materials

Article
Finite-Element-Analysis-Based Study of a Failure Phenomenon
in HDPE Pipes
Horatiu Teodorescu Draghicescu 1 , Maria Luminita Scutaru 1, * and Sorin Vlase 1,2

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Transylvania University of Brasov, B-Dul Eroilor, 29,

500036 Brasov, Romania; hteodorescu@[Link] (H.T.D.); svlase@[Link] (S.V.)
2 Romanian Academy of Technical Sciences, Bulevardul Dacia 26, Bucures, ti, 030167 Bucharest, Romania
* Correspondence: lscutaru@[Link]

Abstract: In pipes made of HDPE used in city water supply networks, a specific type of failure is
commonly noted, called the parrot’s beak failure. It requires expensive intervention. The prediction
and study of the development of this defect, therefore, requires thorough research. In this work,
the finite element method is used to study the mechanism of the occurrence and development of
this defect. Two examples of the calculation for the concrete case of some tubes used in a water
supply network are presented. This study is important for the designers of such networks, to predict
and prevent the occurrence of this defect that can lead to unwanted network downtime and high
repair costs.

Keywords: parrot’s beak failure; HDPE; pipes; water supply network; FEM

1. Introduction
Water supply networks exist in all human settlements, and the tubes used in these
supply networks represent a very important element in the creation of these networks.
Drinking water distribution systems play a particularly important role. These are made up
of pipe networks, storage basins, pumps, and other accessories necessary for the proper
Citation: Teodorescu Draghicescu, functioning of the system. There must also be a command and control system that must
H.; Scutaru, M.L.; Vlase, S. meet multiple requirements.
Finite-Element-Analysis-Based Study Such a system is served by numerous pipes, with very large diameters at the entrance
of a Failure Phenomenon in HDPE to the system, starting from the water purification stations and continuing with pipes of
Pipes. Materials 2023, 16, 6944. increasingly smaller diameters, which go to the final consumers. Towards the point of
[Link] public use, these pipes have a diameter of approximately 150 mm, thus allowing for the
ma16216944 connection with the final consumers (public buildings, houses, industrial consumers, etc.).
Academic Editor: Aleksander Hejna
Worldwide, the total length of these pipes is enormous, so the importance of their design
and manufacture is huge. Thus, the efforts made by researchers to study the behavior
Received: 2 September 2023 of pipes during water transport is justified. These pipes must meet many conditions,
Revised: 23 September 2023 withstand high loads, and have a long service life, as repairs are very expensive.
Accepted: 27 September 2023 Pipes for transporting water have been made, throughout history, from different
Published: 29 October 2023
materials, corresponding to the level of technological development of the society. At the
moment, pipes made of asbestos cement, cast iron, ductile iron, plastic, reinforced concrete,
and steel are in service.
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
The creation of polyethylene (PE) has offered multiple advantages to this field: high-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. volume and low-price production; simple modeling; the possibility of ensuring a simple
This article is an open access article and integrated design (multifunctional components, such as couplings and fittings); simple
distributed under the terms and transport, handling, and assembly; easy maintenance; good mechanical resistance and
conditions of the Creative Commons resistance to seismic events; chemical and corrosion resistance; a very good lifespan; very
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// good operation at low temperatures; and the possibility of recycling the materials after
[Link]/licenses/by/ use. At the moment, pipes made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) represent the
4.0/). ideal solution for human water supply systems. The first applications date back to the

Materials 2023, 16, 6944. [Link] [Link]

