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Problems Facing the Nascent Pakistan

On August 14, 1947, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah was inaugurated as the
Governor-General of Pakistan, declaring its eternal existence. However, the new
nation grappled with numerous challenges to secure its foundation.

Doubts About Pakistan's Viability

Indian leaders initially accepted the partition, anticipating Pakistan's inability to
survive due to political, economic, geographical, and military vulnerabilities. Their
expectation was that the seceded areas would eventually be compelled to rejoin
India. Jinnah's challenge was to establish and unify the country despite these
daunting issues.

Reactions to the Radcliffe Award

The Radcliffe Award, which outlined the partition of India, was released on August
17, 1947, leading to widespread objections. Millions of Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs
found themselves on the "wrong" side of the newly demarcated borders.

Emigration surged dramatically, resulting in terrible suffering for Sikhs, Muslims, and
Hindus. Although all groups suffered, more Muslims lost their lives than Hindus and
Sikhs combined.

Muslim Objections
Jinnah criticized the Radcliffe Award as unjust and incomprehensible. Key objections
included:

Ferozepur, despite having a Muslim majority, was given to India.

Gurdaspur, also with a Muslim majority, was awarded to India, allegedly to
provide India with a border to intervene in Kashmir.
Calcutta, despite being the capital and largest industrial, commercial, and
educational center of Bengal, went to India.

Sikh Disappointment

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The Sikhs, a significant population in Punjab with important historical and religious
sites, sought a separate Sikh state, a claim that was not immediately addressed.

Hindu Complaints
Hindus resented the awarding of the Chittagong Hill Tracts to East Bengal P akistan
, arguing that the area had a large Hindu majority and vital economic ties to India.

Geographical Problems
Pakistan immediately faced serious geographical challenges. Unlike countries with
natural borders, Pakistan was divided into two separate parts by about a thousand
miles of Indian territory.

East Pakistan comprised most of Bengal excludingW estBengalandCalcutta

and the district of Sylhet.
West Pakistan included Sindh, Balochistan, the North-West Frontier Province,
Punjab, Bahawalpur, and several princely states.

The significant distance and differences in culture and outlook between East and
West Pakistan posed considerable challenges to national unity.

Political Problems
In 1947, Pakistan faced more political problems than India.

India inherited government buildings, furnishings, and experienced officials from

the British, whereas Pakistan had none of these resources.
Pakistan's Constituent Assembly was mainly composed of wealthy
landowners with limited political experience.
The Muslim League lacked support from urban areas, drawing its strength
primarily from rural regions.

The geographical separation between East and West Pakistan further complicated
governance. Despite East Pakistan having over half the total population, the majority
of government and army leaders came from West Pakistan. Pakistan lacked the
necessary administrative and governmental machinery to effectively run the new
country.

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Jinnah's Health
Quaid-e-Azam suffered from tuberculosis and was aware that his time was limited.
Although the Governor-General's office was meant to be ceremonial, Jinnah's
relentless work and leadership were crucial for Pakistan's survival and prosperity.

Economic Problems
Pakistan consisted of underdeveloped states with minimal industry.

Approximately 90% of the population lived in rural areas, with only eight towns
having populations exceeding 100,000.
Agriculture, the major industry, did not generate enough surplus for
industrialization, except for jute production in East Pakistan.

East Pakistan produced nearly 70% of the world's jute in 1947, but all jute mills were
located in India.

Economic Assets Percentage in Pakistan

Industrial enterprises 10%

Industrial workers 6.5%
Electrical capacity 5%
Mineral deposits 10%

Social Problems
Pakistan comprised five distinct regions with varied traditions, cultures, languages,
and lifestyles.

Pakhtuns in the north

Balochs in the west
Sindhis in the south
Punjabis in the northeast
Bengalis in the east

Some regions, like Balochistan and Bengal, were unsure about transferring allegiance
to Pakistan, especially given that Urdu was to be the official language. Uniting these
diverse groups was a significant challenge.

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A member of the Constituent Assembly noted the vast differences between East and
West Pakistan, highlighting that religion and the struggle for independence were the
only common factors.

Accession of the Princely States

Lord Mountbatten declared that the 462 princely states would not be granted
independence but could choose to join either India or Pakistan.

Most states made straightforward decisions based on geographical location or

religion.

Northern states like Dir, Swat, Chitral, Amb, Hunza, Gilgit, and Kalat joined
Pakistan.
Bahawalpur also joined Pakistan.
The people of Sylhet voted to join Pakistan via referendum.

Hyderabad
Hyderabad was the largest and wealthiest princely state with a Hindu majority but
ruled by a Muslim Nizam who wanted dominion status. India pressured the Nizam to
join India, leading to a treaty regarding defense, foreign affairs, and communications.
Eventually, India invaded and incorporated Hyderabad into its provinces.

Junagadh
Junagadh, a small coastal state with a non-Muslim population and a Muslim prince,
announced its accession to Pakistan. India responded by sending troops, imposing a
blockade, and eventually invading and taking control of the area.

The Kashmir Issue

The state of Jammu and Kashmir became the most serious point of contention
between India and Pakistan due to its strategic importance, bordering Tibet, China,
Afghanistan, and Russia.

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In 1947, Kashmir had a majority Muslim population ruled by a Hindu Maharaja, Hari
Singh, who initially sought independence. His oppressive policies against Muslims
led to a rebellion. When the Maharaja requested assistance from India, India agreed
on the condition that Kashmir accede to India. Pakistan opposed this and sent troops
to aid the Muslims.

In January 1948, the matter was referred to the United Nations Organisation U N O,
resulting in a ceasefire and the division of Kashmir. However, India retained the
largest area, including Srinagar. Despite promises of a referendum, the Kashmir issue
remains unresolved, causing ongoing tension between India and Pakistan.

Jinnah emphasized the need for determination and hard work to overcome the
nation's challenges, urging government servants to guide and uplift the people.

He also stressed the importance of submerging individual and provincial interests for
the common good of the state, prioritizing the state above all else.

Division of Financial and Military Assets

Partitioning British India involved dividing the country's assets, with an agreed ratio
of 17:5 between India and Pakistan.

Pakistan was to receive 750 million rupees from the Reserve Bank.
India initially paid 200 million rupees but withheld the rest after the outbreak of
war over Kashmir, alleging that Pakistan would use the funds to buy arms.

Gandhi protested this decision and, through a hunger strike, successfully pressured
the Indian government to pay an additional 500 million rupees.

Military Division
The armed forces were to be split 36% to 64% between Pakistan and India, with
personnel allowed to choose their country. Pakistan faced a shortage of trained
Muslim officers and had to temporarily employ 500 British officers.

India also failed to fully honor the agreement on military supplies, refusing to hand
over ordinance factories. Eventually, India agreed to pay 60 million rupees in lieu of
the factories, which Pakistan used to build an ordinance factory at Wah.

