridges with under fluctuating water levels.
low unit-bearing pressures on Inflow of water around piling
unconsolidated materials. edges (referred to as "blows" or
- Visual inspection remains piping) is a primary concern.
essential; engineers need to verify Geological conditions, such as
rock structure and eliminate any boulders, can complicate construction
unconsolidated material for a proper and may lead to significant challenges.
bond between concrete and rock.
SERIOUS DIFFICULTIES WERE
COFFERDAM CONSTRUCTION ENCOUNTERED AT ALL THE MAIN
COFFERDAMS (FIG. 8.10). SOIL
STRUCTURAL DISTURBANCE CAUSED geological significance to be learned
BY PILE DRIVING AND BOULDER from every pier that is constructed.
REMOVAL SO DISTURBED THE SAND Here we will present a few unusual,
THAT IT WENT "QUICK" AND THUS yet especially useful, cases that do not
RESULTED IN LARGE AND fit into other sections.
FREQUENT BOILS.
Forth Bridge (Scotland):
Cape Cod Canal bridges faced Opened in 1890, notable for its triple-
challenges with numerous cantilever design.
boulders, affecting pile driving Foundations:
and causing soil disturbance. - North pier on basalt bedrock.
Barren River bridge construction -South pier on sandstone beneath
involved excavation of cavernous lodgement till.
limestone, requiring extensive cement Geology provided a stable foundation
grout for sealing. with Inchgarvie Island, allowing for
Illinois River bridge construction wider pier separation for increased
necessitated careful water level stability.
management to prevent pollution of Basalt excavated was used as
water supply during pile driving. aggregate for concrete construction.
Deer Island suspension bridge
used tailored cofferdams that were Miramichi River Bridges (New
constructed onshore and then Brunswick, Canada):
transported to the site. Built in 1875, both bridges initially
assumed to have similar geological
THE COFFERDAM BOXES WERE conditions.
BARGED TO THE BRIDGE SITE AND Inaccurate initial borings revealed
THEN LOWERED INTO PLACE (FIG. sand, gravel, silt, and clay at varying
8.11). BAGS OF DRY-BATCH depths.
CONCRETE WERE THEN PLACED BY Designer Sir Sanford Fleming used
DIVERS AROUND THE EDGE OF THE intuition and early penetration tests to
COFFERDAMS. CONCRETING THEN modify caisson designs.
PROCEEDED NORMALLY, AND THE Preloading of piers was used to
614-M- (2.048-FT). SPAN BRIDGE WAS accelerate settlement, leading to
SOON COMPLETED. successful long-term performance
despite geological differences between
SOME UNUSUAL CASES the two branches.

As with all other civil engineering Port Mann Bridge (Fraser River,
works, no two bridge piers are ever Canada):
the same. There is something of
Features a 360-m (1,200-ft) span steel inspections using diving suits to
arch bridge. monitor riverbed scouring.
Complex floodplain conditions required
innovative foundation solutions due to Anacostia River Bridge (1933):
soft organic silts and clays. Collapse due to erosion of the gravel
Steel pipe piles were used: stratum beneath the piers,
- Drilled into the ground and filled highlighting the need for regular
with concrete to create a stable underwater inspections.
foundation.
- Avoided disturbance of the - Southern Pacific Bridge (1933):
sensitive clay. Collapse caused by floodwaters
-Cement-clay grout was used to undermining the east abutment, linked
refill spaces during pile driving. to inadequate erosion protection.
Construction method marked a
significant advancement in Grouting has become one of the most
geotechnical engineering. widely used specialty techniques in
the practice of civil engineering. It is
INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE almost always carried out to overcome
geologic defects in foundation beds, or
REGULAR INSPECTIONS ARE to improve upon natural geological
ESSENTIAL FOR ALL CIVIL conditions.
ENGINEERING STRUCTURES, Common materials include Portland
ESPECIALLY FOR BRIDGE PIERS, TO cement (often mixed with sand),
IDENTIFY DAMAGE AND ENSURE clay, asphalt, and various
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY. chemical solutions for sealing.
Cement is the most widely used
Lethbridge Viaduct: Settlement grouting material due to its ability to
issues led to underpinning and harden and bond with other materials
additional drainage measures to over time.
stabilize the structure.
Klosters Bridge: A rise in the track The grouting process, initially known
prompted investigations revealing as the "injection process," was first
hillside movement, leading to the developed in France in 1802 for
construction of a reinforced concrete masonry repairs.
strut for stability. The first documented use in the U.S.
was in 1854 to strengthen a masonry
Underwater Inspections: Critical for bridge pier.
assessing the effects of bridge Notable early figures in grouting
structures on riverbed stability. include W. R. Kinipple and Thomas
Engineers should conduct personal
Hawksley, who contributed to the
solidification of dam foundations. Tigris River Bridge:
Initially, grout was poured into cavities The 17th July bridge in Baghdad faced
and allowed to set. The method considerable riverbed erosion in the
evolved to include pressure injection fine-sand stratum beneath it.
for accessing difficult cavities. Site borings revealed erosion-prone
sand, and construction unearthed
FOUNDATION STRENGTHENING ancient artifacts from
WITH GROUT Nebuchadnezzar's era.

Used for shaft sinking through water- Danube River Bridge:

bearing strata. The new bridge over the Danube in
Enhances bearing capacity of building Bratislava presents differing
foundations and addresses geological foundation conditions due to an
imperfections. ancient fault.
Albert François developed a high- The right bank has 14 m (46 ft) of
pressure pump (210 kg/cm² or 3,000 alluvial deposits over Late Tertiary
psi) for effective grouting. clay and sand, while the left bank
Reliable mechanical controls enable features granitic bedrock with 12 to 13
the use of chemical solutions for m (40 to 43 ft) of mixed fill.
sealing fractures. The engineering solutions highlight the
Successful grouting led to economical critical role of geological factors in
design changes, saving over $20 bridge design.
million in the Geislingen Autobahn Overall, the examples underscore the
bridge project. importance of understanding
Challenges and Considerations: geological conditions to ensure the
Selecting a sound geologic foundation safety and stability of bridge
is preferable to relying on grouting. foundations.
Poor grouting can exacerbate issues;
thus, expertise and accurate
geological investigations are crucial
prior to applying grouting techniques.

River Scour Challenges:

River scour poses a significant threat
to bridges and structures founded in
flowing water.
Erosion can occur without visible
signs, making regular inspections
essential for detection.
The importance of water supply was
recognized by early engineers.
The Moabite stone inscription
(10th century B.C.) contains
references to water conduits and
cisterns.
Evidence suggests reservoirs for
water supply existed in Babylon
as early as 4000 B.C.
The Bible mentions many water-supply
systems, some of which are still in use
today.

HISTORICAL NOTE
Notable Biblical & Historical
waterworks:
Jerusalem: Waterworks installed
around 900 B.C. in Solomon's newly
conquered city, showing advanced
technical skill.

King Hiskia extended these

waterworks around 700 B.C., including
a tunnel nearly a mile long.
The Romans augmented the water
supply, with parts still used today to
supply the Mosque of Omar.

