COMPUTER GRAPHICS NOTES: COMP 321

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER GRAPHICS

The term ‘Computer Graphics’ was coined by Verne Hudson and William Fetter from Boeing
who were pioneers in the field. Computer graphics is a dynamic and essential field within
computing that involves the creation, manipulation, and rendering of visual content using
computers.
Definition:
Computer graphics is a field of computer science that focuses on creating, manipulating, and
displaying visual content using computers. It involves generating images, animations, and visual
effects through mathematical models, algorithms, and specialized hardware.
Computer graphics is a field of computer science that deals with the digital creation and
manipulation of visual content.
HISTORY OF COMPUTER GRAPHICS
The history of computer graphics dates back to the 1950s, when computers were first used
for scientific and engineering calculations. Since then, computer graphics have come a long
way, evolving into a powerful tool for creating stunning visual representations of complex
data and ideas. In this section of our blog, we will explore the history of computer graphics,
from its early beginnings to the present day.
1. Early Beginnings:
The first computer graphics were simple line drawings created by IBM's SAGE air defense
system in the 1950s. These were used to display radar data and were the first examples
of vector graphics. Later, in the 1960s, Ivan Sutherland developed Sketchpad, a program that
allowed users to draw and manipulate objects on a computer screen using a light pen.
Sketchpad was a breakthrough in computer graphics and laid the foundation for future
developments in the field.
2. The Rise of 3D Graphics:
In the 1970s, 3D graphics began to emerge, with the development of 3D wireframe modeling
techniques. These techniques allowed objects to be represented in three dimensions and were
the precursor to the 3D graphics we see today. In the 1980s, Pixar Animation Studios
developed the first 3D computer-animated short film, "Luxo Jr.", which was a major
milestone in the history of computer graphics.
3. The Age of Digital Graphics:

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In the 1990s, digital graphics became more widespread, with the introduction of software
such as Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator. These programs allowed users to create and
manipulate digital images with ease, and they are still widely used today. In the early 2000s,
advancements in hardware and software technology led to the development of real-time 3D
graphics, which are now used in video games, virtual reality, and other applications.
4. The Future of Computer Graphics:
As technology continues to advance, the future of computer graphics looks bright. One area
that is expected to see significant growth is augmented reality (AR), which overlays digital
information on the real world. AR has the potential to revolutionize a wide range of
industries, from medicine to education to entertainment. Another area of growth is machine
learning and artificial intelligence, which can be used to create more realistic and intelligent
virtual characters and environments.
In the world of modern technology and design, computer graphics have revolutionized the way
we perceive, create, and interact with visual information. From the humble beginnings of
pixelated monochrome displays to the photorealistic 3D environments of today's video games,
the history of computer graphics is a fascinating journey through innovation and creativity. As
we delve into the annals of this dynamic field, it's crucial to understand how Computer Science
and Engineering (CSE) has played an indispensable role in propelling the evolution of
computer graphics.
1. Early Beginnings: Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) and Vector Graphics
The roots of computer graphics can be traced back to the mid-20th century. Early computers
like the UNIVAC and IBM 701 used cathode ray tube (CRT) displays to output simple, line -
based vector graphics. These primitive graphics laid the foundation for what would
eventually become more intricate visual representations. The CSE community contributed by
developing algorithms to draw these lines and basic shapes, setting the stage for future
advancements.
2. Raster Graphics and the Birth of Pixels
The concept of raster graphics, where images are composed of individual pixels, emerged in
the 1950s. This shift allowed for more intricate and realistic images. Xerox PARC's
development of the first GUI (Graphical User Interface) in the 1970s was a landmark
moment. The graphical representation of information made computers more accessible to a

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broader audience, making GUIs a standard feature of modern computing. CSE

researchers worked extensively on optimizing algorithms for rendering and
manipulating these pixel-based graphics.
3. 3D Graphics and computer-Aided design (CAD)
The introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) software in the 1960s was a turning point
for various industries, such as architecture and engineering. CSE played a pivotal role in the
development of these tools, enabling professionals to create detailed 3D models and
simulations. These 3D graphics paved the way for realistic rendering in video games, movies,
and virtual reality.
4. Computer Graphics in Entertainment
Computer graphics in entertainment have undergone a remarkable transformation. From the
early days of Pong and Space Invaders, which utilized basic graphics, to the visually stunning
and immersive worlds of contemporary video games, the role of CSE is undeniable. The
creation of 3D models, rendering techniques, and efficient algorithms for real-time
graphics has pushed the boundaries of what's possible in the realm of entertainment.
5. The Role of GPU and Parallel Processing
Graphics processing units (GPUs) have played a crucial role in the development of computer
graphics. GPUs are designed to handle the complex calculations required for rendering high-
quality visuals. CSE has been instrumental in harnessing the power of parallel processing and
optimizing algorithms to fully utilize the capabilities of GPUs.
6. augmented and Virtual reality
augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) have introduced a new dimension to
computer graphics. The blending of the digital and physical worlds in AR and the immersive
environments of VR have opened up exciting possibilities. CSE researchers are actively
working on enhancing the realism of these experiences, from lifelike 3D models to real-
time tracking and interaction.
7. Machine Learning and Computer Graphics
In recent years, machine learning and artificial intelligence have made significant
contributions to computer graphics. generative adversarial networks (GANs) and deep
learning techniques have enabled the creation of realistic images, animations, and even

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deepfake technology. The synergy between CSE and machine learning is driving the future
of computer graphics.
As we look back at the history of computer graphics, it's evident that CSE has been a constant
source of innovation. The journey from simple vector graphics to complex 3D simulations
and AI-driven graphics has been a testament to human ingenuity and technological progress.
The future of computer graphics is poised to be even more exciting, with CSE continuing to
push the boundaries of what's possible in the realm of visual creativity.
COMPUTER GRAPHICS APPLICATIONS
Computer graphics is the part of computer science that studies methods for manipulating visual
content although computer graphics deals with 3D graphics, 2D graphics, and image processing.
It also deals with the creation, manipulation, and storage of different types of images and objects.
There are some of the applications of computer graphics are described below.:
 Computer Art: Using computer graphics we can create fine and commercial art which
includes animation packages, and paint packages. These packages provide facilities for
designing object shapes and specifying object motion. Cartoon drawings, paintings, and logo
designs can also be done.
 Computer-Aided automobiles Drawing: Designing buildings, automobiles, and aircraft is
done with the help of computer-aided drawing, this helps in providing minute details to the
drawing and producing more accurate and sharp drawings with better specifications.
 Presentation Graphics: For the preparation of reports or summarising the financial,
statistical, mathematical, scientific, and economic data for research reports, and managerial
reports, moreover creation of bar graphs, pie charts, and time charts, can be done using the
tools present in computer graphics.
 Entertainment: Computer graphics find a major part of its utility in the movie industry and
game industry. Used for creating motion pictures, music videos, television shows, and
cartoon animation films. In the game industry where focus and interactivity are the key
players, computer graphics help in efficiently providing such features.
 Education: Computer-generated models are extremely useful for teaching huge number of
concepts and fundamentals in an easy-to-understand and learn manner. Using computer
graphics many educational models can be created through which more interest can be
generated among the students regarding the subject.