Materials 2023, 16, 6944 2 of 16

1960s. HDPE proved to be a hard, very resistant material with long durability, very good
handling, and an excellent price (the lowest lifetime cost among the previously mentioned
materials [1]).
HDPE is currently the standard material used in water transport, and represents a
modern and economical solution, as well as being the most suitable plastic [1,2]. Tubes and
fittings manufactured from this material have the appropriate mechanical properties, a long
life, and low manufacturing and maintenance costs. The manufacture of these materials is
in its third generation [3]. Pipes made of these materials have good mechanical properties,
being able to withstand variable loads, as currently happens in the case of water supply
networks. Their fracture, in the case of the ductile fracture mode, is in the form of a parrot’s
beak [4,5].
The mechanical behavior of HDPE was presented in [6]. That study was occasioned
by a practical requirement; namely, the need to replace and modernize the water network
of a city with 300,000 inhabitants. Experimental measurements allowed for the mechanical
identification of the materials used. The calculations were performed for two cases, for a
pipe buried in the ground and for a pipe supported in a concrete massif. The advantages
offered by the second solution were argued for in the work. The finite element method
(FEM) was the tool used for modeling.
A frequently encountered phenomenon in the study of pipeline systems under pres-
sure is the so-called water hammer. This phenomenon can lead to great damage, start
a process of plastic deformation in the tube, or even cause the failure of the pumping
system. One paper [7] proposed the use of a constructive solution that led to a reduction
in the effects that the battering ram can have. This was accomplished by inserting an
additional pipe. Experimental checks showed that the added polymer pipe could ensure
a significant damping of the overvoltage that occurs when the mentioned phenomenon
occurs. This effect must be studied because additional loads entering into the system can
lead to a parrot’s beak failure. The reliability of polymer pipes made of HDPE in drinking
water supply networks is an important aspect. Pipe ruptures can occur when there is a
sudden overpressure or defects on the surface of the pipe. A study of this phenomenon
was conducted in [8], and applied to the case of a bad water supply network. The water
hammer effect that occurs in the case of transient liquid flow, although it is a rare event,
can cause serious damage to a water network management system. Numerous studies
have been undertaken to investigate this phenomenon. It was found that the magnitude
of the event is determined by the length of the pipeline. A model that shows this was
presented in [9]. The length of the pipe proved to be the decisive factor in the pressure
increase time. For the different pipe lengths considered in the calculation, it was found
that the differences in pressure increases can reach up to 40%, which is a significant figure
that a designer must take into account. A particular case of a water supply network with
HDPE pipes was studied in [10]. The work justified the use of HDPE instead of the initial
solution, which was tubes made of steel. Thus, a significant reduction in project costs was
achieved, and all the network conditions were fulfilled. The cost, schedule, and risk and
benefit analyses justifying the use of HDPE were presented.
FEM is widely used, and allows for obtaining fast, accurate, and low-cost results for
problems related to the determination of stresses and strains in a deformable body. There
are a number of applications in many fields that have been solved using this method. The
method can be extended to solving the problems of complex structures made up of bars,
plates, or blocks.
The method is well consolidated, and the results obtained in the field have been
concretized in well-known software. For the research carried out in the present work, the
use of plate-type finite elements is required. In this way, information can be obtained quickly
regarding the state of stresses and deformations in the structure. In FEM, a continuous
structure with an infinity of unknowns (the strains or stresses at each point of the structure)
is transformed into a system with a finite number of unknowns (by introducing some nodal
points where the nodal displacements are known or determined). These unknowns define
Materials 2023, 16, 6944 3 of 16

the degrees of freedom of the system. For each finite element, defined by its nodes, the
stiffness matrix of the element is calculated, based on some approximations. Then, all the
obtained matrices are assembled into a global stiffness matrix.
A simple analytical model that allows for fast and precise calculations in conditions
where there is heat transfer was presented in [11]. Model verification was performed using
FEM. In that work, different aspects of the problem were studied, such as the effect of the
temperature of the fluid, the temperature of the soil surface, or the depth of the soil on the
pipe temperature. The FEM calculation results validated the proposed model. A study
of the stress and strain distribution of an HDPE pipe reinforced with polyester fibers was
presented in [12] using FEM. The traction, bending, and torsional stresses were determined.
The results obtained theoretically were verified experimentally. Earthquakes can cause the
destruction of some pipelines due to the landslides that can occur. They can dramatically
affect the life of buried pipes. In order to evaluate their effects on pipeline networks, a
study is needed to study the interaction that exists between the soil and pipelines during
an earthquake. This was performed by [13]. The procedures specific to this method, and
an estimate of how the interaction between the soil and the pipe takes place, can provide
useful results to designers. The optimization of a tube system covering underground power
cables was analyzed in [14]. Pipes made of HDPE were filled with a sand–bentonite mixture
to protect them from heavy mechanical loads. In the system, there was also thermal transfer
through a stationary process. Using FEM, the temperature distribution in the soil, the
sand–bentonite mixture, and the cables was determined. The optimal size of the cables
could thus be determined. Other interesting applications of FEM in the analysis of tube
systems used to transport liquids have been presented in [15–28].
The XFEM method has been used in numerous works on pipes and pipe systems, and
there are many applications that have been solved with this method [29–33].
For HDPE, ductile failure occurs with plastic deformation, and brittle failure occurs
with little or no plastic deformation. Brittle failures are thus catastrophic because they occur
without warning. In this paper, a study of the emergence and development of the parrot’s
beak failure, using FEM, is performed. The analysis is performed for two cases: a pipe
elbow bent at 45◦ and a pipe segment. The results confirm that FEM is a convincing model
of the way in which this failure appears and develops, and the obtained results simulate
the real situation well.

