Lecture Set 2:

Optical Communication Systems

Thas A Nirmalathas
nirmalat @ unimelb . edu . Au

Contact me with a subject line starting

[UoJGuestLecture]
 LASER Oscillation

Light Amplified Stimulated Emission Radiation

A. Feedback
Mirrors
– optical resonant cavities
B. Gain condition
- stimulated emission (gain>=loss)
Gain C. Phase condition
Medium
•maintain the coherence of all the
photons generated
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide2
 Review –
Transverse Electromagnetic Fields
•E, H and z directions are perpendicular to y
each other
x
•Use right hand rule to determine the
propagation direction)

−αz j(ωt− βz)

E(z,t) = E(0)e e
α = attenuation constant in Np/m
z
2 πn
β = phase constant or wave number =
λ
n- refractive index
l wavelength
*
Intensity or Power: I (z) ∝ E(z, t) ∗ E(z, t)
Guest Lecturer, Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture1_slide3
 Electrical Field within Laser Cavity
• Electromagnetic field within cavity
– Assume plane wave propagation
– Assume uniformly distributed gain (g) and loss (ai)
I(z) – optical field intensity I ( z ) µ E ( z )* E ( z )
1 I (0) = E(0)2
E ( z, t ) = I ( 0) e (
{
Gg -a i ) z
} 2
e
j(w t - b z )
{ I (0)}
1
2 = E(0)

• where I(z) is optical field intensity, w is the optical radian frequency and b is
the propagation constant (2pn/l)
– Optical intensity (I(z)) varies exponentially with distance z
• Where G is the optical confinement factor – fraction of optical power within
the active layer
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide4
 Reflection of Electromagnetic Wave

Incident field Mirror 1

E ( z, t )

r1E( z, t )
Reflectivity
Reflected
(power or
field
Reflection intensity)
coeffcient
Ereflected I reflected
r1 = R1 = = r12
Eincident I incident

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide5
 Optical Feedback
• reflectivity of mirrors
Mirror2 Mirror1
R1 = r , R2 = r
2 2
r1 E (2 L) r1 E (L) 1 2
Output2

E E (0) E (L) Output1 • E is given by

r1r2 E (2 L) 1

L E ( z, t ) = E ( 0) ( e(
Gg -a i ) z 2
) e (
j wt -b z )

• Laser oscillation occurs – E-field after completing a round trip

inside resonator should have same amplitude and phase, i.e.
r1 r2 E ( 2L )
E (0)
r1 r2 E ( 2L ) = E ( 0 )
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide6
 Oscillation Conditions
1

E ( z, t ) = E ( 0) e( ( Gg -a i ) z
) 2
e (
j wt -b z )
and r1 r2 E (2 L) = E (0)
1

r1 r2 E ( 0 ) e ( )
( Gg -a i )2 L 2 e (
j w t - b 2 L)
= E ( 0 ) e jw t

r1 r2 e ( ( Gg -a i )2 L 2
) e - j2b L = 1
Gain Condition Phase Condition
R1 R2 e (Gg -a i )2 L = 1 e - j 2 bL = 1
This condition for oscillation represents a wave making a round trip
of 2L inside the cavity with same amplitude and phase within a
multiple of 2p
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide7
 Gain Condition
(Gg -a i )2 L 1 é 1 ù
R1 R2 e =1 Ggth = ai + lnê ú
2 L ë R1 R2 û

Represents loss due to

Internal losses inside
radiation from
laser cavity
the ends of the laser
Free-carrier absorption and loss due to • Mirror losses (per unit length)
scattering of radiation, ( per unit length)

• Minimum condition for lasing • Way to reduce threshold gain

• Optical gain = total loss in cavity - Reducing cavity internal loss
• Lasing to occur g ³ g - Increasing facet reflectivity
th

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide8
 Exercise

• Exercise: ai=40 cm-1, L=300 µm, R1=R2=0.32, G=1, calculate gth

gth =78 cm-1

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide9
 Phase Condition - I

e - j 2 bL
=1 e - j 2 b L = e - j 2 mp • m – integers
(0,1,2,…)