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 Training: Specialised systems for training like simulators can be used for training the
candidates in a way that can be grasped in a short span of time with better understanding.
The creation of training modules using computer graphics is simple and very useful.
 Visualization: Today the need of visualize things have increased drastically, the need of
visualization can be seen in many advanced technologies, data visualization helps in finding
insights into the data, to check and study the behavior of processes around us we need
appropriate visualization which can be achieved through proper usage of computer graphics.
 Image Processing: Various kinds of photographs or images require editing in order to be
used in different places. Processing of existing images into refined ones for better
interpretation is one of the many applications of computer graphics.
 Machine Drawing: Computer graphics are very frequently used for designing, modifying,
and creating various parts of a machine and the whole machine itself, the main reason behind
using computer graphics for this purpose is the precision and clarity we get from such
drawing is ultimate and extremely desired for the safe manufacturing of machine using these
drawings.
 Graphical User Interface: The use of pictures, images, icons, pop-up menus, and graphical
objects helps in creating a user-friendly environment where working is easy and pleasant,
using computer graphics we can create such an atmosphere where everything can be
automated and anyone can get the desired action performed in an easy fashion.
These are some of the applications of computer graphics due to which it’s popularity has
increased to a huge extend and will keep on increasing with the progress in technology.
Example of Computer Graphics Packages:
 LOGO
 COREL DRAW
 AUTO CAD
 3D STUDIO
 CORE
 GKS (Graphics Kernel System)
 PHIGS
 CAM (Computer Graphics Metafile)
 CGI (Computer Graphics Interface)

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COMPUTER GRAPHICS HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

HARDWARE
Computer graphics hardware refers to the physical components that generate, process, and display
graphical content. These components include processing units, memory, display devices, input
devices, and specialized peripherals for rendering high-quality visuals.
Graphics Processing Unit
The GPU (Graphics Processing Unit) is the core hardware responsible for rendering images,
videos, and 3D graphics. It performs parallel computations, making it significantly faster than a
CPU for graphical tasks.
Types of GPUs
Integrated GPUBuilt into the CPU (e.g., Intel UHD Graphics, AMD Radeon Vega).Power-
efficient but less powerful than dedicated GPUs.Suitable for general tasks like web browsing,
video playback, and basic gaming.
Dedicated GPU (Discrete GPU)A separate graphics card with its own VRAM (Video RAM).
Provides superior performance for gaming, 3D modeling, and professional applications.
Examples: NVIDIA GeForce RTX, AMD Radeon RX.
Workstation GPUs Optimized for high-precision tasks like CAD, 3D rendering, and AI training.
Used in professional workstations for scientific and engineering applications.
Examples: NVIDIA Quadro, AMD Radeon Pro.
Cloud GPUsGPUs used in cloud computing for remote rendering and AI workloads.Example:
NVIDIA A100, Google Cloud TPUs.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
While the CPU (Central Processing Unit) is primarily responsible for general-purpose processing,
it plays a role in graphics for physics simulations, AI computations, and non-parallel rendering
tasks.
Multi-core processors (Intel i9, AMD Ryzen 9) improve performance in tasks like ray tracing, AI-
based upscaling, and video encoding.
High clock speeds help with real-time rendering and game physics calculations.
Memory for Graphics Processing
Memory plays a crucial role in storing and processing graphical data efficiently.

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A. Video RAM (VRAM)

Dedicated memory on a GPU for handling high-resolution textures and frame buffers.
GDDR6, GDDR6X, HBM2 (High Bandwidth Memory) are common VRAM types.
More VRAM allows for higher resolutions, better textures, and smoother performance in games
and applications.
System RAM
Used by the CPU and some integrated GPUs for temporary storage of graphical computations.
Higher RAM (16GB, 32GB) is useful for 3D modeling, video editing, and large-scale rendering.
Storage (SSDs & HDDs)
Solid-State Drives (SSD) improve loading times for large textures, game assets, and rendering
files.
HDDs are still used for backup storage but are slower.
Display Devices
Graphics hardware outputs visuals to display devices, which can vary in resolution, refresh rate,
and color accuracy.
Monitors:Resolution: 1080p (Full HD), 1440p (2K), 4K, 8K for better image clarity.
Refresh Rate: 60Hz, 120Hz, 144Hz, 240Hz for smoother motion (important for gaming).
HDR (High Dynamic Range): Improves contrast and color range (HDR10, Dolby Vision).
VR Headsets
Used for immersive Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) experiences.
Examples: Oculus Quest, HTC Vive, PlayStation VR.
Projectors & Multi-Screen Setups
Used in flight simulators, presentations, and digital signage.Support for ultrawide resolutions and
curved displays.
Input Devices
Graphics input devices allow users to interact with software for design, modeling, and rendering.
. Mouse & Keyboar:dEssential for navigation and control in 2D and 3D design software.
High-DPI mice improve precision for tasks like digital painting.
Graphics Tablets & Styluses:Used for digital drawing, painting, and sculpting.
Examples: Wacom, Huion, XP-Pen.