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The result was that Pakistan began its existence with a seriously under-resourced
military force.

The Canal Water Dispute

The Canal Water Dispute originated from the partition of Punjab in 1947. West
Pakistan depended on irrigation from rivers and canals, but the headworks
controlling the water flow were mostly in Indian Punjab.

India initially promised not to interfere with the water supply but disputes soon
arose, particularly over the Bari-Doab canal. India asserted its rights over the water,
while Pakistan argued its economic dependence on it.

In May 1948, a temporary agreement was reached, allowing water to flow into West
Pakistan if Pakistan sought alternative water supplies. This issue needed urgent
resolution.

Refugees and the Crisis of Accommodation

In the years before partition, communal violence escalated between Muslim and non-
Muslim communities. The Boundary Award announcement worsened the situation,
leading to mass migrations.

Partition was made along religious lines to ease tensions between Muslim
and non-Muslim communities - instead it made matters worse.

Millions became victims of communal attacks, resulting in one of the largest and
most violent migrations in history. By January 1948, about 10 million people had
moved from India to Pakistan and vice versa.

Some refugees, distressed by their hardships, looted and engaged in violence.

Authorities had to declare martial law in certain areas to control the situation.

By the end of 1947, India and Pakistan cooperated to manage the orderly evacuation
of refugees, though violence did not completely end.

Jinnah's Vision of Equality

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You may belong to any religion, caste or creed – that has nothing to do
with the business of the state. We are starting in the days when there is
no discrimination, no distinction between one caste or creed and another.
We are starting with this fundamental principle that we are all citizens
and equal citizens of one state.

Understanding Jinnah's vision

Jinnah advocated for a state where religion, caste, or creed did not dictate citizenship
or state affairs.

Nazimuddin as Governor General and Liaquat Ali Khan as

Prime Minister
Following Jinnah's death, Khawaja Nazimuddin became the Governor-General of
Pakistan on September 14, 1948, and Liaquat Ali Khan remained as Prime Minister.

Nazimuddin recognized Liaquat Ali Khan's influence and allowed him to lead the
country. This made the role of the Governor-General less important than that of the
Prime Minister. One of Liaquat Ali Khan's primary tasks was to establish a
constitution that would satisfy the various groups within Pakistan.

The Objectives Resolution

Since 1857, the subcontinent had been under British rule, governed by various Acts
of Parliament. After independence in 1947, Pakistan was governed by an amended
version of the Government of India Act. A Constituent Assembly was established to
frame a new constitution.

The Basic Principles Committee

The Constituent Assembly set up a Basic Principles Committee to decide on the
principles upon which the new constitution should be based.

The Objectives Resolution, passed on March 12, 1949, outlined key principles:

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1. The constitution should observe the principles of tolerance and social justice as
laid down by Islam.
2. Muslims would be able to lead their lives according to Islamic principles.
3. Other religious groups should be able to practice their religion freely.
4. Minorities and the poor would be legally protected from social injustice.
5. All fundamental human rights should be guaranteed.
6. The legal system should be independent of government influence.

The Objectives Resolution contained several references to Islam, aiming to create a

proper Islamic state with a constitution based on the Shariat.

Criticism
The proposals faced criticism:

East Pakistan had a larger population than West Pakistan and resented the idea
of equal representation in the National Assembly.
East Pakistanis also resented having to accept Urdu as the official language.
Provincial politicians objected to the power being given to the Head of State
and to the Federal Government.
Religious groups complained that the constitution was not sufficiently Islamic.

Due to these criticisms, Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan decided that the proposals
should be given further consideration. His death delayed constitutional changes.

Public and Representative Officers

Disqualification Act
This Act showed that Pakistan had yet to become the free, democratic country that
the Quaid had envisioned. It was subtitled:

"An Act for the debarring from public office for a suitable period of
persons judicially found guilty of misconduct in matter therein"

Complaints could be made to the PRODA governors who could order an enquiry by
judges. Anyone found guilty under the law was debarred from office. The law was
designed to eliminate corruption, but in reality, it allowed the ruling elite to remove
those who it did not approve of.

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Refugee Crisis
In August 1947, the Quaid had called the refugee problem in Pakistan a grave
emergency and had set up the Central Refugee Council to deal with it. Liaqual Ali
Khan met with the Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru and signed the Liaquat-
Nehru Pact. It was agreed that each government was responsible for the safety of
minority groups and the free passage of refugees across borders was introduced. A
visa system for refugees was restricted.

Conflicts in Hyderabad and Kashmir

On 17 September 1948, while Pakistan was still coming to terms with the
death of the Quaid, India invaded Hyderabad.
On 5 January 1948, the United Nations Organization organized a resolution
between India and Pakistan in Kashmir. However, there was no agreement on
the future of Kashmir, so tensions looked likely in time to come.

Army Leadership and Conspiracy

In January 1951, Sir Douglas Gracey, the British Commander-in-Chief of the army,
was replaced by General Ayub Khan, a Pakistani. Since many army officers had
complained about the presence of the British, army officers were Pakistani. Despite
this, some officers were unhappy with the government and began to plan a coup to
take over. In March 1951, this 'Rawalpindi Conspiracy' was discovered by the
government. Major-General Akbar Khan, Chief of General Staff, and 14 other
officers were arrested, tried, and imprisoned.

Assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan

Liaquat Ali Khan was shot dead by an assassin on 16 October 1951, whilst
addressing a public meeting in Rawalpindi. He had worked tirelessly for the country
and was a popular leader. The government gave him the title of Shaheed-e-Millat
amartyrf orthecauseof thenation.

Ghulam Muhammad 1951 − 55

Key Events

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Oct 1951: Ghulam Muhammad sworn in as Governor General of Pakistan

17 Apr 1953: Nazimuddin dismissed from premiership; Muhammad Ali Bogra
appointed Prime Minister
1953: First Five Year Plan for economy introduced
29 Sept 1954: Ghulam Muhammad dissolves the Assembly. New cabinet
sworn in
Feb 1955: Sindh High Court rules that dissolution of Assembly was
unconstitutional
10 May 1955: Federal Court overturns Sindh High Court ruling.
Aug 1955: Ghulam Muhammad resigns

After the death of Liaquat Ali Khan, Ghulam Muhammad, who had been the Finance
Minister in the Cabinet, became the Governor General of Pakistan. He persuaded
Khwaja Nazimuddin to become Prime Minister. Ghulam Muhammad was the first of a
number of major political figures in Pakistan who had risen from amongst the civil
service to high office.

Economic Planning and Development

In 1950, a Planning Commission was set up to oversee economic development. In
1951, it launched a Six Year Plan for Pakistan, covering agriculture, fuel and power,
transport and communications, and uplift schemes. In 1953 a Planning Board was
set up to review the development that had taken place and this produced a Draft
Five Year Plan in 1956. These schemes played a major part in helping economic
development in Pakistan. For example, in 1952 a major oil processing plant was
opened at Narayanganj (East Pakistan) and the exploration led to the discovery of
vast oil/gas reserves in Balochistan.