• In Prizne (Asia Minor, about 350

B.C.), a small town of 5,000
inhabitants had a highly advanced
water system, with houses connected
to mains supplied by a steady spring.
• Ancient Rome's waterworks:
 The Roman water supply was
estimated at 360 million liters per day
(80 million gallons).
 The primary sources were
springs in limestone beds in the
Amio river valley, feeding into 11 discharge consistency. Losses occur
aqueducts. due to evaporation and plant
absorption, while infiltration
 Monumental ruins still stand as a replenishes underground water
testament to Roman engineering skill. reserves, which are vital for life.
 Sextus Julius Frontinus, Roman water
commissioner (97 A.D.), praised the The amount of water absorbed
aqueducts over other famous depends on the geological nature
structures, highlighting their of the land surface and vegetation
importance. cover.
Porous soils and permeable rock
• The Middle Ages also saw allow greater infiltration, while
advancements in water supply dense soils and steep slopes increase
systems: runoff. Understanding these factors
 St. Eanswide (A.D. 616-640) in helps water engineers manage water
England built a water supply system resources efficiently.
from Swecton to her Oratoria at the
seaside. Calculating rainfall losses is
 St. Eanswide was the first prioress crucial in hydrology(hydrological
of St. Peter's Priory near Folkestone. studies). Various formulas estimate
• These early systems show a long the relationship between rainfall and
tradition of water engineering, runoff, but their accuracy depends on
influencing modern practices. local geology. Two key geological
factors influence rainfall losses:
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY percolation into underground strata
Rainfall is the primary source of all and the geological composition of the
water supply. Geological conditions watershed.
govern what happens to the rainfall—
some evaporates, some infiltrates the Rainfall percolates through
soil, and some runs off as surface flow, permeable materials, replenishing
forming streams and rivers. A portion underground storage and
seeps through soil and rock, sustaining dry-weather
replenishing underground water streamflow. Estimating this minimum
reserves and contributing to flow is essential for hydrological
watercourses. studies, especially before water-
impounding projects begin. Existing
Runoff evaluation is done through records from similar geological areas
stream gauging and rainfall records. help predict dry-weather flow.
Catchment area geology affects the
runoff-rainfall relationship and stream
A study by D. Halton Thomson of correlations between rainfall and
over 30 British streams revealed runoff.
significant variations in dry-weather
flow due to geology. The River Alwen WATER QUALITY
in North Wales, flowing over Silurian Rainfall absorbs gases and
shales and till, retains little particles from the air before
underground water, leading to low reaching the ground, making it
flow. In contrast, the River Avon in impure. It often becomes acidic,
Scotland, flowing over fractured especially during thunderstorms, due
granite, stores large amounts of water, to nitric acid formation. Industrial
providing higher dry-weather flow pollution worsens this effect, leading
despite similar climate and to acid rain. As runoff flows over
topography. different soils and rocks, it undergoes
chemical changes, impacting lake and
A similar pattern appears in the river water composition.
River Exe, Devonshire. The upper Understanding geological influences
catchment, with mostly impermeable on water quality is essential for
rocks, has minimal underground maintaining safe drinking water.
storage, while tributaries on New Red
Sandstone contribute high dryweather Geological Influences on Water
flows. These geological differences Quality
significantly impact streamflow Many upland watersheds have peat
throughout the year. deposits, which cause runoff to absorb
Even during heavy rain, pervious organic acids, making the water
surfaces rarely reach full saturation, slightly acidic and discolored. Highly
preventing 100% runoff. This was acidic water can corrode lead pipes,
evident in the catastrophic 1936 North posing risks in regions where they are
American floods, where frozen, still used. It also damages concrete,
impermeable ground caused extreme except for highquality Staffordshire
runoff, breaking historical flood blue brick and aluminous-cement
records. Normally, geological concrete, which resist deterioration.
formations regulate runoff, moderating
streamflow. Water Hardness
-Hardness, temporary and
Geological conditions are key to permanent, a common impurity,
understanding runoff variations and results from contact with calcium or
ensuring accurate streamflow records. magnesium compounds in rocks. A
Hydrological studies must consider simple way to assess a water source’s
watershed geology for meaningful geology is by washing hands—hard
water indicates limestone or dolomite
influence. Sometimes, hardness does Nearby wells showed severe chloride
not originate from riverbed geology contamination, forcing abandonment
but from tributaries. For example, the or deepening to prevent further
River Derwent in Derbyshire flows over pollution.
grit beds but remains hard due to Abandoned coal mines also pose
limestone-fed streams. Understanding risks, as sulfur-bearing minerals react
these geological factors helps with air and water, producing acidic
determine the necessary water runoff. Strong regulations, such as the
treatment. U.S. Clean Water Act, have
significantly reduced this issue.
Hardness isn’t always undesirable. It
enhances the flavor of certain beers, A striking example of industrial
such as Burton-on-Trent ales, which contamination is the Montebello
derive their distinct taste from Incident in California. Waste from the
mineral-rich water. In contrast, soft herbicide 2,4-D entered Alhambra’s
water is preferred for brewing stout. A sewage system and was discharged
study swapping water sources into the Rio Hondo River. The
between Scotch whisky distilleries pollutants infiltrated a nearby
found that, while all whisky produced groundwater basin, affecting 11 wells
was excellent, its character changed serving 25,000 people. Even after
entirely, highlighting the subtle impact stopping the contamination, extensive
of water composition. treatment was required to restore
water safety.
The distillery at Bunnahabhain,
Isle of Islay, Scotland, showing WATER QUALITY
the typical "granite and peat" Geological and Non-Geological
topography that is conducive to the Contaminants
distilling of good Scotch whisky.
(Courtesy Scottish Tourist Board, Geological conditions not only
Edinburgh.) influence natural water quality but also
determine how vulnerable water
Geological and Non-Geological sources are to pollution. Careful study
Contaminants of geology is crucial for managing both
-Natural geological factors aren’t natural and human-induced water
the only water quality concerns— contamination.
human activities also play a role. In
Los Angeles, oilwell wastewater WATER SUPPLY FROM RIVERFLOW
contaminated local groundwater due Potable water is most commonly
to inadequate sealing of sumps along sourced from rivers and freshwater
the Los Angeles Flood Control Channel. lakes, a practice dating back to
prehistoric times. Today, major cities supply wells. Similarly, Düsseldorf
such as London (River Thames), employs a system of gravel-packed
Montreal (St. Lawrence River), and suction wells, spaced 21 meters (70
Chicago (Great Lakes) rely on these feet) apart, each capable of yielding
natural water bodies. The role of around 110,000 liters per hour (28,800
geology in waterworks engineering is gallons per hour).
significant, influencing both the
quantity and quality of river flow, as Geological Influence on River Flow
well as the structures used for water and Water Supply Structures
extraction. -This approach is not limited to
Europe. In Des Moines, Iowa, water is
-The geologic structure of a river extracted from the Raccoon River
basin affects the rate of river flow, using reinforcedconcrete collection
which in turn dictates the design of galleries, each 1.2 meters (4 feet) in
water supply systems. For instance, diameter, positioned parallel to the
Toronto’s dual water supply system riverbank. These galleries ensure a
utilizes a tunnel through local shale, steady percolation of water, yielding at
extending 990 meters (3,300 feet) least 1 million liters per day (300,000
from the lakeshore before connecting gallons per day).
to a network of pipes on the lake bed.
The ability to construct such Unique Water Supply Installations
infrastructure depends on the -One distinctive example of river-
geological characteristics of the area. based water supply is found in Kano,
Nigeria. Originally dependent on wells
Geological Influence on River Flow dug into laterite deposits, the city now
and Water Supply Structures utilizes an innovative system
comprising five large reinforced-
Where rivers are bordered by concrete cylinders. These wells,
porous sand or gravel beds, natural ranging from 2.7 to 4.5 meters (9 to
filtration techniques are often 15 feet) in diameter, are sunk to
employed. Water is drawn from these depths of 10.5 to 15.6 meters (35 to
permeable layers, which act as natural 52 feet). The system draws water from
filters. This method is widely used in sand deposits resting on bedrock,
Europe, particularly in industrialized using both pipe intakes and porous
regions. Cities like Berlin, Frankfurt, concrete blocks to facilitate gravity-fed
and Gothenburg partially source their filtration. This setup not only provides
water through this technique. natural filtration but also functions as
Hamburg enhances this process by a storage reservoir during dry seasons,
using two infiltration channels to securing a daily flow of over 2 million
distribute water before it is drawn into liters (600,000 gallons).
 Water Extraction from Dried
Water Extraction from Dried Riverbeds
Riverbeds -The valley bed, composed of
-In some cases, water can be weathered rock debris and boulders,
sourced from beneath dried-out contained numerous underground
riverbeds, an approach exemplified streams. During excavation, 12
by Harrisonburg, Virginia. The city, separate water-bearing channels were
facing a severe drought in 1930, discovered, collectively supplying
sought to supplement its water supply around 3,600 liters per minute (700
from groundwater below the Dry River gallons per minute). This method of
valley. A concrete diversion dam was groundwater extraction has also been
extended 270 meters (900 feet) along successfully implemented in southern
a relatively level section of the valley, France, highlighting its adaptability in
terminating at a steep rock face. The diverse geological settings.
dam’s foundation was reinforced with
a thin concrete wall, keyed into WATER SUPPLY FROM
Pocono Sandstone for stability. A IMPOUNDING RESERVOIRS
subsurface collecting gallery was When direct water abstraction from
constructed upstream, channeling rivers or lakes is insufficient to meet
water into a 35-centimeter (14-inch) public water demands, an alternative
supply main. is to capture and store water from
distant mountain streams through
impounding reservoirs. These large-
scale engineering projects, though
Water Extraction from Dried modern in execution, trace their
Riverbeds origins back to ancient Roman
-The valley bed, composed of aqueducts. Today, cities worldwide
weathered rock debris and rely on extensive aqueduct systems to
boulders, contained numerous transport water over great distances.
underground streams. During
excavation, 12 separate water-bearing Notable Impounding Reservoir
channels were discovered, collectively Projects
supplying around 3,600 liters per -One of the most significant examples
minute (700 gallons per minute). This is the Los Angeles water supply
method of groundwater extraction has system, which channels water 400 km
also been successfully implemented in (250 mi) from the Owens Valley,
southern France, highlighting its including 70 km (43 mi) of tunnels.
adaptability in diverse geological Other remarkable projects include the
settings. Hetch Hetchy system for San
Francisco, the Catskill and Delaware
systems for New York, and the foundation that initially revealed large
Vyrnwy, Rhyader, and Haweswater potholes. Tunnel construction
schemes that supply major cities in encountered severe challenges,
England such as Liverpool, including quicksand, methane gas
Birmingham, and Manchester. pockets, and toxic hydrogen sulfide
emissions. A methane explosion even
-A typical water supply system of led to fatalities, yet the project was
this nature consists of: successfully completed, with some
• A rainfall catchment area tunnels remaining in use without
• A storage dam concrete lining due to stable granite
• An intake structure rock formations.
• A main aqueduct
• A terminal storage reservoir for The Colorado River Aqueduct,
distribution supplying the Los Angeles area, is an
-These projects involve complex even more ambitious endeavor.
geological and engineering challenges, Stretching 385 km (240.5 mi), this
requiring detailed studies of rock aqueduct delivers up to 40 million m³
formations, groundwater flow, and per day (1,000 mgd) through an
seismic activity. extensive network of:
-147 km (91.9 mi) of tunnels
Major Engineering and Geological -89 km (54.7 mi) of conduits
Challenges -100 km (63.4 mi) of open canals
-47 km (28.9 mi) of siphons
-The Catskill system for New York Construction involved the excavation
City, for example, includes two major of 19 million m³ (25 million yd³) of
tunnels, one extending 366 meters material and required 2.7 million m³
(1,200 feet) beneath the Hudson River. (3.5 million yd³) of concrete. Given
The Delaware River aqueduct, another that the aqueduct crosses three active
critical water supply line for New York, earthquake faults, flexible pressure
consists of 137 km (85 mi) of tunnels pipelines were installed to withstand
through varied geological formations, seismic activity.
including shale, slate, sandstone,
gneiss, and schist. Innovative Approaches to Water
Transfer
The Hetch Hetchy system, -Even in smaller countries like Great
supplying San Francisco, extends 250 Britain, water transfers between river
km (155 mi), with 130 km (82 mi) of basins have become essential. The
tunnels. The largest dam in this Kielder Project, managed by the
system, O’Shaughnessy Dam, rises Northumbrian Water Authority, was
129 meters (430 feet) on a granite designed to meet rising demand,
which grew from 635 million liters per -The largest structure, Oroville
day (mld) in 1961 to 910 mld in 1971, Dam, contains 61 million m³ (80
with projections reaching 1,970 mld by million yd³) of soil. Given California’s
2000. Rather than constructing seismic activity, rigorous geological
multiple small reservoirs, engineers assessments were conducted, leading
opted for a single large storage to innovations such as the pre-flooding
facility. The project included the of soil in the San Joaquin Valley to
construction of Kielder Dam, the prevent collapse-prone conditions
largest earth-fill dam in Western before canal construction.
Europe, and a 38 km (24 mi) transfer -This project was recognized as the
tunnel linking three river basins. "Outstanding U.S. Civil Engineering
Achievement of 1972" by the
The California Water Project: A American Society of Civil Engineers,
Landmark in Engineering and its impact on engineering geology
Perhaps the most impressive of all continues to influence water
impounding reservoir projects is the infrastructure design worldwide.
California Water Project, designed to
transport surplus water from the WATER SUPPLY FROM
northern regions to the water-scarce GROUNDWATER
south. With over 70% of California’s -Wells are the main method of
natural streamflow occurring in the accessing groundwater. Unless
north, yet most demand concentrated drilled through stable strata, they
in the south, this project was crucial. require casing except at the water
source. Wire screens and gravel filters
• In 1960, voters approved a $1.75 prevent clogging, though gravel may
billion bond, eventually leading to a slightly reduce yield.
$2.3 billion infrastructure
development. -In areas of plentiful labor, wells
• By 1973, the system became are built as shafts through low-
operational, featuring: yield strata, with adits driven into
• 1,075 km (684.5 mi) of aqueducts, permeable layers to increase flow. This
mostly canals with 33 km (20.5 mi) of technique is used in southern
tunnels England’s Chalk (e.g., at St. Andrews),
• 21 major dams, totaling 204 million the Canary Islands’ lava beds, and
m³ (267 million yd³) of material traditional systems like India’s karez
• Hydropower plants generating over 5 and Iran’s kegriz. In the Caucasus,
billion kWh Soviet engineers failed to replicate the
• Pumping plants consuming 13 billion kegriz scientifically, as its design relies
kWh annually on hereditary expertise.
-Once a well reaches an aquifer, -Saline contamination is a risk, either
water can be drawn, though levels from seawater intrusion near coasts or
fluctuate due to natural changes and excess mineral content in inland wells.
pumping. Barometric pressure and In Australia and Sudan, salt buildup
temperature may influence shallow results from poor drainage and
groundwater. Geological variations can evaporation. Rainwater itself carries
cause discrepancies in water levels salts, with concentrations in England’s
between nearby wells. In St. Andrews, Land’s End reaching up to 100 times
Scotland, a farm well 8.4 m deep normal levels during storms. To
produced water, while another 18 prevent contamination, wells must be
meters away and 9 m deep found carefully located and overpumping
almost none due to underlying strata avoided.
differences. PAGE 55
-Two cases highlight groundwater’s
-Pumping creates a cone of dependence on geology:
depression, lowering groundwater
levels and affecting nearby wells. In Saskatchewan, Canada: A study of
Liverpool, England, pumping effects buried valleys, some 150 m deep,
were observed up to 3 km away in the found water-bearing sand and gravel.
pervious red sandstone aquifer. This is The Ancestral Missouri aquifer in
a major concern in urban areas where Estevan Valley could yield 200–400
groundwater is heavily used. million liters per day.