2 b L = 2m p • where b = 2pn/l; n – refractive

index

4pn
L = 2m p
l
• The solution – a set of discrete modes can be supported within the cavity
• Cavity Modes – Longitudinal modes (not transverse modes)
• Generated by possible E-field that can form standing wave in the cavity

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide10
 Phase Condition - II

4pn 2nL • Cavity modes – longitudinal

L = 2m p =m modes
l l
• Mode interval (distance between
adjacent mode, m and m+1
$ 2nL '
Dl mode) Δ& ) = Δm = 1
% λ (
2nLDl
=1
l 2
€
l2
l, wavelength Dl =
2nL

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide11
 Exercise
• Exercise: n=3.4, l=1.55µm, L=300
µm, calculate mode spacing Dl

Dl = 1.18 nm

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide12
 Phase Condition - III

c 2nL mc • Can also be represented as a

l= =m nm = function of radiation frequency
u l 2nL
• Intermodal spacing, Dn
mc c
nm = Dn =
2nL 2nL
Dn • Relationship of Dn and Dl
c
Dn = Dl
l 2

•
Refractive index, n is a function of
wavelength /frequency, and mode
n, radiation spacing is not perfectly even
frequency

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide13
 Exercise
• Exercise: n=3.4, l=1.55µm, L=300 µm, calculate frequency
spacing Dn, how to control Dn? 1 nm Dl corresponds to how
much Dn?

1 nm « 125 GHz
Dn = 147 GHz

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide14
 Longitudinal Modes
Infinite longitudinal modes can satisfy this equation,
mc while only the modes located within the gain profile
nm = can get enough gain to compensate loss and
2 Ln
oscillate, other modes will die out since their loss is
larger than gain

Gain Profile

n, radiation freq
Where does the gain profile
n, radiation freq come from?
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide15
 Gain Profile 1
E
Electrons in CB
CB
Relative intensity

Ec
1
Eg
1 2 3 Dl
Ev
0 l
Holes in VB l3 l2 l1
VB
Carrier concentration
per unit energy

• Gain profile depends on electron/hole concentration

• Asymmetrical – for intrinsic material
• Related to the energy distributions of electron/hole in
conduction/valence band
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide16
 Gain Profile 2
Dn / 2p Dn = 1 /(2pt )
g (n ) =
Intensity

(n - n o )2 + ( Dn / 2)2
1
0.5 Lorentzian Electron life time at
upper energy level
frequency ,n
Dn
• Practical laser structure – gain profile also dependent on dopants and pn
junction structure
• Gain profile becomes more symmetrical – Lorentzian function
• Linewidth given by the full-width at half maximum (FWHM), typically in THz
scale
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide17
 Longitudinal Laser Modes

• Multiple optical modes for a Fabry-Perot

Laser

n, radiation freq

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide18
 Onset of Oscillation

Current Injection
No Valve
I>Ith
Yes
Optical
Confinement Population Inversion
Yes
Spontaneous Stimulated
Emission Emission Feedback?
• gain No
• phase
Light Output • resonant cavity

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide19
 Light Output vs Applied Current (L-I Curve)

L
Stimulated
Light Spontaneous Emission
Output Emission Dominates
Dominates
Power

I
Injection Current
Ith
Threshold current
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide20
 Spectral Properties of FP-Laser Output -1
(Below Threshold)
L
mc
nm =
2 Ln

I
n, radiation freq
• Below threshold, laser output is just spontaneous emission
(broad spectrum) which has been modulated by the cavity
resonance.
• Spectral width of the envelope is very large ( ~10 nm )

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide21
 Spectral Properties of FP-Laser Output – 2
(Above Threshold)
L

n, radiation freq
I
mc
nm =
• Above threshold, laser output is 2 Ln
multimoded and these modes at
frequencies that satisfy the
gain-loss condition oscillates
first.
• Considerably narrowed n, radiation freq
spectrum
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide22
 Spectral Properties of FP-Laser Output - 3

As pumping increased,
I lasing wavelength increases
n, radiation freq (partly due to heating!)
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide23
 Mode-Partition Noise

• Caused by mode competition in multi-mode FP laser cavity

• Even if the total output power remains constant, power
distribution over different modes is random.
• With the combined effect of mode-competition and fibre
dispersion results in a random variation in the optical power
at the end of the fibre link
– ie if there is no dispersion, no effect of MPN!
• Power fluctuation is termed as
“ MODE PARTITION NOISE (MPN)”
• MPN is a major problem for multi-mode lasers
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide24
 Lecture Outline