Challenges Faced

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From 1951 to 1953 there was a severe drought in Pakistan, affecting food
production. In February 1953, severe food shortages led to rioting in most cities
throughout Pakistan. The government was not well-placed to deal with these
shortages. During the Korean War, there had been increased demand for Pakistan's
jute and cotton, to supply the thousands of soldiers involved in the fighting but by
1953 demand had declined. This meant that Pakistan was making less money just
when it needed to buy more foodstuffs. In April, the USA agreed to donate a million
tons of wheat to help Pakistan overcome the food crisis. The rioting, however, also
had a religious element.

Religious Tensions
Some ulamas had begun a campaign against the Ahmedis. They demanded that all
Ahmedis be dismissed from office, including Zafarullah Khan, the Foreign Minister.
It was only after martial law was imposed and numerous arrests were made that the
rioting was brought under control.

Basic Principles Committee Reports

The recommendations presented to the Constitutional Matters Principles
Committee in December 1952 proved so unpopular that they were withdrawn for
further consideration. Two years later, on 22 September 1954, a revised Report of
the Basic Principles Committee was presented to the Assembly by the Prime
Minister, Nazimuddin. It altered the 1950 proposals by suggesting:

1. The Head of State must be Muslim.

2. There should be a House of Units with 60 members from East Pakistan and 60
from West Pakistan. There should be a House of People with 400 members,
200 elected from each wing.
3. Religious minorities would have representatives at National and Provincial
levels.
4. The Cabinet was to be responsible to the National Assembly not the Head of
State.
5. The Head of State would choose a committee of Islamic specialists to ensure
that all legislation conformed to Islamic law.
6. The official language should be settled by the Assembly.

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These proposals also met with criticism and uncertainty. Further political changes
occurred when Major General Iskander Mirza came into power. The Constitution was
not settled until 1956. As yet, Pakistan had no official language, although Urdu had
been suggested under the Quaid and had much government support. However, the
Bengalis of East Pakistan were particularly opposed to its use.

Dismissal of Khwaja Nazimuddin

On 17 April 1953, Ghulam Muhammad dismissed Khwaja Nazimuddin and other
members of the Cabinet, blaming them for not controlling the economy and the riots
that resulted from food shortages in February. He did this despite the fact that they
had received a vote of confidence from the Assembly. Ghulam Muhammad stated:

"I have been driven to the conclusion that the Cabinet of Khawaja
Nazimuddin has proved entirely inadequate to grapple with the difficulties
facing the country."

Nazimuddin decided not to resist, fearing that disagreement in the government

would be disastrous for the country.

Appointment of Muhammad Ali Bogra

The new Cabinet included a new Prime Minister, Muhammad Ali Bogra, who had
been the acting ambassador to the USA. Bogra wanted as much foreign aid as
possible to boost Pakistan's economy. The USA, Canada, and Australia agreed to
send Pakistan a million tons of wheat, which helped to calm the fears of famine that
had sparked the riots. Bogra also set up the Planning food Board to produce a Five-
Year Plan that would, hopefully, avoid further shortages. He also worked out a
regional defense agreement, called the Central Treaty Organization CEN T O.

US Aid to Pakistan
Part of this involved Western aid for Pakistan, in terms of money, supplies and the
help of industrial experts.

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Type of Aid Amount M illionsof Dollars

Project aid 75.5

Technical help 34.4
Commodity aid 220.2
Consumer goods 135.4
Food 43.1
TOTAL 508.6

Constitutional Crisis of 1954

Coupled with social and economic problems, Ghulam Muhammad's desire to
maintain the position of Governor-General meant that progress in getting agreement
on the constitution was slow. Bogra attempted to introduce laws limiting the powers
of the Governor General.

On 21 September 1954, while Ghulam Muhammad was out of the country, Bogra
persuaded the Assembly to vote through measures that said the Governor General
had to have the Assembly's approval to choose ministers, including the Prime
Minister, and that the Cabinet had to take the advice of ministers. The Assembly
repealed the Public and Representative Officers Disqualif ication Act

P RODA

, which said the Governor General could remove ministers from the National and
Provincial governments.

Ghulam Muhammad declared a state of emergency and then dissolved the

Assembly, saying:

"The Constituent Assembly, as at present constituted, has lost the

confidence of the people and can no longer function."

New Cabinet ‍

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Ghulam Muhammad chose a new Cabinet, re-appointing Bogra as Prime Minister,

but selected five members of the cabinet who were not members of the Assembly,
this included the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, General Ayub Khan. Maulvi
Tamizuddin, the Speaker of the dissolved Assembly, contested the dissolution in the
Sindh High Court.

In February 1955 the Court ruled in favor of Maulvi Tamizuddin. Ghulam

Muhammad appealed to the Federal Court against this judgement. On 10 May 1955,
this higher court ruled that Ghulam Muhammad had the authority to dismiss the
Assembly. In August, Ghulam Muhammad fell ill and had to resign. He was replaced
by Major General Iskander Mirza.

Ghulam Muhammad's Dissolution of the Assembly

Ghulam Muhammad gave the following reason for dissolving the Constituent
Assembly.

"The constitutional machinery has broken down...The Constituent

Assembly has lost the confidence of the people and can no longer
function."

The Sindh Court disagreed with him.

"The Constituent Assembly is a sovereign body. The Governor General

has no power of any kind to dissolve it."

One legal scholar commented on the Federal Court judges' decision as being

"devastating the political structure of Pakistan".

Iskander Mirza 1955 − 58

Key Events

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1955: Iskander Mirza becomes acting Governor General, Muhammad Ali Bogra
dismissed as Prime Minister
5 Oct 1955: One Unit system introduced; Pakistan to be treated as one unit
23 Mar 1956: Constitution announced
12 Sep 1956: Chaudry Shaheed Suhrawardy made Prime Minister
17 Oct 1957: Suhrawardy dismissed.
18 Dec 1957: Feroze Khan Noon made Prime Minister
7 Oct 1958: Mirza proclaimed martial law and made himself President

Major General Iskander Mirza was one of the 5 members selected for Ghulam
Muhammad's Cabinet who was not a member of the Assembly. He declared that
what Pakistan needed was a leader capable of taking decisive action. He dismissed
Ali Bogra as Prime Minister and appointed the Finance Minister, Chaudry
Muhammad Ali, as Prime Minister and pressed him hard to have a Constitution
drawn up quickly.

1956 Constitution

Government Structure

The diagram visually represents the government structure prescribed in the 1956
Constitution, showcasing the relationships and interdependencies between the
President, Prime Minister, Cabinet, National Assembly, and Provincial Assemblies.