-Some wells tap perched water, London, England: Early water came
isolated by impermeable layers. from the Chalk Aquifer, later
Long Island, New York, has such supplemented by the Thames and Lea
deposits, where thin, almost rivers. To counteract seasonal
impermeable till separates perched shortages, engineers pump
water from deeper aquifers. Australia groundwater into streams to replenish
has unique well types, such as soak river flow. This method, already used
wells in Western Australia, which in the Great Ouse catchment, is a cost-
collect runoff in weathered granite, effective alternative to more reservoirs
and tray wells (e.g., Challner Well) that and has no environmental drawbacks.
tap small freshwater pockets over clay
beds. In one case, a well drilled deeper REPLENISHMENT OF
than necessary pierced a clay layer, GROUNDWATER
draining its freshwater supply. -Groundwater supplies worldwide
are drawn from springs and wells, but
WATER SUPPLY FROM overpumping leads to serious
GROUNDWATER consequences such as seawater
intrusion in coastal areas and land it was pumped at the North Hollywood
subsidence. Much of the water station through 18 deep wells. Today,
pumped for human use is lost as Los Angeles leads global groundwater
wastewater, but reclaiming and recharge, with a replenishment district
returning it to the ground could help covering 29 cities and serving 2.5
sustain this vital resource. Excess million people. The Barrier Project,
surface water can also be used for spanning 17.5 km of coastline,
replenishment, a practice increasingly prevents further seawater intrusion
adopted globally. through dedicated recharge wells.