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3D Controllers
Used for CAD, 3D modeling, and VR navigation.
Example: 3Dconnexion SpaceMouse.
Motion Capture (MoCap) Systems
Used for animation and character movement tracking.
Example: OptiTrack, Xsens, Vicon.
Specialized Graphics Peripherals
These devices are used in high-end graphics processing.
A. External GPUs (eGPU)
External graphics cards connected via Thunderbolt 3/4 for laptops.
Example: Razer Core X (with NVIDIA/AMD GPU).
Ray Tracing Hardware
Specialized hardware like NVIDIA RT Cores for real-time ray tracing.
Improves lighting, reflections, and shadows in games and CGI.
AI Accelerators
Used for AI-based rendering, image processing, and deep learning.
Examples: NVIDIA Tensor Cores, Google TPUs.
Cooling and Power Supply for Graphics Hardware
High-performance graphics hardware generates heat and consumes significant power.
A. Cooling Systems
Air Cooling: Fans and heatsinks (common in GPUs and CPUs).
Liquid Cooling: Used in high-end gaming PCs and workstations for better thermal management.
Power Supply Unit (PSU)
High-end GPUs require 750W – 1200W power supplies.
Efficiency ratings (80+ Bronze, Gold, Platinum) help with energy consumption.
Computer graphics software consists of programs and tools used to create, edit, and render visual
content. These applications are used in industries like gaming, animation, film production, CAD
(Computer-Aided Design), and scientific visualization.

Types of Computer Graphics Software

Computer graphics software is categorized into several types based on its purpose:

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2D Graphics Software – Used for creating and editing raster (bitmap) and vector images.
3D Modeling & Animation Software – Used for designing and animating 3D objects.
Rendering Engines – Converts 3D models into photorealistic images or animations.
Game Engines – Used for developing interactive applications, games, and simulations.
Computer-Aided Design (CAD) Software – Used for engineering, architecture, and
industrial design.
Scientific and Data Visualization Tools – Used for displaying complex data graphically.

2D Graphics Software
2D graphics software can be classified into raster-based (pixel-based) and vector-based
applications.
. Raster Graphics Software (Bitmap-based)
Uses pixels to create images (suitable for photo editing and digital painting).
Examples:
o Adobe Photoshop – Industry-standard for photo editing and digital art.
o GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program) – Open-source alternative to
Photoshop.
o Corel Painter – Used for realistic digital painting and illustration.
o Krita – Free software for digital painting and animation.
Vector Graphics Software
 Uses mathematical formulas to create images (ideal for logos, illustrations, and designs).
 Examples:
Adobe Illustrator – Used for vector illustrations, logos, and typography.
CorelDRAW – Popular for graphic design and layout.
Inkscape – Open-source vector graphics software.
3D Modeling and Animation Software
3D graphics software is used to create 3D objects, environments, animations, and special effects
(VFX).
A. 3D Modeling Software
Used for creating 3D objects, character designs, and architectural models.
Examples:

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o Blender (Open-source) – Powerful free software for modeling, animation, and

rendering.
o Autodesk Maya – Industry-standard for animation, movies, and VFX.
o 3ds Max – Used for game development and architectural visualization.
o ZBrush – Best for digital sculpting and high-detail character modeling.
o SketchUp – Easy-to-use tool for architectural design.
3D Animation Software
 Used for rigging (adding bones to models) and animating characters or objects.
 Examples:
o Autodesk Maya – Used in Hollywood movies and AAA game development.
o Blender – Open-source tool with powerful animation tools.
o Cinema 4D – Used for motion graphics and animation.
Motion Capture (MoCap) Software
 Captures real-life movements and applies them to 3D characters.
 Examples:
o Autodesk MotionBuilder – Used for realistic character animation.
o Vicon Blade – Used in high-end motion capture studios.
Rendering Engines
Rendering software takes 3D models and animations and converts them into final images or videos
with realistic lighting and textures.
Real-Time Rendering Engines (Used in Games and Simulations)
 Unreal Engine 5 – High-quality real-time rendering (used in games, film, and VR).
 Unity – Versatile game engine with real-time rendering.
Offline Rendering Engines (Used for Film and High-Quality Graphics)
 RenderMan (Pixar) – Used in animated movies (e.g., Toy Story).
 Arnold (Autodesk) – Used for Hollywood films and VFX.
 V-Ray – Used for architectural and product visualization.
 Cycles (Blender) – Open-source renderer for photorealistic images.
Game Engines
Game engines provide real-time rendering, physics, AI, and scripting tools for developing games
and interactive experiences.

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A. Major Game Engines

 Unreal Engine – High-end graphics and advanced lighting (
Networking & Cloud Graphics Processing
Modern graphics applications rely on cloud computing and networking for rendering and
streaming.
Cloud GPUs & Streaming Services
 Used for cloud gaming, remote rendering, and AI workloads.
 Examples: NVIDIA GeForce NOW, Google Stadia, Amazon AWS GPUs.
Networked Rendering
 Distributes rendering tasks across multiple machines for faster performance.
 Used in animation studios for CGI rendering (e.g., Pixar, Disney).

FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES OF COMPUTER GRAPHIC

DESIGN
Design elements could be considered as the marks we make on the surface or page. The 8 elements
of Graphic Designing are Line, Shape, Colour, Texture, Space, Size, Value and Typography.
Colour -The colour is the most important element of a design because it offers the most powerful
impact at a single glance. Colour is obvious and does not need graphics skills to be noticed. Hue,
Saturation, Shade, Tint, Tone or Chroma are all parts of colour. People process colour in the
artwork subconsciously. Colour is used to generate emotions, define significance, create graphic
interest and unify
Branding

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LINE:
Line The Line is usually in every design, The lines can be long, red, straight, thin, blue, dashed,
short etc. the lines can create different effects and visual impact. The colour has an impact too on
the lines. Lines in graphic design can be used for a wide range of purposes: connecting content,
stressing a word or phrase, forming patterns etc. Lines can be vertical, horizontal, diagonal,
circular, patterned, free form or solid. They are used as roadmaps to direct the viewer’s eye
movements.

SHAPE:
The Shape or the form is the second most used element of a design. There can be circles, squares,
rectangles, triangles, or any other shape. Like lines shape also have impact on human mind. The
three basic types of shapes are Geometric (Circles, Squares, Triangles etc.), Natural (leaves,
mountains, people etc.) and Abstract (icons, stylizations and graphic representations). They give
volume to the forms in a design. You don’t always have to use similar shapes in your design work,
instead you can mix it up and put them together making sure that the placement of them keeps

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your piece balanced. Sometimes adding just a small shape to a blank area will make the piece look
more balanced.