The key elements of the structure are outlined as:

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The President chooses the Prime Minister whomustbeM uslimandover40, can

dissolve the National Assembly in emergencies, and possesses restrictive
powers.
The Prime Minister is chosen from the National Assembly, chooses the Cabinet,
and faces the restriction that the Cabinet must also be from the National
Assembly.
The Cabinet advises the President.
The National Assembly has 300 members.
The Provincial Assembly consists of one body for East Pakistan and one for
West Pakistan.

Pakistan's first Constitution was formally enforced on 23 March 1956. The

constitution declared Pakistan as an "Islamic Republic".

Guaranteed Rights
Free speech
Right to form political parties
Right to criticize
Freedom of religion
Equality
Right to marry
Right to education
Right to own property

The "One Unit" Policy

Map of West Pakistan

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The image represents the unification of West Pakistan into a single province,
showcasing its geographical layout and key cities, as West and East Pakistan had
differing political and economic interests, the "One Unit" policy was designed to
attempt to bridge these differences.

In November 1954, Bogra proposed that the four provinces and 10 princely states
within Pakistan should be joined together to form all of West Pakistan. On 5 October
1955 Mirza passed an order in what became known as the unifying One Unit
Scheme.

"There will be no Bengalis, no Punjabis, no Sindhis, no Pathans, no

Balochis, no Bahawalpuris, no Khairpuris. The disappearance of these
groups will strengthen the integrity of Pakistan." - Mohammad Ali Bogra
in 1954

Reasons for the One Unit Scheme

It would end the curse of provincial prejudices.
It would reduce administrative expenses.
It would allow the development of backward areas.
It would make it easier to draw up a new constitution.
It would give East and West Pakistan maximum autonomy.

Opposition
"On paper the scheme appeared rational, but the issues that separated
the provinces were sentimental and emotional, no paper reorganization
could change, let alone replace, the underlying realities." - Lawrence
Ziring

Other Policies

Modernization
Iskander Mirza's government program aimed to modernize Pakistan. The Karachi
airport was opened in 1955, modernization of the railway continued, and the
telephone system was expanded.

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East Pakistan
East Pakistan had always been poorer than West, and its people had not been
involved in the decision-making of government. Their natural discontent was made
worse by food shortages and other problems caused by severe flooding through
1956. Mirza replaced Chaudry Muhammad Ali with Hussein Shaheed Suhrawardy,
a politician from East Pakistan. Suhrawardy showed a lack of authority and was
dismissed in October 1957.

Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar was appointed. His government was a collection of

politicians with differing views. Feroze Khan Noon was Mirza's next choice. He was
forced to appoint a large Cabinet 26members.

Martial Law
On 7 October 1958, Iskander Mirza, using the constant disagreements amongst the
leading politicians and government as his excuse, proclaimed martial law with
himself as President.

On 24 October he appointed Ayub Khan as Prime Minister. Ayub Khan had on

several occasions declined an offer from Ghulam Muhammad to take over the
country, but by 1958 he had come to believe that it was necessary. On 27 October he
forced Mirza to resign and was exiled to London, beginning Pakistan's first period of
military rule.

Declaration of Martial Law October 1958

The Constitution of 23 March 1956 will be abrogated. The government
will be dismissed with immediate effect. The National and Provincial
Assemblies will be dissolved. All political parties will be abolished. Until
alternative arrangements, Pakistan will remain under martial law.

Field Marshall Mohammad Ayub Khan

1958 − 69

Key Events

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1958: General Ayub Khan takes over

27 Oct 1959: Basic Democracies introduced
Oct 1962: New Constitution
Mar 1965: War with India
Mar 1969: Ayub forced to resign

General Ayub Khan announced that he hoped that a period of military rule would
settle Pakistan. He said, the government would provide a constitution that would
combine democracy with discipline.

"A new era has begun and anti-social practices, to root out the
administrative malaise and to create security and stability and eventually
bring the country back under normalcy. I hope their objective." - Quaid-e-
Azam's sister, Mohtarma Fatima Jinnah

1959 Basic Democracies

Basic Democracies Diagram

Basic Democracies structure and organization.

The first step in Ayub Khan's constitutional reforms came with the introduction of the
Basic Democracies Order on 26 October 1959. This was a four-tier system in which
ordinary people elected union council members who in turn elected district and
divisional members. It was stated in the 1962 Constitution that the 80,000 elected
Basic Democrats would also form the electoral college for the election of President
and members of the Central and Provincial Legislatures.

At the end of 1959, Ayub asked the Basic Democrats for a vote of confidence. Almost
95% of them declared their confidence in him and on 17 February 1960 he was
confirmed as President. He then announced the creation of a Constitution
Commission to make recommendations for a new constitution.

"We have given it the name Basic Democracies for the very obvious
reason that we want it to grow and evolve from the very first rung of the
political ladder so it finds roots deep among the people." - Ayub Khan

1962 Constitution

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The President nominated the Cabinet from the members of the National and
Provincial Assemblies. The President nominated the heads of the judiciary and the
governors whothennominatedtheirCabinets. The National Legislature could not
pass a law without the approval of the President. Ayub introduced a new constitution
and the new National Assembly met for the first time on 8 June 1962. One of its first
acts was to remove the ban on political parties.

Government Structure Under the 1962

Constitution
The 1962 Constitution established a government structure that included a President,
National Assembly, and Provisional Assembly. The National Assembly was
responsible for suggesting legislation and approving the national budget.

1965 Elections
In January 1965, elections were held for the Presidential office. Ayub Khan,
nominated by the Convention Muslim League, faced opposition. Despite initial
beliefs that the opposition was too divided, they united to support Mohtarma Fatima
Jinnah, sister and advisor of Quaid.

Agricultural Reforms

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Land Redistribution: Aimed to increase agricultural productivity.

Land holdings were restricted to no more than 500 acres irrigated or
1000 acres unirrigated.
Surplus land was redistributed to smaller farmers.
Impact:
Increased food output.
Big landowners hired tenants for increased productivity.
Construction of dams and wells to improve irrigation.
Revitalized canal irrigation, leading to record crop yields.

Ayub Khan claimed these reforms brought about a Green Revolution, though much
of the increased productivity was due to mechanization, primarily affordable by large
landowners.

Industrial Reforms
Industrial Development: Promoted with loans from Western countries like the
USA, Germany, and the UK.
Key Developments:
Establishment of a mineral refinery in Karachi.
Formation of the Mineral Development Corporation.
Creation of the Regional Cooperation for Development RCD with Iran and
Turkey to enhance trade and industry ties.
Export Bonus Scheme to incentivize industrialists to increase exports.
Economic Growth: Average annual economic growth rose to 7% in the 1960s.

