New York City College of Technology Biology II – BIO1201
Biological Sciences Department Laboratory Manual
LABORATORY 13
Nervous Systems – Sheep Brain Dissection
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lab you should be able to:
• Describe and discuss the nervous systems of different invertebrate animals.
• Identify the different parts of the nervous system of vertebrates.
• Identify the parts of the human and sheep brain and state their functions.
• Describe the different types of neurons and their functions.
• Describe the anatomy of the spinal cord.
• Define and describe gray and white matter.
• Describe a spinal reflex arc.
• Discuss the distribution of sensory receptors in the skin and sense of touch and temperature detection.
Introduction
Of all multicellular organisms, animals are able to
respond and move the fastest. Their ability to detect
and respond to changes in their environment
(stimuli, sing. stimulus) is crucial to their survival.
Animals are the only organisms with neurons, a
unique type of cell capable of transmitting electrical
impulses and relaying information to and from
different parts of their body.
It is estimated that nervous tissue first arose in
worm-like animals about 550 to 600 million years
ago. Extant animals display a variety of nervous
systems with different degrees of complexity and
structure ranging from a few hundred cells in sea
squirts and rotifers to more than 37 billion in pilot
whales. Organisms such as sponges, lack a
nervous system while cnidarians and cnetophores,
do not have a brain but a system of connected nerve
cells (neurons) called a “nerve net”. Echinoderms
such as sea stars have nerve cells that are bundled
into fibers called nerves. Most bilaterates display
cephalization, i.e. the concentration of neurons
that detect and process information in the anterior
Nervous Systems. (Credit: CNX OpenStax CC BY 4.0).
end or ‘head’. Flatworms (Platyhelminthes) have
both a central nervous system (CNS), made up of
a small “brain” and two nerve cords, and a peripheral nervous system (PNS) consisting of a system of nerves that extend
throughout the body. Arthropods have a more complex nervous system: it contains a brain, ventral nerve cord, and ganglia
(sing. ganglion; clusters of connected neurons). These ganglia can control movements and behaviors without input from the
brain. Cephalopods such as octopi, which must hunt to survive, have complex brains and probably the most complicated of
invertebrate nervous systems. containing: millions of neurons are organized in specialized paired ganglia (all together forming
a brain), and their eyes are structurally similar to vertebrate species.
Vertebrates have a dorsal nerve cord which develops into a brain and spinal cord and constitute their central nervous system.
All the nerves extending from their CNS through the rest of their body form their peripheral nervous system.
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New York City College of Technology Biology II – BIO1201
Biological Sciences Department Laboratory Manual
The Vertebrate Nervous System
The vertebrate nervous system includes a well-developed brain, a spinal
cord (both forming the central nervous system, CNS) and peripheral
nerves and ganglia constituting the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The CNS is derived from surface ectoderm in the embryo which folds up
into a hollow cylinder, the neural tube. Nerves of the PNS fall into two
functional categories:
- somatic which controls voluntary functions,
- autonomic in control of involuntary functions.
The vertebrate nervous system can also be divided into gray matter and
white matter. Gray matter (which can appear pink or brown on fresh
preparations) is composed of proportion of cell bodies of neurons. White
matter consists mainly of myelinated axons, and takes its color from the
myelin. The brain and spinal cord contain all parts of neurons and will
display clusters of gray matter (called nuclei) surrounded by white
matter. As nerves only contain axons, they display white matter only. Human Nervous System. (Credit: OpenStax CC BY 4.0).
White and Gray Matter. Fresh human brain with a portion of the left frontal lobe removed to show gray and white matter (left; Credit: OpenStax
CC BY 4.0). Artistic representation of grey and white matter in the human brain with insert showing the neurons cell bodies and axons
arrangement (right; credit: Ms. Emma Vougt CC BY 4.0).
The Brain
The brain is the enlarged anterior end of the spinal cord. It is
contained in and protected by the skull (also called cranium) and
covered by meninges (sing, meninx), layers of protective
membranes (three in mammals and birds). Cerebrospinal fluid
within the meninges provides cushioning by absorbing shocks. Ten
to tawelve pairs of nerves (PNS) are attached to the brain.
During development, the brain, forming from the neural tube,
becomes organized as three functional regions:
• the forebrain; sorts out sensory input and initiates motor
responses. It contains the olfactory bulbs and cerebrum and
is responsible for memory and intelligence.