2. Models and Methods

2.1. Damage of HDPE Pipes
Knowing that hydraulic loads occur when a pipeline changes direction, a problem
arises in the analytical calculation of the balancing force of the hydrodynamic force.
An analytical calculation for an elbow with a deviation of α = 45◦ is presented in the
appendix. The failure of buried pipes made of HDPE can occur for various reasons:
• Internal conditions (high pressure, rapid pressure variations, the temperature being
too high or too low, and the type of liquid transported);
• Design, installation, or handling errors;
• Inappropriate material or material with initial defects;
• Geothermal activity (movement of the crust or seismic forces);
• Anthropogenic activity (heavy traffic, explosions, or other activities).
The common method of the deterioration of a pipe is the brittle one. A microcrack that
exists after the pipe manufacturing process slowly grows in the wall. The microcracks are
usually oriented along the pipe, and their opening is caused by circumferential stress (which
can be caused by internal pressure or pressure from the outside). The analysis of pipes
made of HDPE (presented in the introduction), established that there are three major modes
of failure: ductile (mode I—Figure 1), brittle (mode II—Figure 2), and brittle/chemical
(mode III).
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16
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Materials 2023, 16, 6944 4 of 16

[Link]
Ductile failure[3].
[3].
Figure 1. Ductilefailure
Figure failure [3].

Figure 2. Brittle failure [4].

[Link]
Figure Brittlefailure
failure[4].
[4].
In this work, we deal with the second mode of breaking, namely, the ductile mode.
In
Inthis
thiswork,
work, we we deal
deal with
with the
the second
second mode mode of of breaking,
breaking, namely,
namely, thethe ductile
ductile mode.
mode.
This mode is not as common as the brittle mode, but it is well known to the maintenance
This
Thismode
modeisisnot
notasascommon
commonas asthe
thebrittle
brittlemode,
mode,but butititisiswell
wellknown
knownto tothe
themaintenance
maintenance
teams of pressure piping systems, and is called a parrot’s beak failure [34–37]. During
teams
teams of of pressure
pressurepiping
pipingsystems,
systems, andandisiscalledcalledaaparrot’s
parrot’sbeak
beakfailure
failure[34–37].
[34–37]. During
During
ductile failure, the material undergoes an irreversible plastic deformation on a large scale.
ductile
ductilefailure,
failure,the
thematerial
materialundergoes
undergoesan anirreversible
irreversible plastic
plastic deformation
deformation on on aa large
large scale.
scale.
Usually, this defect appears in the area where the wall is thinner. There is an expansion
Usually,
Usually,thisthisdefect
defectappears
appearsin inthe
thearea
areawhere wherethe thewall
wallisisthinner.
[Link]
Thereisisan anexpansion
expansion
located on a large area of the pipe. In order to avoid this type of failure, experiments are
located
located on onaalarge
largearea
areaofofthe
thepipe.
[Link] Inorder
orderto toavoid
avoidthisthistype
typeofoffailure,
failure,experiments
experimentsare are
carried out on the material to determine its ductile strength over a long time. A ductile
carried out on the material to determine its ductile strength over
carried out on the material to determine its ductile strength over a long time. A ductile a long time. A ductile
fracture must not occur before 50 years of service of the pipe. Pipe manufacturers have
fracture
fracture must
must not
notoccur
occurbefore
before50 50years
yearsof ofservice
serviceofofthethepipe.
[Link]
Pipemanufacturers
manufacturershave have
classifiedtheir
classified theirmaterials,
materials,according
according to to
thisthis requirement,
requirement, into into
PE80 PE80 (MDPE),
(MDPE), withwith a mini-
a minimum
classified their materials, according to this requirement, into PE80 (MDPE), with a mini-
mum admissible
admissible stress stress
of 8.0 of 8.0 MPa,
MPa, and PE100
and PE100 (HDPE),(HDPE),
withwith a minimum
a minimum admissible
admissible stress
stress of
mum admissible stress of 8.0 MPa, and PE100 (HDPE), with a minimum admissible stress
of MPa.
10 10 MPa. Under
Under these
these conditions,
conditions, thethe lifetime
lifetime mustmust
be abe a minimum of years
50 years at ◦20
C. °C.
of 10 MPa. Under these conditions, the lifetime must beminimum
a minimum of 50of 50 yearsat 20at 20 °C.
Inthis
In this work,thethe occurrenceofofductile
ductile failureis is studied using FEM. This type of fail-
In thiswork,
work, theoccurrence
occurrence of ductile failure
failure studied
is studied using FEM.
using [Link] type
This of failure
type of fail-
ure
isure is important
important regarding
regarding the long-term
the long-term service
service of pipes.
of pipes. WhileWhile during
during the
thethe occurrence
occurrence of of
a
is important regarding the long-term service of pipes. While during occurrence of
a brittle
brittle fracture,
fracture, the the load
load cancan increase
increase three
three times
times compared
compared to to
the the calculated
calculated value
value with-
without
a brittle fracture, the load can increase three times compared to the calculated value with-
aout
out
a fracture
fracture
a fracture
occurring,
occurring,
occurring,
for ductile
for ductile fractures
for ductile
fractures
this does
fractures
this
not
this
does not happen,
happen,
does
and the calculation
and the calculation
not happen, must be
and the calculation
must be performed
performed with great with great care.
care.
must be performed with great care.
2.2. Experimental
2.2. Experimental Methods
MethodsforforDetermining
DeterminingthetheMechanical
MechanicalProperties
Propertiesofofthe
theMaterial
MaterialUsed
Used
2.2. Experimental Methods for Determining the Mechanical Properties of the Material Used
Due to the fact that there are no test pieces cast under pressure from the same material
as that of the tubes, for the most commonly used tube sizes in the supply network, the test
pieces must be cut from pipes (Figure 3).
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