Social and Educational Reforms

New Textbooks: Introduced to schools and colleges.
Literacy Programs: Aimed to increase literacy rates.
Housing: Efforts made to provide shelter for the shelterless, including refugees
from the partition era.
Housing for Workers: Laws passed requiring factory owners to provide
accommodation for workers at reasonable rents.
Family Planning: Government initiated a Family Planning Programme, funded
by American loans, using various media to promote smaller family sizes.

Islamabad: A New Capital

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Relocation: Capital shifted from Karachi to Islamabad.

Construction: Started in October 1961; officially became the capital in 1967.
Planning: Designed as a modern, carefully planned city with distinct zones for
diplomatic, commercial, educational, industrial, and residential purposes.

War with India and Political Discontent

Kashmir Conflict: Pakistan went to war with India in 1965 over Kashmir.
Tashkent Treaty: The peace treaty did not address the Kashmir issue, leading to
public dissatisfaction.
Bhutto's Exit: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, blamed for the war's failure, became a focal
point for opposition against Ayub.

Political Unrest and Ayub Khan's Downfall

Growing Discontent: By 1968, many were dissatisfied with the undemocratic
government and accusations of election rigging.
Economic Disparities: While economic production rose, only a few benefited,
and food prices increased.
Student Protests: Began in October 1968 and spread across West Pakistan.
Assassination Attempt: Ayub Khan survived an assassination attempt.
Uniting Opposition: Ayub's repressive policies united various opposition
parties.
Democratic Action Committee: Formed in January 1969 by eight parties
demanding proper elections and autonomy for East Pakistan.
Ayub's Concessions: Emergency powers were withdrawn, and political
prisoners were released, but it was too late.
Resignation: On March 25, 1969, Ayub Khan resigned, handing over power to
the army under General Yahya Khan, marking the second time Pakistan
experienced martial law.

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Yahya Khan's Takeover 1969 − 71

Martial Law: General Yahya Khan became President and Chief Martial Law
Administrator.
Policy Changes:
Basic Democracy deemed unsuccessful.
Promise of a properly elected government.
Re-establishment of Provincial Government.
Commitment to democracy based on 'one man, one vote'.
Political Activity Resumes: Political parties began campaigning for a National
Assembly of 300 members.
Elections Postponed: Elections scheduled for October 1970 were postponed
due to severe flooding in East Pakistan.

Seeds of Tension and Disparity

Lahore Resolution: In 1940, the Lahore Resolution proposed independent
states in Muslim-majority regions, fostering hopes for an autonomous state in
Bengal.
Partition Disappointment: In 1947, Bengal was partitioned, with a significant
portion going to India, sowing seeds of tension.

Social and Cultural Disparities

Geographical Division: Pakistan was divided into East and West wings, with
the capital in West Pakistan.
Language Issues: Urdu was chosen as the national language, despite Bengali
being spoken by a majority. Protests led to the recognition of Bengali as an
official language in the 1956 Constitution.
Cultural Differences: East Pakistan had a distinct culture, different from West
Pakistan, leading to a sense of alienation.

Economic Disparity
Poverty: East Pakistan was economically poorer than West Pakistan, with trade
cut off from West Bengal.
Unequal Investment: More foreign aid and capital investment went to West
Pakistan.
Income Discrepancy: Per capita income in East Pakistan declined, while it
increased in West Pakistan, widening the economic gap.

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Political Disparity
Under-Representation: East Bengalis were under-represented in the
Constituent Assembly, senior government positions, and armed forces.
Dominance: Key positions were often filled by West Pakistanis.

1970 Cyclone
Devastation: A deadly cyclone hit East Pakistan in November 1970, causing
massive loss of life.
Government Inaction: The government's slow response led to accusations of
neglect and indifference.

Six Points of the Awami League

The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, called for:

1. A directly elected government.

2. Federal government to control defense and foreign policy.
3. Separate currencies or fiscal policies for East and West Pakistan.
4. Provinces to control taxation and trade agreements.
5. Each province to send a share of taxes to the federal government.
6. Each province to have its own troops.

1970 Election Results and Crisis

Awami League Victory: The Awami League won a majority in the National
Assembly, campaigning on the Six Points.
People's Party P P P : Led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, primarily based in West
Pakistan.
Constitutional Crisis: The Awami League's victory created a constitutional
crisis, as their majority threatened the traditional dominance of West Pakistan.
Negotiations Fail: Yahya Khan and West Pakistani politicians found the Six
Points non-negotiable.

This bar graph shows the percentage of votes that the People's Party P P P secured
in 1970 across various regions of Pakistan. For example, Sindh secured 44.95% of
the votes while Balochistan only had 2.38% of the votes for the PPP.

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Deepening Crisis
Failed Negotiations: Yahya Khan's attempts to negotiate with Mujibur Rahman
failed.
PPP's Refusal: Bhutto announced that the PPP would not take up seats in the
National Assembly without power-sharing agreements.
Assembly Postponed: Yahya Khan postponed the opening of the Assembly,
leading to mass civil disobedience in East Pakistan.

Operation Searchlight
Operation Searchlight was a military operation launched by President
Yahya Khan to crush Bengali nationalism in East Pakistan.

Crackdown: Launched on March 25, aiming to suppress Bengali nationalism.

Oppression: Bengali intellectuals, academics, and Hindus were targeted.
Declaration of Independence: On March 26, Bengalis declared the Sovereign
People's Republic of Bangladesh.
Refugee Crisis: Millions of Bengali refugees fled to India, leading to civil war.

War with India

Indian Support: India declared support for the people of Bengal and aided the
Mukti Bahini.
Escalation: Relations between India and Pakistan deteriorated, leading to war.
Indian Attacks: On December 3, Pakistan launched air attacks on northern
India, prompting India to attack East Pakistan.
Recognition of Bangladesh: India officially recognized the Bangladeshi
government.
Surrender: Within two weeks, Indian forces surrounded Dhaka, leading to the
surrender of Pakistani forces and the creation of an independent Bangladesh.

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Pakistan's Challenges and the Fall of East

Pakistan
Following the events in Dhaka, the Pakistan Army sought to divert Indian forces by
launching attacks in Kashmir and Punjab, but these efforts were largely
unsuccessful. The UN Security Council attempted to mediate a solution to prevent
war, and Bhutto attended talks in New York.

International Response
The UN passed a resolution calling for a ceasefire and withdrawal from East
Pakistan, pending a resolution. The USSR was prepared to support India, but the US
and other Western allies did not offer the same support to Pakistan. Bhutto returned
to Pakistan, understanding that Pakistan would have to win the war independently.

The Surrender
A week after Bhutto's return, Yahya accepted defeat and ordered the surrender of the
army in East Pakistan. The Mukti Bahini allegedly massacred those suspected of
collaborating with the Pakistan Army, and the Pakistan Army allegedly eliminated
numerous professional Bengalis.

Impact on West Pakistan

The separation of East Pakistan was a shock to the people of West Pakistan. They
had been led to believe that the Awami League was a poorly organized group of
rebels and that India would be easily defeated if it intervened.