• the midbrain, reduced in birds and mammals but well
developed in fishes and amphibians, it relays sensory input to
the forebrain. It contains the optic lobes which increase with the
visual acuity and role of vision in the animal’s survival. The Brain and Nearby Structures. (Credit: Alan Hoofring,
• the hindbrain, continuous with the spinal cord, largely National Cancer Institute, Public Domain)
responsible for reflexes and coordination. It contains the cerebellum which is associated with agility.
The mammalian brain is characterized by a large cerebrum, the part of the brain related to sensory and motor integration. It
is believed that as vertebrates became more agile and inquisitive, the cerebrum increased. As it did so, it affected many other
brain regions and folded back on itself at its evolution and enlargement outpaced that of the cranium housing it.
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New York City College of Technology Biology II – BIO1201
Biological Sciences Department Laboratory Manual
Activity 1. Comparison of Vertebrates Brains
1.1 - Choosing a color for each of the labeled brain structures, color the illustration below:
Comparison of Vertebrate Brains.
Left to right: dorsal view of the brain of a
fish (trout), amphibian (frog), reptile
(alligator), bird (sparrow) and mammal
(dog). Sketches are not to the same scale.
(Credit: Public Domain).
1.2 - Which structure appears to have undergone the greatest change? How does it relate to the different animals’ lifestyles and
behavior?
1.3 - Which animal would you predict to be the most agile? The least agile?
1.4 - Which areas of the human brain would you expect to be particularly large? Small?
In the next activity, you will dissect a preserved sheep brain and use human brain models to observe and learn to identify the
different parts of the mammalian brain:
Brain Stem: this is the part that joins the brain to the spinal cord and relays impulses from the higher brain centers to the
spinal cord. It contains centers for the functioning of internal organs and consists of:
• The midbrain is very reduced in birds and mammals. It
helps coordinate eye movements, pupil reflexes and
body movements.
• The pons, with a ventral rounded bulge helps regulating
breathing and swallowing.
• The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain. It
controls the heart rate, blood pressure, and is also
involved in breathing and swallowing. It also contains
centers for the functioning of internal organs.
Cerebellum: located under the cerebrum and below the
occipital lobes, it is divided into right and left hemispheres by
a shallow fissure. It is involved in muscle tone, posture and
coordination (spatial orientation) to produce smooth
movements. In a cross section, the typical tree-like
appearance of the cerebellum is sometimes called arbor
The Human Brain. (Credit: BruceBlaus CC BY 3.0)
vitae.
Cerebrum: the largest part of the brain and it is responsible for higher mental capabilities and unique capacities such as
language and abstract thought. It is divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres separated by the longitudinal fissure.
The corpus callosum, a mass of axons (white matter), joins the two hemispheres allowing impulses to pass from one side
to another. The outer part of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex. It is composed of gray matter (neuron cell bodies and
unmyelinated processes). Its surface area is increased by gyri (ridges) and sulci (grooves) and divided into lobes:
• Frontal lobes: the most anterior parts of the brain, they control voluntary muscular movements and are involved in
thinking, problem solving, speaking and smelling.
• Parietal lobes: situated between the frontal and occipital lobes, these parts of the cerebral cortex allow interpretation of
sensations coming from the skin and taste, understanding speech.
• Occipital lobes: the posterior parts of the cerebellum, these are involved in vision, visual sensations and interpretation.
• Temporal lobes: situated by the temples (above the ears), these lobes interpret and hearing and smelling sensations.
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New York City College of Technology Biology II – BIO1201
Biological Sciences Department Laboratory Manual
Diencephalon: between the brain stem and cerebrum,
it contains the thalamus and hypothalamus. The
thalamus consisting of two globular masses, acts as a
gatekeeper as it eventually relays impulses between the
cerebrum and lower brain centers. It also allows
awareness of pain and pleasure. Posterior to and above
the thalamus, the pineal gland is a small endocrine
gland that produces melatonin and regulates sleep
patterns. The hypothalamus as its name indicates, is
located under the thalamus. It plays major roles in
homeostasis controlling appetite, body temperature,
and water balance. It is also involved in pleasure, pain,
reproductive behavior and hostility. The pituitary gland
(or hypophysis), attached to the inferior wall of the
hypothalamus, is described as the master gland of the
body. It produces many hormones and regulates
several processes such as growth, reproduction,
lactation.
Ventricles: each of the four ventricles of the brain are
spaces that secrete and store cerebrospinal fluid. The
fluid circulates through the ventricles and within the
meninges covering the brain and spinal cord. The
lateral ventricles are partly surrounded by the corpus
callosum.