SPACE:
Space The space which also refers to "whitespace" is also called negative space. If there is a lot of
negative space in your web design, it will be light and express open feeling. The lack of white
space will turn your design into a clutter design. It can turn a design to your advantage and get the
best out of your layout. Space is the area around the elements in a design, which is used to separate
or group information. You must learn to use it effectively to define importance and lead the eye to
where you want it to travel.
TEXTURE:
Texture The textures were not very popular a couple of years ago. Texture styles include paper,
stone, concrete, brick etc. Textures can also be subtle or pronounced and can be used sparingly
and liberally. Textures can totally change a design and offer a totally different visual impact.
Texture relates to the surface of an object, where it creates an illusion of a surface that is not flat
or smooth. By using texture, we can add depth and visual interest in graphic design. It enhances a
sense of feel, especially with two-dimensional images. In graphic design, texture can take the form
of layers or progression of text, lines or shapes, which can be applied in the form of pattern or
through the choice of printable surface.

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VALUE:
Value Value is how light or dark an area looks in a design. It is everything from the darkest of
blacks through to the brightest of whites. If you learn to use values in the right manner, it will add
enormous depth, contrast and emphasis to your design

PRINCIPLES OF GRAPHIC DESIGN

Principles of design are the directions or guidelines for mixing the elements. Principles included
are balance, contrast, dominance, rhythm, emphasis, scale, proportion, and unity or harmony.
BALANCE: refers to the distribution of visual weight in a design. It can be symmetrical (evenly
balanced) or asymmetrical (uneven balance), and it helps create a sense of stability and harmony
in the composition.

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CONTRAST: involves highlighting the differences between elements in a design. This could
include variations in colour, size, shape, or other visual qualities. Contrast adds visual interest and
helps important elements stand out. Emphasis
DOMINANCE: is the principle of making certain elements more prominent to draw attention.
This can be achieved through colour, size, contrast, or positioning, and it guides the viewer's eye
to key focal points in the design.
UNITY (HARMONY): refers to the cohesive relationship between all elements in a design. It
ensures that the design feels like a single, integrated piece rather than a collection of unrelated
parts. Consistency in style, colour, and typography contributes to unity.
REPETITION (RHYTHM): involves the consistent use of visual elements such as colour,
shape, or pattern throughout a design. This creates a sense of rhythm and helps establish a visual
connection between different parts of the composition.
PROXIMITY (ALIGNMENT): deals with the placement of elements in relation to each other.
Items that are related or belong together should be grouped closely, while adequate spacing can be
used to differentiate unrelated elements. Alignment contributes to a clean and organized layout.
HIERARCHY: is the organization of elements to convey their importance or order of
significance. It helps guide the viewer's eye through the design, emphasizing key information and
creating a logical flow.
SCALE (PROPORTION): Scale refers to the size of elements in a design relative to each other.
Playing with scale can create visual interest and hierarchy, drawing attention to specific elements
and establishing a sense of proportion.
PATTERN: refers to the repetition of visual elements, such as shapes, colours, lines, or textures,
in a consistent and organized way. Creating patterns can add visual interest, rhythm, and unity to
a design.
COMPUTER GRAPHICS TOOLS AND API
COMPUTER GRAPHICS TOOLS
 1.OPEN GL
OpenGL (Open Graphics Library) is a cross-language, cross platform application programming
interface (API) for rendering 2D and3D vector graphics.
The API is typically used to interact with a graphics processing unit (GPU),to achieve hardware-
accelerated rendering. OpenGL applications are used extensively in the fields of computer-aided

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design (CAD),virtual reality ,scientific visualization, information ,flight simulation ,and video
games.
OpenGL's basic operation is to accept primitives such as points, lines and polygons, and convert
them into pixels. This is done by a graphics pipeline known as the OpenGL state machine.
FEATURES OF OpenGL:-
 Geometric Primitives Allow you to construct mathematical descriptions of objects.
 Color coding in RGBA (Red-Green-Blue-Alpha) or in color index mode.
 Viewing and Modeling permits arranging objects in a 3-dimensional scene, move our
camera around space and select the desired vantage point for viewing the scene to be
rendered.
 Texture mapping helps to bring realism into our models by rendering images of realistic
looking surfaces on to the faces of the polygon in our model.
 Materials lighting OpenGL provides commands to compute the color of any point given
the properties of the material and the sources of light in the room.
 Double buffering helps to eliminate flickering from animations. Each successive frame in
an animation is built in a separate memory buffer and displayed only when rendering of
the frame is complete.
 Anti-aliasing reduces jagged edges in lines drawn on a computer display. Jagged lines often
appear when lines are drawn at low resolution. Anti-aliasing is a common computer
graphics technique that modifies the color and intensity of the pixels near the line in order
to reduce the artificial zig-zag.
 Gouraud shading is a technique used to apply smooth shading to a 3D object and provides
Subtle color differences across its surfaces.
 Z-buffering keeps track of the Z coordinate of a 3D object. The Z-buffer is used to keep
track of the proximity of the viewer's object. It is also crucial for hidden surface removal
 Transformations: rotation, scaling, translations, perspectives in 3D, etc.

2.MFC
Microsoft Foundation (MFC) is a C++ object oriented for developing desk top applications for
windows .MFC was introduced by Microsoft in 1992 and quickly gained wide spread use .while

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Microsoft has introduced alternative application frame work since then MFC remains widely used
.
MFC provides graphic object classes equivalent to the drawing tools in windows .Altough it can
be used to create very simple desktop applications it is most useful when you need to level more
complex user interface with multiple controls.
It provides pens to draw lines, brushes to fill interiors and fonts to draw text. MFC provides graphic
object class equivalent to the drawing tools in windows.
 3.GLUT
GLUT is an openGL Utility Toolkit ,a window system independent toolkit for writing openGL
programs. It implements a simple windowing application programming interface(API) for
openGL. GLUT makes it considerably easier to learn about and explore openGL programming.
GLUT provides a portable API so you can write a simple openGL that works on any platform
GLUT is designed for constructing small to medium sized openGL programs. While GLUT is
well-suited to learning openGL and developing simple openGL applications
GLUT is not a full-featured toolkit so large applications requiring sophisticated user interface are
better off using native window systems toolkits like Motif. GLUT is simple easy and small
GLUT Library supports the following functionalities
1. Multiple windows for OpenGL rendering
2. Callback driven event processing
3. An “idle” routine and timers
4. Utility routines to penetrate various solid and wire frame objects
5. Support for bitmaps and stroke fonts
6. Miscellaneous window management functions
FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF 3D GRAPHICS AND CAM/CAD
DESIGN AND MODLELLING
Design and modeling in computer graphics involves creating, representing and manipulating
objects and scenes in a digital environment
Design and modelling is a process that involves creating a design and then making it a reality. It
can be used in many fields, including engineering, fashion, and product design.
Design : This phase involves planning and conceptualizing what you want to create.
The design process includes:

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 Sketching and storyboarding: Traditional or digital sketches to visualize ideas

 Concept art: Developing characters environment or objects with detailed artistic
representations.
 Style exploration :Deciding on the aesthetic realistic, stylized
MODELLING
Modelling-.is the process of creating 3D objects or structures.
KEY STEPS IN MODELLING
1. Geometry creation: constructing objects using vertices edges and faces common
techinques in geometry creation
a) Polygonal modelling: building objects with polygons widely used for games and
animations
b) NURBS-(Non-uniform Rational B-spines )smooth surfaces often used in industrial
and car design.
c) Sculpting-Adding fine detail by “sculpting “virtual clay popular for characters and
organic shapes
2. Texturing: Applying textures to give models colour and surface details
3. Rigging: Adding skeleton or control systems for animation
4. Optimization: Ensuring the models is efficient for intended platform.
APPLICATION FOR DESIGN AND MODELLING
1. Entertainment and Media: film and animation is used for creating realistic or
fantastical characters environments and special effects
2. Architecture and construction :building design architects use 3D modeling to
create detailed building blue print and presentations urban planning: cityscopes and
infrastructure designs are simulated using models
3. Engineering and manufacturing: prototyping engineers create digital prototypes
to test designs before physical production .product design are also used to design
gadgets and vehicles
4. Education and training: surgical Training: medical trainees use virtual models to
practice procedures they are also used in pilot training: flight simulators pilots use
to train realistic simulation based on 3D modelling

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5. Healthcare: medical imaging ,3D models of organs or bones assist in diagnostic

and surgery planning.
6. Art and creativity: Digital sculpting ,artists create sculptures installation or digital
paintings using 3D tools
GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION
Definition: Refers to the mathematical models and techniques used to define describe and
manipulate shapes objects and spaces in computer graphics and design.
Or
Geometric representation serves as the foundation for creating modelling and transforming virtual
objects and scenes.
TYPES OF GEOMETRIC REPRESENATIONS
a) Polygonal meshes: objects are represented using polygons (triangles or quads)connected
by vertices edges and faces.
b) Parametric representation: uses mathematical equation to represent curves and surfaces
c) Implicit representations: Defines objects using implicit function eg X2 + Y2
d) Voxels: Represents 3D objects as a grid cubes (volumetric pixels)
e) Point clouds: represent objects as a collection of points in 3D space.
TRANSFORMATION AND MANIPULATION
Transformations and manipulation are core techniques used to control and modify graphical
objects within a virtual environment.
TRANSFORMATION
Def; Transformation involves altering the properties of an object in a systematic way
Transformations are used to:-
 Translate (move) shifting an object from one location to another in 2D or 3D space.
 Rotate :Turning an object around a pivot point or axis
 Scale : Resizing an object by increasing or decreasing its dimensions either uniformly or
non-uniformly
 Shear(skew)-Distorting the shape of an object by slanting its axes
 Reflection: Mirroring an object across a specific or axis
MANIPULATION

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Manipulation refers to interactive or programmatic changes to objects to achieve desired visual

effects or animations.
Types of manipulations
 Interactive manipulations: This is when users manually modify objects in real time eg
dragging scaling or rotating objects in a 3D modelling software.
 Procedural manipulations: Rules or algorithms used to alter objects automatically
example simulating a natural phenomenon e.g. a wind bending a tree
 Texture manipulation: Modifying how an image (texture) is mapped onto the surface of
an object e.g. wrapping a brick wall texture onto a cube.
PARAMETRIC AND CONSTRAINT BASED DESIGN
Parametric and constraint based design are approaches widely used CAD and engineering to create
adaptable precise and intelligent models.
Parametric design: focus on defining and manipulating objects using parameters (variables)
These parameters control the dimensions shapes and relationships within model example
Setting parameters for radius of a circle or height of a column. Adjusting these parameters
updates the model automatically.
Parametric design allows for flexibility and efficiency especially when designing repetitive
structures or creating variations of a design.
CONSTRAINT –BASED DESIGN
Constraint based design builds on parametric design by adding rules or relationships (constraints)
between components of a model.
These constraints ensure that the design behaves predictably when modified.
Types of constraints
 Geometric constraints: ensuring two lines remain parallel or two circles remain
concentric.
 Dimensional constraint: maintaining specific distances angles or ratios
 Logical constraints : conditional rules such as “if X increases ,Y must decrease”

TYPOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES

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Definition: Typography is the art and techniques of arranging written text in a visually appealing
and readable manner.
It involves selecting and organizing typefaces (fonts) sizes, spacing, and formatting to
communicate a message effectively and enhances its aesthetic value.
Elements of typography
 Typeface : The design of the text such as serif, San-Serif or script
 Font: A specific style or weight of a typeface eg (Bold or italic)
 Kerning: The spacing between individual characters
 Leading: ( Line spacing) the Vertical space between lines of text
 Alignment: How text is arranged such as left-aligned, right-aligned centered or justified
TYPES OF TYPOGRAPHY
Typography can be classified into various types based on the style and purpose of the typeface.
1. Serif Typography
In this type serif fonts have small lines or strokes attached to the ends of their letters
They are commonly used in books,news papers and formal documents
Example; Times New Roman,Garamond and Geogin
2. Sans-Serif Typography
In this type they lack the decorative strokes (Serifs) on letters creating a clean and modern
look
They are commonly used in Digital Media logos and informal text
Examples Arial,Helvetica and Verdana
3. Script Typography
They mimic handwriting or calligraphy often appearing cursive and elegant
They are commonly used for invitations greeting cards and decorative designs
Example Brush script,pacifico and lobster
4. Dipslay Typography
Designed for attention grabbing headlines or titles often bold creative and highly stylized.
They are commonly used for posters advertisement and logos
Example Impact,Cooper Black Bebas and Neue