Reasons for Pakistan's Defeat

Pakistan's army of over 90,000 soldiers surrendered, despite being well-supplied.
The main reason for the army's failure was the determination of the people of East
Pakistan to resist West Pakistan's attempts to force them to remain part of Pakistan
against their will.

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Lack of Support
Pakistan received little support from its allies. India had support from the Soviet
Union. Pakistan's allies and the UN were not interested in supporting a war to bring
East Pakistan into line.

Consequences of Defeat
Defeat in the war brought disgrace for Yahya and the army.

On December 20, 1971, Yahya resigned as President and was replaced by Bhutto.
On December 21, 1971, the Republic of Bangladesh was officially declared.

Mujib was released from prison two weeks later and returned to Bangladesh, where
he became the country's first Prime Minister on January 10, 1972.

Presidents of Pakistan 1971 − 88

President Term

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto 1971-73

Fazal Elahi Chaudry 1973-78
Mohammad Zia-ul-Haq 1978-88

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's Era 1971 − 77

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto became President on December 20, 1971, during a challenging
period for Pakistan. The army was under martial law, and East Pakistan had seceded.
The 1970 election, however, had given the Pakistan People's Party P P P an
overwhelming majority in the National Assembly, which Bhutto intended to use to
introduce radical changes.

Controlling the Army

Bhutto aimed to limit the army's power to prevent it from interfering with his policies.

His strategies included:

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Removing key army leaders.

Appointing loyal leaders.
Establishing the Federal Security Force F SF in October 1972.

Simla Agreement
The Simla Agreement with India was crucial for restoring diplomatic relations and
securing the return of prisoners captured in East Pakistan.

The Simla Agreement: Bhutto signed the Simla Agreement with the Prime Minister
of India, Indira Gandhi. The image shows the signing of the Simla Agreement.

On July 2, 1972, Bhutto signed the Simla Agreement with Indian Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi. India agreed to return prisoners of war in exchange for Pakistan's
promise to discuss the Kashmir problem directly with India, rather than in
international forums.

Bhutto achieved several goals:

Reduced dependence on foreign powers.

Improved international reputation.
Increased popularity by bringing home prisoners of war.

New Constitution
Bhutto aimed to transition Pakistan to parliamentary democracy. Martial law was
lifted in April 1972, and a new Assembly was formed.

On August 14, 1973, the new constitution became law, featuring:

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A bicameral legislature with the Senate and Assembly.

A Prime Minister as the leader of the majority party in the Assembly.
A largely symbolic President.
An Islamic Republic with a Muslim Prime Minister and President.
A federal state with provincial assemblies.

Party Politics
The 1973 Constitution revived the power of the National Assembly, increasing the
importance of political parties. The PPP was the dominant party in the National
Assembly and in the Sindh and Punjab Provincial Assemblies.

Bhutto's Reforms
Bhutto focused on fulfilling his promises of 'Food, Shelter, and Clothing' from the
1970 elections. These reforms aimed to raise food production, create jobs, and
improve the welfare system.

Industrial Reforms
Bhutto aimed to promote economic growth and reduce inflation through
nationalization.

The government took control of industries such as:

Sugar
Cotton
Vegetable oil
Rice
Banking and insurance sectors

These changes were intended to:

Control industrial output and investment

Raise workers' living standards
Allow workers to set up unions
Reduce wealth inequality
Create wealth to fund other government reforms
Raise the popularity of the PPP

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Despite challenges, Bhutto's reforms had some success, with economic growth
increasing and inflation falling to 6% in 1976.

Agricultural Reforms
Bhutto's government introduced reforms to place a ceiling on land ownership and
provide security of tenancy.

Land Ownership:

Under Ayub, the ceiling on land ownership had been 500 acres of irrigated land
or 1000 acres of non-irrigated land.
Bhutto cut the ceiling to 150 acres irrigated or 300 acres unirrigated.

Security of Tenure:

Security of Tenure: A measure giving tenants the first right of purchase of

land farmed by them.

Bhutto wanted to give tenants security of tenure of the land they farmed and
introduced a measure giving tenants the first right of purchase.

Education
The government aimed to improve education, as only about half of all children were
attending school, and the literacy rate was just 15%.

Article 37 of the 1973 Constitution stated that it was the duty of the government to
provide free and compulsory education.

Bhutto introduced reforms to achieve eight ambitious goals:

1. Eradicate ignorance.
2. Provide education for all.
3. Ensure the curriculum meets Pakistan's needs.
4. Ensure uniformity of education.
5. Raise self-confidence.
6. Raise aspirations for higher education.
7. Develop each person's personality and potential.
8. Develop Pakistani culture, identity, and national pride.

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Health and Social Reforms

Pakistan had poor healthcare facilities and a high infant mortality rate. In August
1972, Bhutto launched a health scheme to correct these issues.

Key reforms included:

Introduction of Rural Health Centers RH Cs and Basic Health Units BH U s.

Training colleges for doctors and nurses with merit-based admissions.
Mandatory first-year service for doctors in government-assigned posts.
Banning the sale of medicines under brand names.

Administrative Reforms
Bhutto wanted a modern and efficient civil service and reorganized the Civil Service
of Pakistan CSP by:

Reducing the number of levels.

Unifying pay scales.
Reforming entry requirements.

Downfall

The 1977 Election

In 1977, Bhutto called a general election, confident of a PPP victory. However, nine
opposition parties formed the Pakistan National Alliance P N A. The PNA wanted to
end the rule of Bhutto and the PPP and govern Pakistan according to Islamic law.

The election results showed a landslide victory for the PPP, but the PNA accused the
government of rigging the elections and demanded new elections.

Steps to Downfall 🪞
Bhutto refused fresh elections, and the PNA organized mass protests. Bhutto made
concessions, such as banning gambling and alcohol and declaring Friday as the
weekly holiday.

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On April 19, he declared a state of emergency and placed Pakistan under martial
law.

On July 5, the army staged a coup, named Operation Fairplay. Bhutto and other
political leaders were arrested.

Historical Events: This image is a blurry, close-up photograph of a list of historical

events, likely related to Pakistan.

General Zia-ul-Haq and the army took control of Pakistan on July 5, 1977,
suspending the constitution and Assemblies. Zia stated that this was temporary and
aimed to restore peace.

Zia's Reasoning for Postponing Elections

Zia claimed that the restoration of peace and the exposure of injustices were his top
priorities. He also alleged that Bhutto's government was corrupt and that those who
had misused government funds, prevented justice, and exploited the people of
Pakistan would be held accountable and punished.

Early Measures - The Death of Bhutto

Zia faced the immediate challenge of how to handle Bhutto's case. This was
especially difficult because Bhutto had appointed Zia as the Chief of Army Staff,
even though he was junior to other generals. Some army officers doubted Zia's
capabilities, so he wanted to prove himself as a determined leader in his dealings
with Bhutto.