-The earliest known groundwater Other recharge initiatives include:

replenishment occurred in • Amarillo, Texas: Surface recharge
Northampton, England (1881), projects help sustain groundwater
where water was reintroduced into the reserves.
Lias Limestone. In the London Basin, • Sweden: 20 municipalities
the East London Water Company supplement water supply through
experimented with recharge in 1890. recharge.
In North America, Denver Union Water • London, England: The Metropolitan
Company may have spread water over Water Board reintroduces water into
the South Platte River’s alluvial gravel chalk aquifers via old shafts and adits.
fan in 1889.
Recharge methods vary:
-However, large-scale replenishment • Flooding permeable areas (e.g.,
did not gain momentum until the 20th riverbeds, alluvial plains)
century. • Injecting water into wells
-Los Angeles, USA, became a • Using raw river water
leader in groundwater recharge due • Utilizing stormwater
to its large population and water • Treated wastewater
demand. The first trials in the San (increasingly used under strict
Fernando Valley (1931) led to quality control)
spreading grounds by 1936, ultimately
supplying one-third of the city's REPLENISHMENT OF
groundwater. GROUNDWATER

-By 1941, a system of basins (30 × A large-scale wastewater

120 m) separated by dikes (1.2 m reclamation project in Israel adds
high, 4.5 m wide) was established. 12% to the national water supply,
Water seeped at rates between 0.9– using percolation lagoons and well
3.0 m per day, taking 8–24 hours to extraction after a one-year retention
infiltrate. After one year underground, period underground.
 damage these structures, they are
A notable example of promptly repaired.
multipurpose groundwater
management is at Coors Brewery -Further potable water sources
(Golden, Colorado, USA). The were discovered in sand deposits
brewery uses spring water for beer on a flat tableland north of the
production and Clear Creek for rock. Two wells in this area now
industrial use. Gravel mining along the supply half of the total water
creek creates shallow pits, which fill consumption. Additionally, brackish
with water and function as natural water from shallow wells is used for
filtration basins. This innovative non-drinking purposes. Gibraltar also
system supports water conservation, stores 63.5 million liters (16.8 million
recreation, and industrial needs, gallons) of drinking water in
demonstrating successful cooperation underground rock reservoirs, housed
between industries and environmental in galleries connected to two main
management. -Groundwater recharge adits running west to east at 112 m
is now practiced in every U.S. state (375 ft) above sea level. A 4-hectare
and many countries worldwide, (10-acre) corrugated-iron catchment
ensuring a sustainable approach to area and two new underground
water management. reservoirs were later built specifically
for naval ships. Notably, Gibraltar’s
-In some parts of the world, unusual water is used without treatment—
sources of water have been developed though it has a somewhat flat taste, it
out of necessity due to challenging remains safe and palatable.
geography or climate.
-One remarkable example is the Rock -In Australia, particularly Western
of Gibraltar, where the Jurassic Australia, granite outcrops have
limestone lacks natural springwater. been utilized to channel rainwater
For many years, Gibraltar's strategic into storage tanks. Concrete walls
water supply depended entirely on are strategically built on the solid
rainwater collected from the surface of granite surfaces to direct runoff. In
the rock. A 10-hectare (24-acre) areas lacking solid rock, engineers
catchment area was constructed using waterproofed sandy catchment areas
corrugated iron sheets laid on 40° —a practice first attempted in 1935
sand slopes, supported by timber near Narrogin, Western Australia,
purlins and creosoted piles. Another 6- using emulsified bitumen on graded
hectare (15-acre) catchment was later natural soil. The experiment was
developed on steep, unused rock successful, with runoff contributing to
slopes. Though rockfalls frequently local reservoirs, despite an annual
rainfall of 45 cm (18 in).
 studies illustrate the vital role of
-Another example comes from geological studies in water-supply
Juneau, Alaska, a coastal city engineering.
along Douglas Sound in the 1,600-
km (1,000-mi) inland passage of London, England
North America’s northwest coast. The geological structure beneath
Juneau initially sourced water from London provides a unique and
Gold Creek and wells in Last Chance advantageous setting for its water
Basin. Interestingly, a tunnel originally supply. Wells tapping into the chalk
drilled in 1898 for gold mining became aquifer supply approximately 14% of
an accidental water conduit. The the city's water, with the River Lea and
mining company intended to drain the the River Thames providing the
gold-bearing gravels, but instead, the remainder. The London Basin is a
tunnel flooded when it broke into the remarkable geological feature, and
gravel beds. Another company strict regulations govern its usage.
attempted to use the tunnel for gold- Extensive infrastructure projects,
washing in 1902, but a flash flood in including tunnels, embankments, and
1905 clogged it with debris. Though replenishment facilities, have been
abandoned for mining, the tunnel developed to support water extraction
remained connected to the water- and management.
bearing gravels. Years later, it was
cleaned, reinforced, and connected to Long Island, New York
Juneau’s city reservoir, solving Long Island's groundwater system, one
previous issues of freezing well water of the most concentrated in North
in winter by slightly warming the America, is isolated geologically from
supply to about 5°C (41°F) year-round. the mainland's aquifers. The island's
stratified Cretaceous sands, clays, and
-These examples highlight the gravels form a significant underground
innovative and adaptive approaches reservoir. However, over-extraction led
used worldwide to secure water in to saline contamination, particularly in
challenging environments, showcasing Brooklyn, necessitating a shift to
human ingenuity in water resource alternative water sources. Restoration
management. efforts have successfully replenished
groundwater levels, demonstrating the
Geologic conditions play a critical delicate balance between
role in the development of public groundwater, urban development, and
water-supply systems. Some projects surface permeability.
have successfully leveraged unique South Coastal Basin, California
geological settings to ensure a stable Serving the Los Angeles metropolitan
water supply. The following case area, the South Coastal Basin
comprises multiple interconnected Hong Kong faces significant water
groundwater basins with high recharge storage challenges due to its steep
potential. Despite an estimated terrain and lack of large reservoir
groundwater capacity of 85 billion sites. Innovative engineering solutions,
cubic meters, excessive extraction has such as the Plover Cove reservoir,
led to declining water levels. To involved converting a seawater inlet
supplement groundwater supply, three into a freshwater reservoir by dredging
major aqueducts were constructed, clay layers and sealing the granite
highlighting the need for integrated bedrock. As demand increased, similar
water management in geologically estuarine storage projects, like the
complex settings. High Island reservoir, were developed.