5. Monospace Typography

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In this type each character occupies the same horizontal space giving a uniform appearance
They are commonly used for coding technical documents typewriter style text
Examples Courier, Consolas Source code pro
6. Decorative/Typography art
They are highly artistic and unconventional fonts often optimized for specific projects
commonly used for Branding, posters and experimental designs
TYPOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
Def : Typography techniques are tools and methods designers use to create visually appealing
readable and impactful text.
1. Hierarchy
Establish a visual order to guide the reader’s attention use of font sizes weights and styles
to differentiate headings subheadings and body text.
Example A bold larger tittle draws attention first followed by smaller lighter text for
details
2. Pairing Fonts
Combining complementary typefaces for contrast and balance
Example pair a serif font (Times new roman)with a sans-serif font(aerial )
3. Contrast
Use contrast in font size weight colour and style to make specific text stand out
For example :Pairing large bold text with smaller lighter text can create visual interest
4. Alignment
Align text consistently for a polished and organized look
Left-alignment :most commonly used for readability
Center Alignment: Often used for invitation or posters
Right-Alignment: Less common but useful for specific designs
5. KERNING,TRACKING AND LEADING
Kerning: Adjust spacing between individual letters for a balanced appearance
Tracking:Adjust overall spacing across a block text
Leading: Modify vertical spacing between lines of text to improve readability

6. Whitespace

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Use of negative space(empty areas )effectively to avoid clutter and make the text more
legible and visually appealing.
7. Colour and Contrast
Choose colours that complement the overall design while ensuring readability use of high
contrast between text and background e.g.Black text on a white background.
8. Customization
Experiment with customized typography by using effects like gradients, shadows or
overlays to add a unique touch

DIMENSIONAL SCAN CONVERSION/GRAPHICS PRIMITIVES

Definition: Dimensional scan refers to techniques used for rendering or processing images in two
or three dimensions
Scan conversion is the process of determining which pixels in a raster grid should be turned on to
represent a given geometric shape (e.g., lines, circles, or polygons). Since computer displays are
based on grids of pixels, continuous shapes like lines or curves must be converted into discrete
sets of pixels. This process ensures that shapes are represented correctly on digital displays.

TECHNIQUES IN SCAN CONVERSIONS

1. Line Drawing Algorithms –
To draw straight lines on a screen, various line drawing algorithms have been developed. These
algorithms determine which pixels should be turned on to best approximate a straight line
between two points. Some common algorithms include
a) Bresenham’s Line Algorithm

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This algorithm is efficient for raster devices, as it avoids using floating-point operations. It works
by determining the pixel to be illuminated based on the decision between two candidate pixels,
minimizing the error between the ideal line and the pixel grid.

b) DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) Algorithm

The DDA algorithm calculates pixel positions by incrementing either the x or y coordinate in small
steps. It is simpler but computationally more expensive than Bresenham’s algorithm. Both
algorithms are designed to minimize errors in approximating the ideal line, ensuring a smoother

appearance on the screen.

2. Anti-aliasing Techniques –

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Anti-aliasing is a technique used in digital graphics to smooth jagged edges of lines, curves, and
polygons. These jagged edges, known as "aliasing," occur due to the limitations of pixel grids,
where curves and slanted lines don't fit perfectly into the discrete grid.

a) Super sampling -One common anti-aliasing technique is super sampling, where the image is
rendered at a higher resolution and then downsampled to the target resolution. This technique
reduces aliasing by averaging multiple sample points for each pixel.
b) Multisampling -Multisampling anti-aliasing (MSAA) is a more efficient version of super
sampling, where only the edge pixels are sampled multiple times to reduce aliasing around the
boundaries of objects.

c) Post-processing Anti-aliasing -FXAA (Fast Approximate Anti-Aliasing) and SMAA (Sub

pixel Morphological Anti-Aliasing) are techniques applied after the image is rendered, to
smooth out edges by analyzing the image's geometry and applying blur filters where necessary.
3. Polygon Filling
Once a polygon is defined, it needs to be filled with color or texture to make it visible on the
screen. Polygon filling is the process of determining which pixels inside the polygon should be
shaded.

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a) Scan-line Fill Algorithm

In the scan-line fill algorithm, the polygon is processed one horizontal line (scan-line) at a time.
The algorithm determines which points on each scan-line are inside the polygon and assigns them
the appropriate color. This technique is efficient for filling complex polygons.
b) Flood Fill Algorithm
The flood fill algorithm is often used to fill polygons with color by starting at a seed point inside
the polygon and "filling" all connected regions of similar pixels. It works like a bucket fill tool in
image editing software.
c) Boundary Fill Algorithm
Similar to flood fill, but the boundary fill works by filling from an interior point outward until it
hits the boundary of the polygon.
4. Character Generator
A character generator is used in computer graphics to render text. It is a method of creating and
displaying characters, typically by defining each character as a set of pixel patterns or vector

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outlines. Early character generators were hardware-based, whereas modern ones are often
software-based. Text can be rendered in various fonts, sizes, and styles, using a combination of
basic shapes and rasterization techniques.
5. Polygons and Polygon Representation
a) Polygons
A polygon is a multi-sided shape formed by connecting a series of straight lines. It can be convex
or concave, and it may have any number of sides. In graphics, polygons are often used to represent
complex objects because they are easier to manipulate and render compared to other shapes like
circles or curves.

b) Polygon Representation
A polygon is typically represented by a series of vertices, each of which has coordinates in 2D or
3D space. A polygon can be represented as a sequence of these vertices connected by edges.
Polygons are the building blocks for more complex shapes in computer graphics, such as 3D
models or game objects

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6. Circle Drawing Algorithms

Circles are more complex than lines because they are curves, and pixels cannot be exactly placed
along continuous curves. Circle drawing algorithms convert a mathematical description of a circle
into a set of pixels that approximate the curve.

a) Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm

This is a rasterization technique for drawing circles. It is efficient and uses integer-only
calculations, minimizing computational overhead. The algorithm is based on determining the

octants of a circle and using symmetry to draw the full circle.