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Bhutto was initially released from arrest but was rearrested after expressing his
intention to regain political authority. He was accused of murdering a political
opponent. After a nearly two-year trial, Bhutto was found guilty and sentenced to
death. Zia, as President, had the power to commute the sentence but did not. Bhutto
was hanged on April 4, 1979. Zia used this event to project an image of strength.

Balochistan
Zia inherited a rebellion in Balochistan and resolved it by offering amnesty to those
who surrendered their arms. He worked to establish good relations between Balochi
tribal leaders and the government and initiated development projects to improve
living conditions and increase support for the government.

Accountability
Zia disbanded the FSF in November 1977, knowing its unpopularity and its
discrediting due to its behavior under Bhutto. Investigations into the corruption of the
previous government were launched, aiming to discredit Bhutto's government and
present a new, more moral Islamic government. Evidence of corruption during
Bhutto's time was found, and it was revealed that the civil service and legal system
were filled with Bhutto's supporters.

Islamisation
Zia was publicly committed to elections and a return to parliamentary democracy but
was aware that the army was the most stable force in Pakistan. He was unwilling to
relinquish his position as Chief of Army Staff and wanted to prevent the PPP from
regaining power.

Elections were postponed indefinitely under the justification that Pakistan needed
strong governance based on Islamic values.

The introduction of a more Islamic-based ideology served multiple purposes for Zia:

Countering Bhutto's socialist measures.

Gaining support from religious elements within Pakistan's political parties.
Positioning the government as pro-Islamic, especially after the Soviet invasion
of Afghanistan, which allowed Zia to portray his government as fighting against
"pagan communists."

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Islamic laws were introduced, and a Federal Shariat Court was established in 1979
to assess existing laws and legal judgments for compliance with Islamic principles.

Hudood Ordinance
Different punishments were prescribed for various crimes.

These were:

The Offence against Property Ordinance

The Offence of Zina Ordinance
The Offence of Qazf Ordinance
The Prohibition Ordinance

These ordinances introduced Islamic punishments for crimes like theft, adultery,
gambling, and drinking. Punishments included amputation for theft and caning for
drinking.

Other Measures
The Council of Islamic Ideology was tasked with suggesting ways to bring the
legal framework of Pakistan closer to Islamic ideology.
Attempts were made to enforce Islamic principles in the economic field, such as
replacing interest with profit-sharing.
The Zakat Ordinance imposed a 2.5% wealth tax on savings above a certain
amount, with the funds going to Zakat committees to assist the poor. Shia
Muslims protested against this law, and they were later exempted from the tax.
The Ushr Ordinance imposed a 5% tax on agricultural income, also paid into
the Zakat fund.
Islamiat and Pakistan studies were made compulsory in schools and colleges.
Extra marks were given to candidates who had memorized the Quran by heart
in the Pakistan Civil Service examinations.
Efforts were made to promote the Arabic language.

The Position of Women

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Zia introduced a series of reforms that reversed many of the advances women had
made. Educational policies and school textbooks discriminated against women, and
they were discouraged from working in public places. A census in 1981 showed a
significant disparity in employment rates between men and women.

The Hudood Ordinances and measures like the Qanun-e-Shahadat Order

Lawof Evidence relegated women to an inferior legal status.

Zia's policies led to the formation of organizations like the Women's Action Forum to
protest their treatment, but the position of women declined seriously under Zia.

Impact on Minorities
Zia's policies were designed to unite the nation behind Islam but emphasized
conservative values. These policies favored Sunni madaris over Shia madaris, leading
to Sunni-Shia tensions. Zia used his islamization policy to restrict minority groups like
the Ahmadis, prohibiting them from posing as Muslims and restricting their religious
practices.

The "Afghan Miracle"

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 had a significant impact on international
relations. Zia became a key ally of the West, and Pakistan became the base for anti-
Soviet activities. The West provided unconditional economic and military support to
Pakistan.

Impact of the Soviet Invasion

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Aspect Impact

International Pakistan became a leading country in world politics and a key ally
Relations of the West.
Economic Large sums of money were poured into Pakistan for refugee
Support rehabilitation and to develop the army.
Zia increased the defense budget and built an effective military
Military Influence force that he was able to sell to other Muslim countries. Pakistan
became a major supplier of military manpower.
Economic
The influx of funds allowed Zia to undertake economic reforms.
Growth
Remittances from Remittances from Pakistanis working in the Middle East amounted
Overseas to billions of dollars a year.

Zia's government denationalized companies, reformed nationalized industries, and

passed laws to protect investors. Pakistan's average annual growth in the Gross
National Product was 6.2%, the highest in the world.

Law and Government

Despite claims of supporting an independent legal system, Zia restricted the power
of the courts. The Constitution Amendment Act of 1979 established military courts,
and the Provisional Constitutional Order took away the right of courts to challenge
any political executive decision. The civil service was brought under military control.

Zia created the Majlis-e-Shoora, an Islamic Parliament, whose members were

appointed by Zia. Zia passed amendments to the constitution to grant automatic
validity to his decisions, legalize all military decisions, and allow the President to
appoint key officials without consultation.

Referendum
In December 1984, Zia announced a referendum on whether people wanted the
process of Islamisation to continue, with a "yes" vote also implying support for Zia to
continue as President for another five years. The MRD called for a boycott, and the
referendum was largely considered a failure.

Despite this, Zia proceeded with elections for the National and Provincial Assemblies
in February 1985. Many people ignored the MRD's call for a boycott.

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Following the election, Zia chose Muhammad Khan Junejo as Prime Minister. Martial
law was lifted on December 30, 1985, after the passing of the Eighth Amendment to
the constitution, which granted Zia significant powers.

Problems for Zia

In the second half of the 1980s, Zia faced increasing difficulties in governing Pakistan.

Key Issues:
Guns: The influx of weapons from the Afghan conflict led to increased crime
and violence.
Drugs: Drug use and trafficking grew, leading to corruption.
Provincial Conflicts: Sindh became ungovernable due to violence.
Refugee Crisis: The NWFP bore the brunt of the refugee problem from
Afghanistan.
Arms Control: The superpowers were trying to resolve the Afghan crisis, but
Zia was reluctant to lose influence in Afghanistan.

In March 1988, Junejo took a serious note that the civilian wing of the government
had sufficient influence to discuss the situation independently of the army. On April
10, 1988, an army weapons dump at Ojhri Camp blew up, killing hundreds. Junejo
announced an inquiry, which led Zia to dismiss Junejo and dissolve the National
Assembly on May 29, 1988.

Death of Zia
Zia set a date in October for elections, but on August 17, 1988, his plane was blown
up in mid-flight, killing everyone on board. Ghulam Ishaq Khan became acting
President and supervised the election process. Benazir Bhutto won the election and
became the first female Prime Minister of Pakistan.