• L-I Characteristics – continued

• Concept of Photon Life Time
• Semiconductor Laser Structures
• Efficient generation of photons
• Wavelength purity and control
• Special types

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide25
 Emission Characteristics of Semiconductor
Lasers
P o (mW)
• L-I curve temperature
10
dependent
0 °C 50 °C
L 8 25 °C

6 I th µ e T / const
4
• slope of the linear region is
2
proportional to “external differential
0
0 20 40 60 80
I (mA) quantum efficiency hD”
Ith
# photons produced in the cavity
Internal Quantum Efficiency hi =
# injected electrons

External Differential Photon escape rate

hD = hi
Quantum Efficiency Photon generation rate

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide26
 External Differential Quantum Efficiency &
Laser Output Power
L Linear region
dP hv ( photon output rate ) hv
2 = = hD
dI q (
-
e injection rate q )
I Accounts for the output from both
injection current facets, and assume R1=R2

• Slope of the linear region is proportional to 2q dP

“external differential quantum efficiency hD =
hD” hn dI
dP hn
P0 = ( I - I th ) = h D ( I - I th )
• Laser output power at one facet dI 2q

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne 2016 Lecture Set2_slide27
 Photon Life Time
• Loss of photons due to mirror loss as well as internal losses

Photon
Density
• “photon lifetime” concept
Loss = ai + a mirror Time taken for a unit distance = 1 / v g
• in travelling a unit length, photons are lost at a rate of
1
= v g (a i + a mirror )
tp
• and to do that they take a time equals to

tp
• under steady state condition, generation rate = loss rate
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide28
 Relationship with Practical Parameters

Photon escape rate out of the cavity

hD = hi
Photon generation rate
Photon escape rate out of the cavity v ga mirror

Photon generation rate p = v g (a i + a mirror )

t -1

v ga mirror (1/ L) ln(1/ R)

h D = hi = hi
v g (a i + a mirror ) a i + (1/ L) ln(1/ R)
( I - I th )h i hn (1 / L) ln(1 / R )
P0 =
2q a i + (1 / L) ln(1 / R )

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide29
 Semiconductor Laser Structures

• Efficient population inversion

• Confine the electrical carriers
• Efficient light confinement
• Stable resonant cavities
• Lower threshold currents

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide30
 Wavelength Dependence
Eg (eV)
2.6 Quaternary alloys
Direct bandgap • Bandgap of materials
with indirect bandgap
2.4 GaP Indirect bandgap determines the wavelength
2.2
2
Thi This image cannot currently • Ternary and quaternary
1.8
be displayed.
Quaternary alloys alloys can be constructed
with direct bandgap
1.6 by changing the doping
InP
1.4 GaAs ratios while maintaining the
1.2 lattice constants
1 In1-xGaxAs
0.8
In0.535Ga0.465As
0.6 X InAs
0.4
0.2
0.54 0.55 0.56 0.57 0.58 0.59 0.6 0.61 0.62
Lattice constant, a (nm)
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide31
 Simple p-n Junctions (Homojunctions)
Depletion Region • Heavily doped p-n junctions (degenerative
doping)
- - ++
p - - ++ n – Enhance population inversion
- - ++
• Quasi-Fermi levels buried inside valence/
pn junction Barrier potential conduction bands
Efc
EF hn
eVo
hn
Efv

Thermal Equilibrium - Forward Biased

Electron-hole combination spatially constrained – Narrowed Depletion Region
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide32
 Structure of Homojunction Fabry-Perot Laser
Refractive Index, n(x) Optical Field Distribution, I(x)
Very
small
p d