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b) Midpoint Circle Algorithm

Similar to Bresenham’s algorithm, this algorithm uses the midpoint approach to determine the next
pixel in the circle's boundary. The decision-making process involves comparing the midpoint
between two pixels to decide which pixel is closer to the circle’s true curve.
CONCLUSIONS
Graphics primitives form the foundation for rendering visual content on computers. From basic
points and pixels to more complex shapes like polygons, the process of scan conversion, line
and circle drawing, and techniques like anti-aliasing all play vital roles in making digital
graphics look smooth and realistic. Understanding these primitives is crucial for anyone working
in computer graphics or game development, as they provide the essential building blocks for
creating complex and interactive visual experiences. These techniques, when used efficiently,
allow for the creation of intricate and high-quality graphics across various applications, from video
games to graphic design.
CHALLENGES IN DIMENSIONAL SCAN CONVERSION
Dimensional scan conversion, whether in 2D or 3D, involves transforming geometric shapes into
pixel-based representations for display. This process presents several challenges related to
accuracy, efficiency, and visual quality.

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1.Precision and Aliasing Issues

(a) Pixel Approximation
Continuous mathematical shapes (lines, curves, and surfaces) must be approximated using discrete
pixels, leading to visual inaccuracies. Example: A straight line may appear jagged due to pixel
rounding errors.
(b) Aliasing Effects Jagged edges, pixelation, and stair-step artifacts occur when converting
smooth curves into raster form.
Solution: Anti-aliasing techniques such as supersampling, multisampling, and filtering can smooth
edges.
2. Performance and Efficiency
(a) Computational Complexity
Processing complex 3D objects requires significant computational power.Example: High-polygon
models take more time to scan convert and rasterize.
(b) Real-Time Rendering Bottlenecks
Rendering in real-time (e.g., in games or simulations) requires optimizing scan conversion for
speed while maintaining visual quality.
Solution: Hardware acceleration (GPU rendering) and optimized algorithms like Bresenham’s line
algorithm or Z-buffering.
3. Depth and Hidden Surface Issues in 3D
(a) Depth Calculation-Determining which objects are visible in a 3D scene requires sorting by
depth.
Example: Incorrectly sorted polygons may cause visual artifacts like objects appearing in front of
others incorrectly. Solution: Z-buffering, BSP trees, and depth-sorting algorithms.
(b) Transparency and Overlapping Objects
Semi-transparent objects require additional depth-handling techniques.
Solution: A-buffering, alpha blending, and order-independent transparency methods.
4. Projection and Perspective Distortion
(a) Perspective Warping-Incorrect perspective transformations may lead to distortion.
Example: Straight lines may appear curved when mapped incorrectly. Solution: Proper
transformation matrices and perspective-correct interpolation.

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(b) Orthographic Projection Issues

No depth perception, making 3D objects look unnatural in some applications.
5. Shading and Lighting Challenges
(a) Interpolation Errors-Incorrect shading interpolation can cause lighting artifacts.
Solution: Use Phong shading for per-pixel lighting instead of Gouraud shading.
(b) Real-Time Lighting Constraints-High-quality lighting (global illumination, ray tracing) is
computationally expensive.
6. Handling Complex Geometries
(a) Curved Surface Approximation
Smooth surfaces (e.g., spheres) must be approximated with polygons.
Solution: Use tessellation or higher-resolution models.
(b) Clipping and Culling
Objects outside the viewing frustum must be clipped efficiently.-Solution: Frustum culling,
occlusion culling, and level-of-detail (LOD) techniques.

Camera and Camera controls

Camera: is a virtual view point used to simulate how a scene is perceived or rendered. It mimics
the behavior of a real-world camera defining the perspective framing and projection of objects
within a graphical environment.
ORTHOGRAPHIC CONTROL

Orthographic control refers to managing the behavior and attributes of an orthographic

camera in computer graphics. An orthographic camera represents a viewpoint where there is no
perspective distortion .Objects appear the same size regardless of their distance from the camera
Key components of orthographic control.
a) Position and orientation: The cameras location and direction in the 3D space. These
defines what area of the scene is visible.
b) Orthographic size:Determine the scale of the cameras view,Adjusting this can zoom
in or out without distorting the dimensions of objects
c) Aspect Ratio: Defines the proportion of the rendered view(e.g. squares or
widescreen)
d) Clipping planes
Near clipping plane:specifies the closest depth at which objects are visible
Far clipping plane:Defines the furthest depth visibility
e) View point : Controls the part of the screen where the camera’s output is displayed

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f) Dynamic adjustments:In interactive applications users can control orthographic

parameters (zoom or pan) to better explore the scene

CAMERA TRANSFORMATION
Camera transformation refers to the process of positioning and orientating the virtual camera to
view a scene .It involves applying transformation (such as transition, rotation or scaling) to align
the camera with the desired perspective.
STEPS IN CAMERA TRANSFORMATION
 World Coordinate System To Camera Coordinate System –The world coordinate
system defines the 3D space where objects are locate d
The camera transformation aligns the scene with the camera coordinate systems by
converting world coordinates to a camera –relative view
 Translation: moves the camera to a specific position in the 3D space for example moving
the camera closer to or further from objects to change the viewpoint
 Rotation :adjust the camera direction .It may involve rotations around the x-axis y-axis
and z-axis to achieve the desired orientation
 Look- at transformation: Defines a target point for the camera to focus on
 Project transformation: once the camera is positioned and oriented its view is projected
onto a 2D surface for rendering

CAMERA PARAMETERS
Camera parameters determine how a virtual camera captures a scene. These parameters mimic the
behavior of real-world cameras and are essential for rendering 3D environments
These parameters are categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic properties:
INTRINSIC PROPERTIES.
These define the optical properties of the camera and how it maps 3D points to a 2D image.
Field of View (FoV)
Specifies the extent of the observable world typically measured in degrees
A wide FoV creares a zoomed –out effect
While a narrow FoV Zooms in

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Focal Length (f)

Determines the magnification of the image.
A longer focal length results in zooming in, while a shorter focal length provides a wider view.
Aspect Ratio
Ratio of the image width to height (e.g., 16:9, 4:3).
Affects the shape of the final image.
Image Resolution
Defines the number of pixels in the final image (e.g., 1920×1080).
Higher resolution provides more detail.
Principal Point (cx, cy)
The center of projection in the image plane.
Usually at the center of the image but can be offset.
Near and Far Clipping Planes
Defines the depth range visible to the camera.
Objects closer than the near plane or farther than the far plane are clipped.
EXTRINSIC PARAMETERS
These define the camera's position and orientation in the world.
Position (Translation)
Defines the location of the camera in 3D space as (X.Y,Z)
Orientation (Rotation)
Defines the direction the camera is facing.Represented using rotation matrices, Euler angles, or
quaternions.
Projection Models-Defines how the 3D scene is projected onto a 2D plane.
Perspective Projection
Mimics real-world camera behavior.
Objects farther away appear smaller.
Orthographic Projection
Parallel projection with no perspective distortion.Used in CAD software and technical drawings.
Fisheye and Panoramic Projections
Used for 360° cameras and immersive environments.Introduces distortion to capture a wider field
of view.