Vancouver, British Columbia Ogden Valley, Utah

Vancouver benefits from an abundant Ogden Valley's artesian wells, located
water supply sourced from three small in a confined aquifer beneath
rivers in the Coast Range. The impermeable clay layers, formed the
catchment areas, composed of foundation of the city's water supply.
igneous rocks, yield exceptionally pure However, the construction of Pine View
water, requiring minimal treatment. Dam introduced additional geological
Established in 1926, the Greater concerns, including ground
Vancouver Water District has consolidation due to increased water
facilitated the city's growth by weight. Engineering solutions, such as
ensuring a consistent and high-quality flexible well connections, were
water supply. implemented to mitigate these risks,
ensuring long-term water stability.
Sydney, Australia
Sydney's water supply history dates SOME GEOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT
back to the 18th century, evolving SYSTEMS
from small streams to expansive Sheikhdom of Kuwait
catchment projects. Geological Despite an arid climate, Kuwait
challenges, such as coal seams discovered unexpected fresh
beneath dam sites, required careful groundwater trapped within cemented
planning to prevent structural failures. sandstone formations. Originally
The Warragamba Dam, a major relying on brackish water distillation, a
engineering feat, was built in a geologic anomaly led to the discovery
sandstone gorge, showcasing the of a significant fresh groundwater
intersection of geology and water source. This case highlights the
infrastructure development. importance of geological surveys in
Hong Kong identifying unconventional water
supplies.
Honolulu, Hawaii
Hawaii's volcanic islands exhibit a
unique hydrogeological phenomenon
known as the Ghyben-Herzberg
effect, where freshwater floats atop
denser seawater. Over-extraction
threatened this delicate balance,
prompting the adoption of Maui wells ● WHAT IS DAM FOUNDATION?
—horizontal tunnels that skim fresh ○ A dam foundation is the
groundwater while minimizing base on which a dam is built,
saltwater intrusion. This method typically made of rock or soil.
remains crucial for managing Oahu's ○ It plays a crucial role in the
water resources. dam's stability, safety, and
longevity.
These case studies underscore the
● Failures of Dams
fundamental role of geology in water
supply systems. Understanding
○ Most failures are due to:

geological formations and their ■ Failure to provide

interactions with water resources is adequate spillway

essential for sustainable management capacity: The inability to

and engineering solutions. handle excess water,

leading to overtopping
and structural failure.
■ Defective foundation-bed
conditions: Poor
geological conditions such
as weak or erodible
bedrock, underground
cavities, or unstable
materials can cause dam
collapse.

● Notable Historical Dam

Failures
○ Puentes Dam (Spain,
1802)
■ Built between 1785-1791,
designed with rubble
masonry and resting on
 bedrock with a gravel ■ Built in 1926 to expand
pocket. Los Angeles' water
■ Failure Cause: Seepage supply. Gravity dam made
erosion and washout of of concrete, 61.5 m (205
the underlying gravel ft) tall.
pocket weakened the ■ Failure Cause: Built on
foundation, leading to a weak foundation rock
section collapse and (conglomerate with sandy
massive flooding. and shaly layers) prone to
■ Impact: The collapse was crumbling, and contained
sudden and catastrophic, a natural fault. Seepage
described as a "plug" of issues were noted before
water gushing out. the failure. No extensive
geological testing was
○ Austin Dam (Texas, 1893-
conducted prior to
1900)
construction.
■ Constructed with
■ Impact: The dam
masonry, designed to
collapsed suddenly on
provide water and power.
March 12, 1928, causing
Rested on a foundation of
426 deaths and massive
Cretaceous limestone,
flooding. A government
clay, and shale.
inquiry found poor
■ Failure Cause: Brittle
foundation conditions
limestone foundation
were the main cause.
prone to underground
caves, slippery clay and ○ Malpasset Dam (France,
shale making the 1959)
foundation unstable, and ■ Completed in 1954, a
location on a fault zone thin-arched reinforced
allowing floodwaters to concrete dam, 60 m (200
erode the foundation. A ft) high, located in a
major flood on April 7, narrow gorge of the Le
1900, overtopped the Reyran River.
dam, leading to a central ■ Failure Cause: Weak
section collapse. foundation rock with a
■ Impact: Dam failure sliding plane (fault line)
resulted in downstream beneath the dam. The
flooding and destruction. upper section of the left
bank had unstable
○ St. Francis Dam
material, increasing
(California, 1928)
 susceptibility to ○ Why is Inspection
deformation. The dam Important?
structure could not adapt ■ Regular inspections are
to foundation movement. crucial for dam safety and
■ Impact: A 12 km (7 mi) strength.
flood wave destroyed ■ Neglecting inspections
everything in its path, can allow small issues like
causing 344 deaths, cracks, leaks, or weak
mostly in Fréjus. foundations to escalate
Investigation confirmed into major problems,
foundation instability as leading to dam failures
the primary cause. and floods.

○ Teton Dam (Idaho, USA,

1976)
● Teton Dam Failure and the
■ Built for flood control,
Call for Inspection Programs
irrigation, power
○ Before the Teton Dam failure
generation, and
(1976), discussions focused
recreation.
on dam safety and
■ Failure Cause: Built in a
maintenance.
volcanic rock area with
○ After the disaster, the U.S.
close, weakly jointed rock.
Army Corps of Engineers was
Extensive grouting failed
tasked with inspecting 9,000
to stabilize the
non-Federal dams.
foundation. Leaks were
○ This supplemented state
observed days before
programs, but 40,000 dams
failure, indicating piping
remained uninspected.
erosion. No proper
○ In April 1977, President Carter
geological assessment of
directed U.S. agencies to
fractures between
ensure dam safety programs.
bedrock and core
○ Most developed countries
material.
adopted national dam
■ Impact: 11 deaths, 25,000
inspection programs after
people left homeless, and
major failures.
$400 million in damages.
● Legislation for Regular Dam
Investigation confirmed
Inspections
foundation instability.
○ In Great Britain, the
● INSPECTION AND Reservoirs Act of 1930 was
MAINTENANCE introduced following a series
of dam failures.
 ○ Annual inspections became ○ It's designed to control water
mandatory for large dams. flow for purposes like
○ Regulations restrict the use of irrigation, hydroelectric
obsolete dams to ensure power, flood control, and
structural integrity. water supply.

● HOW ARE DAMS INSPECTED? ● How Dams Are Built

○ Experts check various parts of ○ Dam construction depends on
a dam, including: materials and site conditions.
■ Visible parts Main types include:

■ Tunnels, spillways, and ■ Earth-fill or Rock-fill

foundation structures Dams: Embankment dams

■ Water leaks: Unusual of compacted soil or rock,

seepage or leakage is a with a waterproof core or

warning sign. facing.

■ Sediment in water: Mud or ■ Reinforced Concrete Dam

soil indicates potential of the Arched Type:

erosion of the dam Curved, thin-walled dams

foundation. transferring pressure

■ Cracks and movement: laterally to abutments.

Small shifts can lead to ■ Gravity Dam of Masonry

failure. or Mass Concrete: Large,

heavy structures resisting
● Inspection Techniques
water pressure through
○ Aerial photography: Helps
their weight.
identify large cracks or
deformations.
○ Reviewing old construction ● Effects of Dams on Water Flow
plans: Provides understanding ○ Dams alter natural water
of the dam's original movement in valleys.
construction. ○ They raise the underground
○ On-site inspections: Engineers water table, potentially
check for hidden problems in leading to hydrostatic
person. pressure.