Benazir Bhutto as Prime Minister 1988 − 90

Many welcomed Benazir Bhutto's election as the end of military dictatorship in
Pakistan. However, she faced considerable opposition:

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Political Opposition
Nawaz Sharif and the Islami Jamhuri Itehad I J I fiercely opposed her rule,
especially with Sharif controlling the Punjab's provincial government.
Although the military dictatorship had ended, the military and intelligence
agencies still had great power.
Being Zulfigar Bhutto's daughter made her popular with many but also created
enemies.
The opposition, primarily from wealthy families, organized a No-Confidence
motion in October 1989, which she narrowly defeated.

Differences with President

President Ghulam Ishaq Khan often clashed with Benazir Bhutto, especially
over military and judiciary appointments.
He refused to agree to her desired appointments in the military, causing further
tension.

Policies: Inflation, Unemployment, and Drug Trafficking

Benazir Bhutto promised a democratic Pakistan guided by Islamic principles,
aiming to move away from Zia's pro-Islamic policies and introduce social and
health reforms.
She ended a ban on trade unions, restored students' unions, released political
prisoners, and took steps to spread electricity across rural Pakistan.
However, many promises were unfulfilled due to opposition dominance in
legislation and her short time in power.
The government struggled with high inflation, unemployment, a rapidly
increasing population, overburdened education and health systems, and a
growing drug abuse problem.

Problems in Sindh

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Although Sindh was Zulfigar Ali Bhutto's stronghold, it also saw growing
opposition to the PPP's rule.
Bhutto made Sindhi compulsory in schools and reserved posts for Sindhis,
which angered many Urdu-speaking muhajirs who supported the MQM.
To win MQM support, she promised to protect the interests of all people in
Sindh but failed to do so, leading to continued tensions.
Violence escalated, including the Pucca Qila massacre in May 1990, further
destabilizing the region.

Kashmir
During Bhutto's first term, an uprising of Kashmiri Muslims occurred in the
Indian-administered region.
By the early 1990s, Pakistan was sending well-trained fighters into Kashmir to
support the local Muslims.
By 1993, the Pakistan Inter-Services Intelligence had taken over the uprising
from local fighters.

Foreign Policy
Benazir Bhutto took Pakistan into the South Asian Association for Regional
Cooperation SAARC .
In December 1988, Pakistan hosted the SAARC Summit Conference, improving
relations with India.
In June 1989, she visited the United States, meeting with President Bush and
restoring good relations between the two countries.

Corruption Allegations and Dismissal

Benazir Bhutto's government faced accusations of corruption, particularly
against her husband, Asif Ali Zardari.
Growing unemployment and strikes led President Ghulam Ishaq Khan to
dismiss the Bhutto government in 1990 under the Eighth Amendment, citing
corruption and incompetence.
Following her dismissal, Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi formed a caretaker government
and investigated alleged corruption.

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1990 Elections and Opposition

The Islami Jamhuri Ittehad won a comfortable victory in the 1990 elections,
and Nawaz Sharif became prime minister.
Benazir Bhutto became the leader of the opposition.

Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister 1990 − 93

Economic Policy
Nawaz Sharif announced a national reconstruction program to industrialize and
modernize Pakistan, believing that industrial growth could solve
unemployment.
He pursued a policy of privatization, aiming to boost the economy through
partnerships between the government and the private sector.

Privatization: Transferring ownership of a business, enterprise, agency,

public service, or public property from the public sector government to the
private sector businessesorindividuals.

The map provides a clear visual representation of Pakistan's geography, highlighting

its coastal areas and major urban centers.

Projects and Scandals

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Motorway Project: One of Sharif's major projects was to build a transportation

network to the Central Asian countries, but it suffered from delays and lack of
investment.

Pakistan's first motorway, the M2

This is Pakistan's first motorway, the M2, which was completed in November 1997,
but the project suffered from continual delays.

BCCI Scandal: The collapse of the Bank of Credit and Commerce International
BCCI in 1991, a major bank operating in Pakistan, harmed the country's

finances.
Co-operative Societies Scandal: Mismanagement of cooperative societies led
to millions of Pakistanis losing money, with allegations of loans to Sharif's
family business.

Social and Political Issues

Kalashnikov Culture: The influx of automatic weapons from the Afghan war
fueled crime, terrorism, and ethnic rivalries.

Kalashnikov Culture: The proliferation and normalization of automatic

weapons in society, leading to increased violence, crime, and social
instability.

The Shariat Bill: In May 1991, the Shariat Bill was passed, making the Quran
and Sunna the law of the land, but it faced opposition and was not effectively
enforced.

Conflicts with the President

Nawaz Sharif's government faced difficulties with President Ishaq Khan,
leading to his dismissal in 1993, though the Supreme Court later restored him.
New elections were called for October 1993.

Benazir Bhutto as Prime Minister 1993 − 1996

1993 Elections and Coalition

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The 1993 elections brought the return of Benazir Bhutto as Prime Minister.
By entering into a coalition with independent parties, the PPP was able to form
a new government.

Policies and Challenges

The PPP campaigned for an "Agenda of Change" and aimed to improve social
services.
Benazir Bhutto emphasized women's social and health issues, announcing
plans for women's police stations, courts, and development banks.

Family Feuds and Political Problems

Benazir Bhutto's government faced family feuds and political problems.
Her brother, Murtaza, criticized her and was involved in acts of terrorism.
In September 1996, Murtaza was killed in a police ambush, further
undermining support for Benazir Bhutto.

Economic Problems
Economic problems made it difficult for Benazir Bhutto to govern effectively.
There was a 30% decrease in the value of the rupee compared to the US dollar.
The country's economy suffered from the effects of the US financial and military
embargo.

Government Dismissed
President Leghari dismissed the government in November 1996, citing
misgovernment and corruption.

Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister 1997 − 1999

Political Changes

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Nawaz Sharif introduced the Thirteenth Amendment, removing the President's

authority to dismiss the Prime Minister and the National Assembly.
The Anti-Defection Bill F ourteenthAmendment prevented politicians from
switching parties.

Repression and Controversies

Journalists writing critical articles were arrested, and unexpected tax
inspections were carried out.
In May 1997, Sharif's security police attacked the home of a leading critic.

Sajjad Ali Shah Controversy

Sharif became involved in a dispute with the Chief Justice of Pakistan, Syed
Sajjad Ali Shah.
An unruly mob stormed into the Supreme Court, forcing Sajjad Ali Shah to
adjourn the case against Sharif.

Nuclear Testing in 1998

Pakistan carried out a series of nuclear tests in Balochistan, which brought
widespread international criticism and economic sanctions.

Government Falls
The army had been a constant threat to democracy in Pakistan.
Sharif tried to strengthen his position by introducing the Fifteenth Amendment,
which made sharia the supreme law.

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