Due to the fact that there are no test pieces cast under pressure from the same mate-
Materials 2023, 16, 6944 5 of 16
rial as that of the tubes, for the most commonly used tube sizes in the supply network, the
test pieces must be cut from pipes (Figure 3).

[Link]
Figure Differenttypes
typesof
oftubes
tubesused
usedin
inthe
thewater
watersupply
supplynetwork
network[4].
[4].

High-densitypolyethylene
High-density polyethylene samples
samples were
were cut
cut from
fromthe
thetwo
twotypes
typesof
oftubes
tubesmost
mostoften
often
usedin
used inthe
thedistribution
distributionnetwork:
network:
•• High-densitypolyethylene
High-density polyethylenetube
tubewith
withdimensions ofΦ63
dimensionsof Ф63×× 4 mm;
•• High-density
High-densitypolyethylene
polyethylenetube
tubewith
withdimensions ofΦ90
dimensionsof Ф90×× 6 mm.
The
Thesamples
sampleswere
weretested
testedunder
undertension
tensionuntil
untilbreaking.
breaking.
The
The following distributions should be knownby
following distributions should be known bythe
thepipe
pipeuser:
user:
•• Distribution of the longitudinal modulus of elasticity;
Distribution of the longitudinal modulus of elasticity;
•• Distribution
Distribution of stress
stress atatthe
themaximum
maximum load,
load, depending
depending on the
on the elongation
elongation at theatmax-
the
maximum
imum load; load;
•• Force
Forcedistribution
distributionat atthe
themaximum
maximum load,
load, depending
depending on on the
the deformation
deformation at at the
the maxi-
mum
mumload;
load;
•• Distribution
Distributionof ofthe
thelongitudinal
longitudinalmodulus
modulusof ofelasticity,
elasticity,depending
dependingon ontensile
tensilestrength;
strength;
•• Distribution of stiffness, depending on the force at the maximum
Distribution of stiffness, depending on the force at the maximum load; load;
•• Distribution
Distributionof ofstress
stressatatmaximum
maximumdeformation,
deformation,according
accordingto tothe
theelongation
elongationatatmaxi-
max-
mum deformation;
imum deformation;
•• Distribution
Distributionof ofthe
thebreaking
breakingforce,
force,depending
dependingon onthe
thebreaking
breakingdeformation;
deformation;
•• Distribution of the breaking stress, according to the breaking
Distribution of the breaking stress, according to the breaking [Link].
These
Thesedistributions
distributionsareareshown
showngraphically
graphicallyin inFigures
Figures4–11.
4-11. The
The manufacturer
manufacturershould
should
also make them known to those who are going to use the tubes
also make them known to those who are going to use the tubes in a network. in a network.
Based on laboratory measurements, the following conclusions can be drawn:
• As the tube diameter increases, the standard deviation of the values increases;
• The values of Young’s modulus fell between 1500 and 4000 MPa for the high-density
polyethylene samples taken from the 90 × 6 mm tube, and between 1000 and 1400 MPa
for the high-density polyethylene samples taken from the 63 × 4 mm tube;
• The average stress at the maximum load, depending on the elongation at the maximum
load, was around 20 MPa for both types of samples;
• The force at the maximum load for the high-density polyethylene cut from the
90 × 6 mm tube was between 1.2 kN and 1.6 kN, and for the case of the high-density
polyethylene cut from the 63 × 4 mm tube, it was between 0.7 kN and 0.8 kN;
• The most important scattering of values was obtained for the distribution of the
stress at the maximum deformation, according to the displacement at the maximum
deformation for both types of specimens made of high-density polyethylene tubes.
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Figure
Figure 4.
Figure4.
Figure 4. Young’s
[Link]’s
Young’s
Young’s modulus.
modulus.
modulus.
modulus.