● WHAT IS A DAM? ○ Reservoir sediments and

scouring must be considered
○ A dam is an artificial
to prevent erosion.
structure supporting a
waterproof barrier that retains ● Geological Considerations for
Dam Foundations
water at a higher level than
its natural state. ○ Engineers must:
 ■ Assess foundation bed ○ Underground water
strength. movement must be analyzed
■ Check water-tightness. to prevent leaks and erosion.
■ Study erosion and uplift ○ Example: The Silent Valley
pressure. Dam in Northern Ireland
■ Investigate earth required digging to 54 meters
movement risks. (180 feet) instead of the
expected 15 meters (50 feet)
● Site Selection & Geological
to reach stable ground.
Analysis
○ PRELIMINARY WORK ● Key Investigations in Dam
Construction
■ Selection is based on
topographical, economic, ○ Soil & Rock Testing

and geological factors. ○ Water Flow Analysis

■ Geologic sections must be ○ Hydraulic Pressure Studies

studied. ○ Fault & Weakness Detection
■ Rock formations and
● Examples of Real Dams and
faults should be
Their Challenges
examined.
○ Orlík Dam (Czech Republic):
■ The top-of-rock surface
Raised water levels, requiring
must be determined.
reinforcement of Orlík Castle.
● Exploration Methods ○ Auburn Dam (California, USA):
○ Boreholes and geophysical Cancelled due to weak rocks
surveys are used to check for at the site, despite extensive
faults, cracks, and weak research.
layers.
● EXPLORATORY WORK DURING
○ Buried valleys or weak CONSTRUCTION
formations must be identified.
○ Identifies hidden weaknesses.
○ Example: Valleys up to 21
○ Helps prevent failures by
meters (70 feet) deep have
reinforcing weak zones.
been found beneath
○ Ensures long-term stability.
seemingly solid ground.
● Geologic Investigations
● Common Challenges in Dam
Continue During Construction:
Construction
○ Verifies exposed rock
○ Unexpected ground
conditions to confirm stability
conditions can lead to
and safety.
expensive modifications.
● Role of Geological Experts:
 ○ Assess exposed surfaces and ○ Water tightness was
influence construction evaluated.
adjustments. ○ Grouting was used to prevent
leakage.
● Methods of Exploration:
○ Test pits and tunnels for ○ Engineers documented
preliminary assessments. findings for future
○ Shallow excavation for initial maintenance.
inspection. ○ The final geologic report was
○ Drilling and boreholes for completed before concrete
deep gorges. placement.
● Unexpected Geological
● Exploration at Le Sautet Dam
Discoveries:
(France):
○ Excavation revealed a hidden
○ Located in a deep gorge.
fault zone ("inner gorge") with
○ Limestone foundation
uneven bedrock and pothole
required extensive studies.
erosion.
○ Exploratory tunnels and grout
holes were used to reinforce ● SOUNDNESS OF BEDROCK

weak zones. ○ Refers to the structural

integrity and stability of the
● Hoover Dam Site Exploration:
rock foundation.
○ The gorge floor was under
sediment and boulders. ● Importance of Bedrock

○ Engineers cleared sediment to Evaluation

inspect the canyon floor. ○ Soundness is a primary

○ River flow was diverted requirement.

through tunnels. ○ Engineers determine the

nature of the bedrock surface
● Geological Inspection and
and identify soft or weak
Findings:
zones.
○ Dr. Charles P. Berkey made
the final examination. ● Testing and Exploration
Methods
○ Inspections confirmed the
accuracy of earlier ○ Exploratory pits and core

assumptions. drilling.

○ Rock surfaces were inspected ○ Geologic studies to check for

for load-bearing capability. rock disintegration in water.

● Stability and Water ● Cases of Weathered Bedrock

Resistance Tests: ○ Examples from Washington,

○ Gorge rock was found stable. D.C., Georgia, Brazil, and the
 Assuan Dam in Egypt ● POSSIBILITY OF GROUND
illustrate challenges and costs MOVEMENT
associated with weathered ○ Small dams should account
rock. for horizontal acceleration
forces.
● Rock Failure Risks
○ Large dams must include both
○ Prolonged water saturation
horizontal and vertical
and pressure on weathered
accelerations in their design.
rock can lead to failure.
○ The St. Francis Dam failure ● Example: Morris Dam
highlights the importance of (California)
assessing rock strength. ○ Design modifications to
increase damping and resist
● Laboratory Testing Results
seismic forces.
(Alhajuela, Panama Canal
Zone) ● Past Earthquake Events and
○ Details on sandstone strength Their Impact on Dams
and the weakening effect of ○ Many older dams have
clay minerals. survived earthquakes,
● Sliding and Structural including those in Japan and
Stability California.
○ Coefficient of friction tests
● Engineering Solutions to
and the need for rock surface
Fault-Related Risks
treatment.
○ Examples from Morris Dam
● Geological Challenges in and Lake Loveland Dam
Construction illustrate how engineers
○ Examples from the Dordogne accommodate fault
Reservoir (France) and movement and reduce
Warragamba Dam (Australia) cracking risks.
illustrate issues with weak
● PERMEABILITY OF BEDROCK
rock layers and the
○ Refers to the ability of
importance of site selection.
bedrock to prevent water
● Importance of Bedrock leakage and withstand
Stability structural loads.
○ Bedrock displacement can
● Importance of Bedrock
cause serious structural
Integrity
damage, especially in seismic
○ The rock structure must be
regions.
strong and watertight.
● Historical Example: Hales Bar ○ Alluvial soils, sands, and
Dam gravels allow free water
○ Severe leakage issues due to movement.
cavernous limestone
● Types of Geological Deposits
foundation.
That Pose a Risk:
● Methods to Address ○ Sands, gravels, and
Permeability Issues alluvial deposits lack
○ Use of various materials, cohesion and are unstable
impervious blankets, under dam loads.
drainage systems, and
● "Floating" Dams and Their
water-pressure tests.
Stability Challenges:
● Challenges in Construction ○ Dams on sand and gravel
○ Leakage can cause deposits require
instability. stabilization measures like
○ Different rock types have controlled drainage and
varying permeability. compaction.

○ Special designs like rolled- ● Geological Problems During

earth embankments are Dam Construction:
used to counteract these ○ Thorough geological
issues. investigation is crucial,
● Modern Engineering starting from the feasibility
Approaches stage.

○ Continuous monitoring, ● Role of Geological Surveys:

geologic studies, and ○ Engineers must assess and
subsurface investigations prepare the foundation rock
are essential. surface.

● Dams on Permeable ● Common Problems with Major

Foundation Beds Dams:
○ Many dams are built on ○ Alluvial deposits and rotten
permeable beds, requiring rock can lead to foundation
consideration of potential instability and failure.
water escape.
● Critical Role of Geologic
● Potential for Water Loss and Mapping:
Seepage Risks: ○ Detailed geologic maps are
○ Water can escape essential for understanding
downward in the absence site conditions.
of an impermeable layer.
● Importance of Rock Surface ● GROUTING AS A SOLUTION TO
Preparation: GEOLOGICAL PROBLEMS:
○ Clean, debris-free surfaces ○ Grouting is a key technique to
and roughening of glaciated improve foundation stability,
rock are necessary. reduce seepage, and reinforce
○ Example: The Gleno Dam weak formations.
(Italy) failed due to sliding on
● Notable Cases of Grouting in
a glaciated rock surface.
Dam Construction
● Unexpected Geological ○ Examples include Mission
Discoveries Dam, Hales Bar Dam, Claytor
○ Geological issues are often Dam, Great Falls Dam, and
discovered during Tims Ford Dam, where
construction. grouting was crucial for
○ Examples: Noxon Rapids Dam addressing geological
(glacial pothole) and Merwin challenges.
Hydro Project (buried gorge) ● Advantages of Grouting in
illustrate the need for design Geological Problem Solving
modifications.
○ Prevents water seepage.
● Ice-Age Geology & Design ○ Improves structural stability.
Adjustments ○ Enhances durability.
○ Ice-age dam failures can lead
● High-Pressure Grouting for
to rock erosion features,
Stability
requiring design changes.
○ Used in the Abitibi Canyon
● Geological Faults Affecting hydroelectric project to
Schedules stabilize fractured rock
○ Unexpected faults can formations.
necessitate plan adjustments
● Large-Scale Grouting in U.S.
and innovative solutions, as
Dam Construction
seen in the Beechwood Dam
○ The Tennessee Valley
example.
Authority (TVA) pioneered
○ grouting methods in

● Challenges with Rock-Fill limestone formations.