n loss gain
• Poor confinement of carriers - throughout the active
w region (depletion region)
l
• Poor confinement of resulting optical field due to small
Cleaved refractive index difference
facets – measure of how much actually confined
-mirrors – “confinement factor”
• Larger threshold current densities
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide33
 Heterojunctions (hetero-structures)
Refractive Optical Field
Index Distribution
p+
GaAlAs - p+
GaAs -p d p
GaAs -n
n
w
l gain
• Using another material of different bandgap
at one end
• causes discontinuity in energy band
hn • confines carriers
• enhances optical confinement
p+ p n • different refractive index
• asymmetry
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide34
 Heterojunction - Summary
• Heterojunction is an interface between adjoining single crystal
semiconductors with different band gaps
• They can be n-n,n-p,p-p types
• Provides potential barriers and therefore efficient confinement of
minority carriers
• Due to the large difference in the refractive indices, efficient
confinement of optical field within the active region
• “asymmetry”
• double hetero structure lasers
• Width of gain region determined by the active region 0.1-0.3 µm

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide35
 Double Hetero Structure Laser
Refractive Optical Field
Index Distribution

p+
GaAlAs - p+
GaAs -p d p
GaAlAs -n+
GaAs -n n+
w
l
• Using another material of different bandgap
at both ends
hn • causes discontinuity in energy band
• better confinement of carriers
p+ • Better confinement of light
p n+ n • Symmetry profile
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide36
 Double Hetero Structure Laser
• Optical confinement layers on both side
• Symmetrical gain regions and field confinement
• Threshold current is very low as compared to homojunction devices,
they can still be large as no confinement in the lateral direction.

GaAlAs - p+
GaAs -p Lateral Confinement also
Transverse needed
GaAlAs -n+
Confinement – to confine current flow only in
GaAs -n
a narrow region

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide37
 Practical Laser Structures
(with Lateral Confinement)
• Gain Guided • Stripe acts as a guiding mechanism
• Current density of the injection current is
GaAlAs - p+ maximum below the strip
GaAs -p • Gain is also maximum below the stripe and
GaAlAs -n+ decreases to edges laterally
GaAs -n
• Lateral confinement realised through “Gain-
guiding”
• easier to manufacture
• relatively low differential quantum efficiency
• high threshold current compared to index
guiding structures

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide38
 Practical Laser Structures 2
(with Lateral Confinement)
• Index Guided • A narrow central region of relatively higher
p-InP refractive index confines the lasing mode
• Optical confinement layers can surround the
p-InP
active region
– eg: Buried Heterostructure lasers (BH)
n-InGaAsP(active) • Lateral mode control achieved through width of
the active region
n-InP
• Other forms of structures such as ridge
waveguide...
Ø High power, high modulation bandwidth
Ø Carrier leakage is reduced through reverse
biased junctions
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide39
 Mode Selection
• FP lasers feedback by facet reflections (R=32%) whose magnitude
remains the same for all modes
• Multimode spectrum
– Mode dispersion, mode partition noise
– Dispersion of optical fibre limits the transmission distances and
data rates
• Is there a better way to realise lasers with single longitudinal mode
spectrum?
– Short cavity, increase mode spacing, while difficult to handle
– Better feedback structures which eliminate the other modes
• Distributed Feedback (DFB)
• Distributed Bragg-Reflector (DBR)
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide40
 Bragg Reflection
Periodic structure (refractive index changes) with periodicity of L
n1

n2

L
• Because of periodic structure, many reflection points create forward
and backward waves
• Forward and backward waves interfere constructively, if the round trip
phase change acquired within one period is a multiple of 2p
• Gives the Bragg wavelengths at which this interference happens
2pn
2m p = 2L , m = 1 Þ l B = 2Ln
l
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide41
 Distributed Feedback Lasers (DFB Lasers) 1

n, radiation freq
• A DFB laser is simply laser with some refractive index corrugation
either on the top or at the bottom of the active region
• Grating is applied over entire active region
• The wavelength selectivity is symmetrical around the Bragg
wavelength, two main modes surrounding that wavelength dominates
– ideal symmetrical DFB structure

Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide42
 Distributed Feedback Lasers 2
• In order to make the DFB to give single mode spectrum, we need to
introduce a phase-shift in the gratings.
– (a) phase-shifted DFB (p/2 in the center)

– (b) DFB with phase-adjustment region

n, radiation freq
– (c) Anti-reflection coating on one facet
• Asymmetries in mirrors and grating phases usually favour one
mode
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, ©Thas A Nirmalathas 2016 Optical Communications Systems
The University of Melbourne Lecture Set2_slide43