Figure 5. Stress at maximum load.

Figure5.
Figure
Figure [Link]
Stressatat
Stress at maximum
maximum
maximum load.
load.
load.

Figure 6. Force at maximum load versus deformation at maximum load.

Figure6.
Figure
Figure [Link]
Forceatat
Force at maximum
maximum
maximumloadload versus
versus
load deformation
deformation
versus atmaximum
maximum
at maximum
deformation at load.
load. load.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
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Figure 7. Young’s modulus versus strength at traction.

Figure
Figure [Link]’s
Figure7.7. Young’s
Young’smodulus
modulus
modulusversus strength
versus
versus at traction.
strength
strength at traction.
at traction.

Figure8. 8.
Figure Stiffness
Stiffness versus
versus force
force at at maximum
maximum load.
load.
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Stiffness
Stiffness versus
versus force
force at
at maximum
maximum load.
load.

[Link]
Figure Stressatat
maximum deformation
maximum versus
deformation strainstrain
versus at maximum deformation.
at maximum deformation.
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Stress
Stress at
at maximum
maximum deformation
deformation versus
versus strain
strain at
at maximum
maximum deformation.
deformation.
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Figure
Figure [Link]
Figure10.
10. Breaking
Breaking force
force
force versus
versus deformation.
deformation.
versus deformation.

Figure 11. Stress versus strain.

Figure [Link]
Figure 11. versus
Stress strain.
versus strain.
Based on laboratory measurements, the following conclusions can be drawn:
3. Results
• The
3.1. As the oftube
Based
Case on diameter
DN 315 increases,
laboratory
Elbow the standard
measurements,
Buried in Soil deviation conclusions
the following of the values increases;
can be drawn:
• The values of Young’s modulus fell between 1500 and 4000 MPa for the high-density
• InAs thefollows,
what tube diameter
we analyze,increases,
via the FEM,the twostandard
cases ofdeviation
the appearanceof the of values increase
a parrot’s
polyethylene
beak-type break, one samples
for an takenand
elbow from the 90
another for×a6linear
mm tube,
tube, and between
subjected to the1000
usualand 1400
• The values
MPafound
for the of Young’s
high-density modulus fell between 1500 and 4000 MPa
× 4 mm tube;high-
for the
pressures in water transportpolyethylene
networks. The samples
mode of the taken from the
appearance and63propagation
of
polyethylene
• theThe
crackaverage
samples
stress
are studied.
taken
at geometric
The the maximum from
modelload,
the 90 ×
of thedepending
6 mm
DN 315 elbow
tube,
on made and between
the elongation 1000
at the
of high-density maxian
MPa for
mum
polyethylene the
load,
that is high-density
was around 20 in
unsupported polyethylene
MPa for bothanchor
a concrete samples
types istaken
shownfrom
of samples;
mass the 12.
in Figure 63 ×The
4 mm tub
•model
• The
The average
willforce
be used
at thetostress at the
simulate
maximum theload
maximum
failureforof the load, Thedepending
the high-density
elbow. discretized on the cut
analysis
polyethylene elongation
model at ×th6
fromisthe 90
presented
mum
mm in
tubethe
load,same
waswas figure.
around
between 1.220kNMPa and for bothand
1.6 kN, types
for of
thesamples;
case of the high-density poly
The discretization of the structural model was performed considering a total number
• ethylene
The forcecut atfrom the 63 × 4 mm
the maximum load tube,
for itthewas between 0.7 polyethylene
high-density kN and 0.8 kN;cut from th
of 14,985 nodes, and a total number of 12,370 elements, of which 12,174 were parallelepiped
• The most
mmoftube important
was between scattering of values was obtained for the distribution of the stress
elements the C3D8R type, and1.2 196kN wereand 1.6 kN,elements
prismatic and forofthe thecase
C3D6 oftype.
the high-densi
The
at
degrees the
ethylene maximum
of freedom cut(DOFs)
fromdeformation,
the
were63 4 according
mm tube,toitinthe
× displacements
the thedisplacement
was between
nodes (three0.7 atkN
theand
maximum
translations). ForkN;defor
0.8
mation
•greater
Theaccuracyfor
most in both types of specimens
the representation
important scattering of the made
of stresses
valuesin of high-density
wastheobtained polyethylene
bend, in a second
for theversion tubes.
two
distribution of th
elements per thickness were used. The influences of the weight
at the maximum deformation, according to the displacement at the maximum of the concrete and the
3. Results
elbow and the water column were not considered.
mation for both types of specimens made of high-density polyethylene tubes
3.1. The Case of Elbow DN 315 Buried in Soil
In what follows, we analyze, via the FEM, two cases of the appearance of a parrot’s
3. Results
beak-type break, one for an elbow and another for a linear tube, subjected to the usua
3.1. The Case of Elbow DN 315 Buried in Soil
pressures found in water transport networks. The mode of the appearance and propaga
In the
tion of what follows,
crack we analyze,
are studied. via the FEM,
The geometric model two cases
of the DN of
315the appearance
elbow made of of a
high
 follows: create the solid; create the strip crack; create the section and set material proper-
ties; create an additional crack scheduling step; create a crack interaction; create a unitary
assembly from the solid and crack strip; create embeds; create a load on the inner surface;
discretize the model; choose output calculation parameters; run the simulation; and obtain
Materials 2023, 16, 6944
results. 9 of 16
In the analysis of the tubes, only the stresses and deformations caused by the internal
pressure to which they are subjected in a water distribution network are monitored.