Dams ○ Examples: Norris Dam and

○ Geological difficulties in rock- Chickamauga Dam.

fill dam construction highlight ● Comprehensive Grouting

the importance of ongoing Program for Stability
investigations.
 ○ Involves shallow, low-pressure ○ Siltation reduces reservoir
grouting and deep, high- capacity.
pressure grouting.
● Examples of Siltation Loss
● Evolution of Grouting in ○ Data from La Grange
Engineering Reservoir, Habra Reservoir,
○ Modern grouting relies on and Lake McMillan.
geological studies and
● Engineering Challenges
collaboration between
○ Predicting sedimentation is
geologists and engineers.
crucial.
● Geological Influences on ○ Siltation affects downstream
Reservoirs riverbeds.
○ Underlying geology affects ● Silt Removal Techniques
reservoir capacity. ○ Sluicing, mechanical
○ Porous rock masses can lead excavation, and chemical
to water loss. coagulation.
○ Thorough geological
● Engineering Challenges
investigation is essential.
○ River diversions require
geologic mapping.
● RIVER DIVERSIONS
○ Used to augment water
● Reservoir Leakage
supply and aid in power
○ A major challenge, often due
generation, irrigation, and
to inadequate consideration
flood control.
of geologic factors.
○ Minor leakage can be difficult ● EXAMPLES OF RIVER
to trace; dye tracing is used. DIVERSIONS
○ Long Lac Diversion (Canada)
● Reservoir Leakage
and Glacial Outwash Channels
○ Radioisotopes are used to
(Canada).
detect groundwater flow.

● SECONDARY EFFECTS OF
RESERVOIR FLOODING
○ Reservoir filling impacts dry
land areas.
○ Flooding can extend beyond
the reservoir.
○ Landslides may occur.

● RESERVOIR SILTATION
 of the Seven Sages of Greece. The
dioclos, a paved roadway for vessels
to portage from the Gulf of Corinth to
the Saronic Gulf, was rediscovered in
1957. Nero inaugurated work on the
canal in A.D. 67, cutting the first sod
with a golden spade. The modern
canal is 6.4 km long, 21 m wide, and 8
m deep, superimposed in ancient cuts.

Modern civil engineering surely got

its start in canal building. This work
began with improvement of navigation
on rivers in Europe, and especially in
France and Great Britain, starting as
early as the seventeenth century. The
first modern canals were conceived as
interconnections between rivers, one
of the first being the Midi Canal in
France, still in use. In England, the first
was St. Helen's Canal, but it was the
Duke of Bridgewater's Canal, opened
in 1757, that marked the start of the
canal era. It was in the building of
canals that the first notable British and
French engineers gained their

HISTORY OF CANALS experience. Canal fever soon passed

to the United States and to Canada,
Master builders have long recognized
and many truly remarkable works
the need to extend inland waterways
were carried out early in the
and penetrate narrow land barriers
nineteenth century. The railroad put
between seas through canals. A canal
an end to the canal age about 1840.
connecting the Nile and the Red Sea
Many of those canals are still in use,
was begun in the fourteenth century
while some are being restored to use.
B.C., but was abandoned by Necho
In fact, canals are still being built
around 610 B.C. Ptolemy II completed
today to bring highland water to the
the canal, and Xerxes built a canal
burgeoning cities of the South
across Mount Athos. The Ist hmus of
American Andes.
Corinth was crossed by canal in 1893,
conceived by Periander of Corinth, one THE PANAMA CANAL
The construction of the Panama Canal, locks, lift locks, a guard lock, and a
a major waterway, was a complex canal, with some deepening and much
project influenced by geology. The dredging of existing channels.
canal, which crosses the Isthmus of
CANAL LOCKS
Panama, was built by the French after
Lock foundations are crucial due to the
their success with the Suez Canal. The
varying hydrostatic conditions they
canal, which is 64.5 km long, followed
face. Solid rock foundations usually
existing river valleys and crossed the
pose no problems, but weak rock or
divide in the Gaillard Cut. The canal
soil foundations require special care in
was completed in 1914 under the US,
design and construction. For instance,
and the construction was largely
the main sea lock of the ljmuiden
carried out in weak rock and soil. The
Canal in Holland was founded on weak
most challenging part of the project
rock or soil, requiring careful
was the synclinal trough of the Culebra
subsurface exploration to ensure the
section, filled with a fine grained sandy
complete sheet piling enclosure. This
clay of the Cucaracha Formation. This
is an example of the adaptation of
weak rock and soil caused repeated
local geological features to
failures of slides, which interfered with
construction schemes.
canal construction and have continued
as maintenance problems