The Human Brain. Top: The lobes of the cerebral cortex are shown in
different colors (credit: BruceBlaus CC BY 3.0); bottom: sagittal section of the
brain showing the inner structures on the right cerebral hemisphere (credit:
modified from BruceBlaus CC BY-SA 4.0).
Activity 2. Sheep Brain Dissection
For this activity, you will dissect a preserved sheep brain as a model of mammalian brain. Sheep brains are easily available and large
enough to observe different parts. As you follow your instructor’s directions, you should be able to identify the structures listed above
as well as additional ones.
2.1 - Obtain a sheep brain and note the following structures before you begin
your dissection:
o Cerebellum o Cerebrum o Longitudinal fissure o Medulla oblongata
o Midbrain o Olfactory bulb o Optic chiasma o Optic nerve
o Pituitary gland* o Pons o Spinal cord
2.2 - Gently separate the two cerebral hemispheres to see the top of the corpus
callosum joining the two hemispheres.
2.3 - Using human brain models, list differences and similarities between the Sheep Brain (ventral view). (Credit: Michael J. Gregory, Ph.D.,
human and sheep brains. Clinton Community College, CC BY-SA-NC 3.0)
2.4 - With a scalpel, cut the brain in half from the frontal lobe to the spinal cord
(sagittal plan), so that each half so that a left and right half are produced. Identify the following structures:
o Cerebellum (arbor vitae) o Cerebrum o Corpus callosum o Hypothalamus o Lateral ventricle o Medulla oblongata
o Midbrain o Optic chiasma o Pineal gland o Pituitary gland* o Pons o Spinal cord o Thalamus
2.5 - How do you explain the appearance of the inside of the cerebellum?
*Note: the pituitary gland was probably removed with the dura mater, one of the 3 meninges
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New York City College of Technology Biology II – BIO1201
Biological Sciences Department Laboratory Manual
The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves
The spinal cord is located in the vertebral canal. Like the brain, it is covered by the meninges. It serves as a pathway between
the brain and the spinal nerves (PNS) that lead to all parts of the body (except the head). Most mammals have between 34
and 44 pairs of spinal nerves; humans only have 31 pairs of spinal nerves due to their lack of caudal (tail) nerves. Each spinal
nerve contains long fibers of sensory nerves forming the dorsal roots of the spinal cord, and motor nerves forming the
ventral roots.
• Sensory neurons have their cell bodies in the dorsal root, forming dorsal root ganglions, and their axons extending to
form the spinal nerves. Sensory neurons take impulses from a receptor to the spinal cord. Motor neurons have their cell
body in the spinal cord and their axon extend outside of the spinal cord to form motor nerves.
• Motor neurons take impulses from the spinal cord to an effector such as a muscle or a gland.
• In the spinal cord, interneurons transmit nerves impulses from the sensory to the motor neurons. Some interneurons
carry nerves impulses from and to the brain.
Afferent neuron
Spinal cord axon (sensory)
Efferent neuron
axon (motor)
Action
Muscle (effector)
Finger (receiver)
Source
of heat
The Human Spinal Cord and Nerves. Left: a diagram of the spinal cord showing the insertion of the spinal nerves (credit: Cancer Research
UK CC BY-SA 4.0); center: cross section of the spinal cord showing the dorsal and ventral roots of spinal nerves (credit: CNX OpenStax CC BY
4.0); right: a withdrawal reflex arc. (credit: MartaAguayo CC BY-SA 3.0).
Reflexes are involuntary responses, i.e. they do not require conscious act to stimuli and are usually predictable. They are
important in maintaining the well-being of the organism. Some reflexes such as the photopupil reflex, sneezing or coughing
are controlled by the brain but spinal reflexes, such as withdrawal reflexes, do not require communication with the brain and
allow faster action. With spinal reflexes, the brain will receive the sensory input while the reflex is being carried out and the
analysis of the signal takes place after the reflex action. Simple reflexes do not require more than 3 neurons to produce a
reaction to a stimulus. A reflex arc consists of (1) a receptor that is stimulated and generates an impulse, (2) a sensory neuron
that carries the impulse to the brain or spinal cord (afferent neuron), (3) an interneuron that receives the impulse and relays
it to the motor neuron, (4) a motor neuron that transmits the impulse to an effector (efferent neuron) and (5) An effector that
performs the action.
Activity 3. Patellar Reflex
Physicians use reflex tests to assess the condition of the nervous system. In this activity, you will perform
the knee jerk or patellar reflex working in groups and using a reflex hammer.