Figure 12. The geometric model of the unsupported and the discretized analysis model of the DN
Figure 12. The geometric model of the unsupported and the discretized analysis model of the DN
315 elbow.
315 elbow.
The aspect of the elbow after the ductile fracture, obtained using Abaqus/CAE 6.15-
The model required for the analysis has, as the input data, the pressure inside the tube,
XFEM, is presented in Figure 13. The stress distribution is shown in Figure 14. The stress
taken as the
at which thereference pressure
break occurred perpendicular
was to Mpa,
517 MPa > 21.9 the inner wall
which of thethan
is larger tube;the
theadmissible
fittings; and
the tube ends—so that all the degrees of freedom are cancelled out. Abaqus/CAE
stress for the HDPE materials used. The deformations of the elements that discretized the 6.14-5
with XFEM is used in the numerical analysis
elbow around the crack are shown in Figure 15. of the crack. The simulation is performed
on DN 315 arteries. The tube model is created using an extruded solid body. The chosen
material of the tube is HDPE. The steps followed in the analysis are as follows: create
the solid; create the strip crack; create the section and set material properties; create an
additional crack scheduling step; create a crack interaction; create a unitary assembly from
the solid and crack strip; create embeds; create a load on the inner surface; discretize the
model; choose output calculation parameters; run the simulation; and obtain results.
In the analysis of the tubes, only the stresses and deformations caused by the internal
pressure to which they are subjected in a water distribution network are monitored.
The aspect of the elbow after the ductile fracture, obtained using Abaqus/CAE 6.15-
XFEM, is presented in Figure 13. The stress distribution is shown in Figure 14. The stress
at which the break occurred was 517 MPa > 21.9 Mpa, which is larger than the admissible
stress for the HDPE materials used. The deformations of the elements that 10
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW discretized
of 16 the
elbow around the crack are shown in Figure 15.

Figure 13. Analysis model of DN 315 elbow crack.

Figure 13. Analysis model of DN 315 elbow crack.
 Figure 13. Analysis model of DN 315 elbow crack.
Materials 2023, 16, 6944 10 of 16

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Figure14.
Figure [Link]
Thestress
stressfield
fieldin
inthe
theDN
DN315
315elbow.
elbow.

Figure15.
Figure 15. The
The displacement
displacementfield
fieldin
inthe
theDN
DN315
315elbow.
elbow.