THE ST. LAWRENCE SEAWAY SOME EUROPEAN CANALS

The St. Lawrence Seaway is a major The Albert Canal, a Belgian

North American ship canal built by engineering masterpiece, was
Canada and the United States, half a completed just before World War II and
century after the Panama Canal. It became a crucial factor in the war's
includes improved river channels, most crucial fighting. It served as a
canalized sections of the St. Lawrence, defense barrier and a means of
crossings of the Great Lakes, and two conveying 2,600-tonne barges from
canals. Sod was turned on August 10, the sea to the industrial area around
1954, and less than five years later, Liège. The 130-km length of the canal
the Seaway was officially opened. employs only six locks to drop 55 m
Over 22,000 workers and 500 from the river Meuse to the Antwerp
professional engineers labored to docks. Excavation of 68 million m3 of
create one of the greatest civil soil and weak rock was governed by
engineering projects. The 8.1-m-wide geologic factors. Steam shovels were
waterway extends from the head of used to remove clay, gravel, and rock,
the navigable St. Lawrence River at while pneumatic tools were used for
Montreal to Lake Ontario and the dressing the finished slopes and
Upper Lakes. The project involved new berms. Another major cut near
Briegden was avoided due to appreciated in the field of road design
waterlogged sand and clay at a depth and construction, with annual
of 39 m. The decision to stay with the meetings and symposia on geology
original concept of a deep cut, using applied to highway engineering held in
special drainage installation the United States since 1950.
construction methods, has continued
ROUTE LOCATION
to perform well.
In land transportation, there are two
ROADS
main problems to be faced in the
HISTORY OF ROADS design and construction of both roads
and railways: (1) route selection, and
Modern road concepts are deeply
(2) choice of road section and bearing
rooted in the Roman Empire's grand
surface of reasonably permanent
roadways, which were built and used
stability, capable of carrying intended
with intuitive geological appreciation.
traffic.
The greatest of these early single
roads was built by the Incas on the Road location in early times was
South American continent, stretching primarily based on adapting older
6,400 km (4,000 mi) and paving much pathways formed by primitive peoples.
of its surface with bitumen. These Roman road construction marked a
roads, constructed 350 years prior to significant break from this practice,
the Spanish conquest, can still be seen with engineers laying roads as straight
today. With the industrial era, Britain as possible. Changes in direction were
and France led the way in the early usually made on high ground or at
branch of modern civil engineering, station houses, with curves used
with pioneers like John Metcalfe, infrequently. The Fosse Way in
Thomas Telford, and James Loudon England, 320 km long, has a maximum
McAdam appreciating geology in their departure of only 10 km. With the
road-building work. North America also advent of the railway, attention was
had its later road pioneers, with Dr. C. turned to economical route selection,
M. Strahan starting experiments on limiting grades, and minimizing
soil properties for road building in curvature. In flat country, selection
1906. The Wisconsin Geological was primarily based on convenience
Survey was granted $10,000 by the and land availability, while in hilly
state legislature for investigations and country, alternatives like the ridge
experimental work in road building, route up a valley were considered.
and the Illinois Geological Survey Geology also significantly influences
organized its own areal and these selections, as it determines the
engineering geology division by 1927. local topography
Today, the potential contributions of
GLACIAL LANDFORMS
geology are more generally
It had a profound influence on the weather changes, with some areas
location of early roads. Older town in having only a few months of working
Ontario and in similar glaciated areas season each year. For instance, the
frequently will be found to have a Trans CanadaHighway through the
“Ridge Road” as a well established Rocky Mountains experienced slow
older highway, the name clearly progress due to a short working
indicating the presence of a prominent season. The Detroit Industrial
glacial landform such the moraine. The Expressway faced freezing weather,
construction of superhighways has causing surface disintegration and
shown the impact of local geology on sloughing during spring rains. Florida's
road location and construction costs. Sunshine State Parkway faced
The Pennsylvania Turnpike, a pioneer "alligatoring" due to heavy rainfall,
modern toll highway, used an causing pavement failures between
abandoned railway right-of-way and Stuart and Fort Pierce. This was due to
opened to traffic on October 1, 1940, the wetting of the Belle Glade rock,
after a short construction period of two which became "greasy" when wet and
years. The Pennsylvania Bureau of under load. This highlights the
Geology and Topography published a importance of climate and geology in
guidebook on the geology of the road construction.
highway, providing a comprehensive
DRAINAGE
account of route geology and
Drainage is crucial in highway work, as
engineering features affected by
waterlogging can damage subgrades.
geology. Today, office study of
Methods for drainage must be adapted
topographic and geologic maps is a
to the materials being drained, with
first requirement, and photogeologic
unconsolidated materials tested
interpretation of proposed routes is a
similarly to other soils. The geologic
well established aid. Surveys for
principle is to maintain groundwater
pioneer routes in the New World
levels deep to promote gravity flow
provided the first information about
through porous roadbed materials
local geology, and many papers
through artificial drainage channels or
provide valuable geological
self-draining impermeable materials.
information as by-products of
In Ellis County, Kansas, a concrete
preliminary engineering work. The
roadway was found to be settling
Alaska Highway, a wartime emergency
unevenly and causing displacements
route, was a remarkable achievement,
between adjacent slabs. The
but many geological problems were
differential movement was due to
encountered during its construction.
changes in subgrade soil moisture
CLIMATE
content at slab joints and cracks. The
Roads are highly susceptible to roadway was rectified by introducing
water into the subgrade material SOME GEOLOGICALLY SIGNIFICANT
through well points jacked into place ROADS
25 cm below the slab from the
Geologically influenced road design
roadway shoulder.
and construction are widespread,
CONSTRUCTION particularly in California, which
features notable examples like the
Construction methods benefit
large cut on U.S. Highway 101 near
significantly from integrating
Dyerville Bridge in Humboldt County. A
geological information, which is
careful preliminary investigation
consistently helpful, sometimes
identified the Yager Formation of
imperative, and occasionally critical.
Upper Cretaceous age, consisting of
Rigorous compaction control is
weathered and closely jointed
crucial for fill placement, and geologic
sandstone, shale, and conglomerate.
studies aid in predicting material
The cut was designed with a 1:1 slope,
uniformity in borrow deposits and
10-m-wide horizontal berms at 18-m
excavation cuts. Ongoing geological
intervals, based on this information.
observation during excavation can
Major cuts in roads serve as geological
prevent unexpected challenges. In
display cases, showcasing formations,
instances of road troubles or nearing
even though weathering or vegetation
project completion, geology provides
may eventually conceal the original
explanations and solutions for
geological exposure. For instance, the
successful construction. The
Carquinez crossing in San Francisco
construction of Interstate Route 10,
involves a 105m-deep cut that
approximately 50 km southeast of
required excavating 6.5 million m³ of
Baton Rouge, encountered challenges
soil and rock, roughly half the
posed by unstable soils in low-lying
excavation quantity of the Panama
areas, including swamp deposits.
Canal. In many cases, the geological
Despite tidal waters often covering the
interest of a highway is beneath the
ground, the Louisiana Department of
surface. There are few better
Highways conducted subsurface
examples of this aspect of geology in
exploration to address these
highway design than on Ontario
conditions. Around 6.6 m (22 ft) of
Highway No. 11 between Fort Frances
unsuitable material was removed, and
and Atikokan. It crosses Rainy Lake on
a suitable load-carrying soil was
what is known as the Rainy Lake
introduced at a reasonable cost over a
Causeway, 4.5 km (2.8 mi) long,
dense clay stratum, spanning a
leapfrogging from island to island, with
distance of 32 km (20 mi)
water depths up to 15 m (50 ft) deep.
Local Precambrian Shield geology was
sound bedrock, even at consid- erable
depths, but overlain in the channels by Railways, as depicted in Figure 11.11.
varved clays which created their own The direct route to Como was
construction problems. obstructed by the 270-meter-deep
lake. Swiss engineers addressed the
RAILWAYS
routing challenge by observing that
Railways remain a crucial component
Melide was situated on an unusual
of land transportation, despite the
promontory in the lake, hinting at a
prevalent reliance onautomobiles for
submerged glacial moraine. Soundings
personal travel. Freight handling by
in the lake confirmed the presence of
railways has reached an all-time high,
a ridge, a shallow remainder of the
and passenger travel is gradually
suspected moraine. An embankment
resurging in many Western countries.
was then constructed on this moraine,
Developing nations are actively
wide enough to accommodate both
constructing new railways as part of
the railway and a main highway,
their development initiatives. The
providing an effective solution to the
ongoing energy challenges emphasize
geographical obstacle. Aerial photo
the significance of fuel-efficient rail
interpretation has evolved significantly
travel. In urban areas, light rail
and is particularly valuable in the
systems and subways are expected to
selection of routes for highways and
surpass automobiles for local
railways. The extensive literature on
commuting. Subway construction in
this subject reflects its importance in
major cities is anticipated to present
various applications. While field
significant construction challenges in
surveys remain necessary, they can
the years ahead. While the
now be focused on the chosen
construction of new main railway lines
candidate route identified through
may be limited to isolated regions,
photo interpretation, allowing for
existing lines will likely be
expedited and thorough survey work
consolidated, maintained, and
with a high level of certainty
upgraded to accommodate increasing
RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION
traffic volumes.
Railways have served as notable
RAILWAY LOCATION
examples highlighting the intricate
The methods used to determine
relationship between geology and civil
railway routes closely resemble those
engineering, surpassing many other
employed for road location, with a key
construction types.
emphasis on identifying significant
Railway construction encompasses
geomorphic features, especially in
all the aspects of highway
glaciated regions. A notable example
construction, with the additional
is the Lake Lugano crossing of the
challenge of achieving strictly limited
Gotthard line by the Swiss Federal
grades and curvature. It is noteworthy
that modern road building, particularly
with superhighways, is only recently
approaching the level of excellence
that railway construction has
maintained for over a century.
Interestingly, even practices now
common in modern highway
construction, such as balancing cut
volume with fill requirements, were
integral to early railway construction.
A remarkable historical example is
George Stephenson's involvement
in theconstruction of the Clay Cross
Tunnel, north of Nottingham, for
the North Midland line. During tunnel
excavation, high-quality coal seams
were discovered. Stephenson promptly
established the Clay Cross Colliery
Company, which became one of the
most successful British enterprises,
operating continuously for over a
century. This historical instance
underscores the foresight and
adaptability of early engineers in
balancing economic considerations
with construction challenges.