3.1 - The subject should sit on a stool or edge of a table with her/his legs over the edge and hanging
freely (not touching the floor).
3.2 - Strike the patellar tendon with the small end of the reflex hammer and observe and describe the
response.
3.3 - Test both legs. Do they respond the same way? Explain.
3.4 - Divert the subject’s attention by asking them to interlock the fingers of both hands and pull the hands
against each other. Test the patellar tendons again. Is the response the same? Explain.
3.5 - Draw a quick reflex arc to describe the knee jerk reflex.
3.6 - What part of the nervous system does this test assess? The Patella-Tendon Reflex or Knee Jerk
(credit: Public Domain)
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New York City College of Technology Biology II – BIO1201
Biological Sciences Department Laboratory Manual
Senses
Sensations result from the interaction of three components of the nervous system: i) stimulation, i.e. receptors that detect
specific stimuli and generate impulses ii) sensory neurons which carry the impulses to the brain or spinal cord where
interneurons relay the impulses to the brain regions that assess the stimuli and, iii) perception, i.e. the interpretation of the
impulses as sensation by the cerebral cortex. Somatic sensations arise from stimulation of sensory receptors in the skin,
skeletal muscles and joints while visceral sensations result from the stimulation of sensory neurons in the walls of the internal
organs.
The Somatosensory Cortex in the Human
Brain. Left: A 3D rendering of the somatosensory
cortex in red with a cortical homonculus (credit:
Database Center for Life Science CC BY-SA 2.1);
right: cortical sensory homonculus (credit:
OpenStax College CC BY 3.0).
The nature of a sensation is determined by the part of
the brain receiving the impulse rather than by the type of
receptor being stimulated. For example, the auditory
center interprets all signals it receives as sounds
regardless of their origin. However, different types of
sensory neurons respond to different stimulation:
• mechanoreceptors are excited by pressure,
position change or acceleration
• pain receptors respond to tissue damage
• thermoreceptors detect temperature changes
• chemoreceptors detect substances dissolved in
fluid
• photoreceptors respond to light
.
Tactile Receptors in the Human Skin. Free nerve endings are stimulated
by pain, heat and cold; Ruffini’s corpuscules are excited by sustained
pressure; root hair plexi respond to hair movements; Pacinian corpuscules
are sensitive to vibrations and pressure; Meissner’s corpuscules and
Merkel cells respond to light pressure (credit: Bruce Blaus CC BY 3.0).
Activity 4. Senses of the Skin
The human skin contains receptors for touch, pain, pressure, hot and cold. You will work in pairs to detect certain characteristics of
sensations involving some of your skin receptors.
4.1 - Ability to discriminate between 2 pressures points: Ask the subject to keep her/his eyes closed and hold the 2 points of a
hairpin or scissors on a given area of the skin. Vary the distance between the two points and each time note whether or not
the subject feels one or two points. Repeat in different skin areas. Explain your results.
4.2 - Detecting temperature (heat and cold): Fill 3 beakers with ice water, tap water and warm water (about 50°C)
(1) Place your subject’s index finger in the water in each beaker, in sequence, and note the sensations. Does s/he recognize
the temperature difference?
(2) Immerse the left hand in the warm water and the right hand in the cold water. After 30 seconds, place both hand in the
beaker with tap water. Record the sensation for each hand.
(3) Explain alll your observations.
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New York City College of Technology Biology II – BIO1201
Biological Sciences Department Laboratory Manual
Review Questions
1. Describe the nervous systems of invertebrates
2. Provide a definition for cephalization, ganglia, CNS and PNS.
3. Describe the brain of vertebrates and its evolution.
4. Where can you find meninges? What function(s) do they have?
5. Describe white matter and gray matter, their location in the brain and spinal cord and provide a function for each.
6. List, in order, the types of neurons involved in a spinal reflex.
7. Described the steps involved in a sensation.
8. Mini Practicum: Identify the structures listed below on the illustrations and label them.
Cerebellum
Cerebrum
Corpus callosum
Frontal lobe
Hypothalamus
Lateral ventricle
Longitudinal fissure
Medulla oblongata
Midbrain
Occipital lobe
Olfactory bulb
Optic chiasma
Optic nerve
Parietal lobe
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Pons
Spinal cord
Temporal lobe
Thalamus
Brain Anatomy. Top: Sheep brain (credits: Aaron Bornstein CC BY 2.0 and Michael J. Gregory, Ph.D., Clinton
Community College, CC BY-SA-NC 3.0); bottom: Human brain (credits: Public Domain)
Author: [email protected]
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