3.2.
3.2. FEM
FEM Analysis
Analysis of
of the
the Pressurized
Pressurized HDPE-DN
HDPE-DN 315315 Tube
Tube
The
The tube
tubeunder
underanalysis
analysishas
hasthe
thefollowing
followingas
asinput
inputdata:
data:
•• The
Thepressure
pressureinside
insidethethe
tube, taken
tube, as the
taken reference
as the pressure
reference perpendicular
pressure to the to
perpendicular inner
the
wall
innerofwall
the tube;
of the tube;
•• The
The fixed
fixed ends
ends ofof the tube and
the tube and the
the forces
forcesthat
thatact
acton
onthe
thetube,
tube,sosothat
thatequilibrium
equilibrium is
isassured.
assured.
The
Thedimensions
dimensionsand andmaterial
material constants are are
constants as follows: the outer
as follows: diameter,
the outer Dout =D315
diameter, mm;
out = 315
the inner diameter, D in = 257.00 mm; the wall thickness, Thk = 28.60 mm; the density
mm; the inner diameter, D3in = 257.00 mm; the wall thickness, Thk = 28.60 mm; the density of the
Doftube material = 970 kg/m ; Young’s modulus of
the Dtube material = 970 kg/m3; Young’s modulus of the the E = 1300 MPa; Poisson’s ratio
tubeEtube = 1300 MPa; Poisson’s ratio ν
of the tube = 0.33. The internal pressure in the tube produces radial and circumferential
ν of the tube = 0.33. The internal pressure in the tube produces radial and circumferential
stresses,
stresses,asasshown
shownin inFigure
Figure16.
16.
 • The fixed ends of the tube and the forces that act on the tube, so that equilibrium is
assured.
The dimensions and material constants are as follows: the outer diameter, Dout = 315
mm; the inner diameter, Din = 257.00 mm; the wall thickness, Thk = 28.60 mm; the density
of the Dtube material = 970 kg/m3; Young’s modulus of the Etube = 1300 MPa; Poisson’s ratio
Materials 2023, 16, 6944 11 of 16
ν of the tube = 0.33. The internal pressure in the tube produces radial and circumferential
stresses, as shown in Figure 16.

(a) (b)
Figure 16.
Figure 16. Geometrical (a) and
Geometrical (a) and FEM
FEM model
model (b)
(b) of
of the
the DN
DN 315
315 tube
tube subjected
subjected to
to internal
internal pressure.
pressure.

To perform
perform the
the numerical
numerical analysis
analysis with
with FEM
FEM using
using ABAQUS 2020, the discretized
waspresented
model was presented(see
(seeFigure
Figure 16b).
16b). The
The discretization
discretization waswas performed
performed using
using C3D8R-
C3D8R-type
type parallelepiped
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
parallelepiped elements;
elements; 2300 elements
2300 elements were were generated
generated forobtained
for the the obtained
[Link].
12 of 16
stress distribution
Figure 17 shows the stress distribution obtained
obtained after
after performing
performing the
the calculation.
calculation.

Figure 17. Stress field in tube DN 315 in MPa (von Mises).

Figure 17. Stress field in tube DN 315 in MPa (von Mises).

The field
Theof displacements
field is presented
of displacements in Figure
is presented 18. 18.
in Figure
Abaqus/CAE 6.14-5 with XFEM was used in the numerical analysis of the crack. The
steps followed in the analysis are as follows: solid generation; the creation of a crack strip;
the creation of section and setting material properties; the creation of an additional step for
crack programming; the creation of crack-type interaction; the creation of unitary assembly
from the solid and crack strip; the creation of embeds; the creation of a load on the inner
surface; the discretization of the model; the choice of output calculation parameters; the
execution of the simulation; and the obtaining of results.
 Figure 17. Stress field in tube DN 315 in MPa (von Mises).

The field of displacements is presented in Figure 18.

Materials 2023, 16, 6944 12 of 16

Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16

Figure 18. The displacement field in mm.
Figure 18. The displacement field in mm.

Abaqus/CAE
In
Inthe analysis6.14-5
theanalysis of thewith
ofthe XFEM
tubes,
tubes, onlywas
only the used in and
thestresses
stresses the
andnumerical analysis
deformations
deformations causedofby
caused the crack.
bythe
the The
internal
internal
steps followed
pressure
pressuretotowhichin the
whichthey analysis
theyare are as
aresubjected follows:
subjectedin solid
inaawater generation;
waterdistribution the
distributionnetwork creation
networkwere of a crack
weremonitored. strip;
[Link] The
the creation
model of section and setting material properties; the creation of an additional
model that created the crack-type interaction, as well as the crack strip, is presented in
that created the crack-type interaction, as well as the crack strip, is presented step
in
for crack
Figure
Figure [Link]; the creation of crack-type interaction; the creation of unitary as-
19.
sembly from the solid and crack strip; the creation of embeds; the creation of a load on the
inner surface; the discretization of the model; the choice of output calculation parameters;
the execution of the simulation; and the obtaining of results.

Figure19.
Figure [Link]-crack-analysis
Tube-crack-analysismodel,
model,DN
DN315.
315.

Thebreak
The breakisisductile
ductileand
and resembles
resembles thethe “parrot’s
“parrot’s beak”
beak” presented
presented previously.
previously. AfterAfter
the
the calculation,
calculation, it wasit found
was found thatstress
that the the stress at which
at which the break
the break occurred
occurred wasMPa,
was 8563 8563aMPa,
mucha
much higher
higher valuethe
value than than the admissible
admissible stress
stress at breakat for
break for HDPE.
HDPE. The appearance
The appearance of the
of the crack
after
crackbreaking is shown
after breaking in Figure
is shown 20.
in Figure 20.
 Figure 19. Tube-crack-analysis model, DN 315.

The break is ductile and resembles the “parrot’s beak” presented previous
the calculation, it was found that the stress at which the break occurred was 8563
Materials 2023, 16, 6944 much higher value than the admissible stress at break for HDPE. The appearanc
13 of 16
crack after breaking is shown in Figure 20.

Figure
Figure 20.20.
TheThe appearance
appearance of the of theafter
crack crack after in
breaking breaking in tube.
the DN 315 the DN 315 tube.
Materials 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 16
The displacements of the finite-element nodes near the crack are shown in Figure 21.
The displacements of the finite-element nodes near the crack are shown in Fi

Figure 21. Displacements and growth of the crack in the wall of the DN 315 tube.
Figure 21. Displacements and growth of the crack in the wall of the DN 315 tube.

Following
Following the
the analysis,
analysis, it
it can
can be
be seen
seen that
that FEM
FEM isis aa very
very useful
useful tool
tool for the study
for the study of
of
this
this type
type of
of failure,
failure, and
and it is possible
it is possible to
to follow
follow the
the initiation
initiation and
and the
the growth
growth of cracks in
of cracks in
tube
tube walls.
walls.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

The main objective of this work was to study the development of failure in HDPE
tubes for the case of the formation of the so-called parrot’s beak.
the results
Analyzing the resultsobtained
obtainedafter
afterthe
thecalculations
calculationsusing
usingFEM
FEMforfor
thethe two
two types
types of
of pipes reveales that this method can well describe the origin and evolution of a crack
pipes reveales that this method can well describe the origin and evolution of a crack that
appears as a result of a parrot’s beak failure. Pipes made of HDPE present significant ad-
vantages compared to other common materials which are currently used: long service life;
cathodic protection; no anticorrosion protection is necessary; low maintenance costs; good
hydraulic properties; easy design, manufacture, and installation; proper sealing at high
Materials 2023, 16, 6944 14 of 16

that appears as a result of a parrot’s beak failure. Pipes made of HDPE present significant
advantages compared to other common materials which are currently used: long service life;
cathodic protection; no anticorrosion protection is necessary; low maintenance costs; good
hydraulic properties; easy design, manufacture, and installation; proper sealing at high
pressures; low weight; low logistical costs; and the possibility of making long tube lengths
(and, therefore, fewer connections). It is obvious that, over time, HDPE pipe networks have
come to have impressive resistance properties, ensuring their long-term service. Accidents
and breakages can occur for various reasons, even under these conditions: design and
manufacturing mistakes, mistakes made in the installation of the system, incorrectly chosen
materials, thermal exposure, shocks during operation, chemical exposure, extreme natural
phenomena, soil quality, etc. Malfunctions can lead to explosions, fires, loss of life, and
property damage, so it is very important to address them. As a result, failure analysis must
represent a standard practice in the field.
The parrot’s beak failure represents a second cause of the destruction of water supply
networks; therefore, the establishment of powerful calculation methods is an objective to
which the authors have tried to contribute in the present work.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.T.D., M.L.S. and S.V.; methodology, H.T.D. and S.V.;
software, H.T.D., M.L.S. and S.V.; validation, M.L.S. and S.V.; formal analysis, H.T.D., M.L.S. and S.V.;
investigation, H.T.D. and S.V.; resources, H.T.D., M.L.S. and S.V.; writing—original draft preparation,
H.T.D., M.L.S. and S.V.; writing—review and editing, H.T.D., M.L.S. and S.V.; visualization, H.T.D.,
M.L.S. and S.V.; supervision, H.T.D., M.L.S. and S.V.; project administration, M.L.S. and S.V.; funding
acquisition, H.T.D., M.L.S. and S.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: The APC was funded by Transylvania University of Brasov.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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