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CREATION AND EDITING OF IMAGES

The creation and editing of images in computer graphics involve a combinations of techniques,
tools and process designed to generate or modify visual content.
RASTER GRAPHICS
Raster graphics are images made up of tiny dots called pixels. Each pixel has a specific color, and
when you put all these pixels together, they form a complete picture. This is similar to a mosaic,
where small colored tiles come together to create a bigger image. Common examples of raster
graphics include photos you take with your phone, images on websites, and graphics used in social
media.
Features of Raster Graphics:
Detail and Color: Raster graphics can show a wide range of colors and intricate details, making
them perfect for realistic images like photographs.
Common Formats: Popular formats for raster graphics include JPEG, PNG, and GIF, which are
widely used on the internet.
Scalability: One limitation is that if you enlarge a raster image too much, it can look blurry or
pixelated because you are stretching the pixels.
Raster graphics are ideal for images that need to look realistic, such as photographs, detailed
illustrations, and any visuals that require a lot of color variation. They are widely used across the
internet, in digital photography, and in everyday graphic design.
BASIC TERMS RELATED TO RASTER GRAPHICS
Pixel: In computer graphics, an actual point in a picture is called a pixel, dot, or image element.
Pixels are the smallest addressable units in an image that is shown on a screen. Almost everything
we see on computer displays is composed of raster graphics. A selfie taken with your phone is an
example of a raster image as well. To make an image, a bitmap, or collection of pixels, is utilized.
Bitmap: A bitmap in computer graphics is a mapping between a domain and bits, or values that
can only have one or zero values. There are other names for it, such as bit array or bitmap index.
More broadly speaking, a "pixmap" is a map of pixels that have more than two colors stored in
each pixel, or more than one bit per pixel. For that too, the bitmap is widely employed. The phrase
"bitmap" refers to one bit per pixel in certain situations, whereas pixmap is used for images
with several bits per pixel.

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BENEFITS OF RASTER GRAPHICS

Realistic Appearance: Raster graphics are ideal for creating images that look like real
photographs. They capture fine details and textures, making them perfect for realistic visuals.
Popular on the Internet: Most of the images you see on websites, social media, and other online
platforms are raster graphics. They are widely used because they display well on screens and load
quickly.
Easy to Edit: Raster images can be easily edited using software like Photoshop, allowing you to
change colors, add effects, or make corrections with ease.
Wide Range of Colors: Raster graphics can display millions of colors, which makes them perfect
for complex images with gradients and subtle color variations.
Versatile for Web Use: Raster graphics are commonly used for web images due to their
compatibility with most web formats like JPEG, PNG, and GIF. They ensure that images look
sharp and vibrant on digital screens
VECTOR GRAPHICS
Vector graphics are a flexible and scalable way to create images using mathematical equations and
geometric shapes, unlike pixel-based raster graphics. This method ensures that images maintain
high quality and sharpness at any size, making them ideal for logos, illustrations, and other designs
Vector graphics offer designers a powerful way to create clean, scalable images that maintain their
quality across different sizes and formats, making them a key tool in digital art and design.

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TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO VECTOR GRAPHICS

Mathematical Representation: Vector graphics represent object shapes and trajectories using
mathematical calculations. These formulas determine element position, size, and properties.
Scalability: Scalability is a vector graphics advantage. Vector images are perfect for logos, icons,
and illustrations because they resize without losing quality.
Editing Flexibility: Editing vector graphics is simple. Software like Adobe Illustrator or open-
source Inkscape may change vector objects' forms, colors, and characteristics.
File Formats: Common file formats for vector graphics include SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics),
AI (Adobe Illustrator), and EPS (Encapsulated PostScript).
Use Cases: Vector graphics are utilized in logos, typography, illustrations, and maps.
ADVANTAGES OF VECTOR GRAPHICS
Vector graphics offer several benefits in computer graphics:
Scalability: The biggest advantage of vector graphics is that they can be scaled to any size without
losing quality. Whether you shrink them down or enlarge them, vector images always appear sharp
and clean because they are based on mathematical relationships between points, lines, and curves.
Small File Size: Vector graphics only store a small number of points and their relationships,
resulting in much smaller file sizes compared to raster images. This makes them easy to transfer
and load across different platforms and applications.
Ease of Duplication and Editing: Vector graphics make it easy to duplicate elements, clone
images, or modify designs as needed. This flexibility is particularly useful for creating consistent
and repetitive elements in design projects.
Precision: Vector graphics provide a high level of accuracy in appearance, allowing for precise
shapes and lines that are essential for technical illustrations, logos, and detailed artwork.
DISADVANTAGES OF VECTOR GRAPHICS
While vector graphics have many advantages, there are some limitations:
Limited Detail for Complex Images: Vector files are not ideal for complex images with intricate
color blends or shading, such as detailed photographs. Raster files, like JPEGs or PNGs, handle
these aspects better.
Browser and Application Compatibility: Not all web browsers and applications fully support
vector formats, which can lead to compatibility issues. Raster images are generally more widely
supported across different platforms.

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Software Variations: Different software applications may interpret vector graphics differently,
which can cause inconsistencies in rendering. This means that a design created in one tool might
look slightly different in another.
Differences between Vector and Raster Graphics
The main difference between vector and raster graphics is that raster graphics are composed of
pixels, while vector graphics are composed of paths. A raster graphic, such as a gif or jpeg, is an
array of pixels of various colors, which together form an image.

REFERENCES
Akenine-Moller, T. and E. Haines (2002) Real-Time Rendering, A.K. Peters.
(Order from amazon , order from Barnes and Noble , compare at bigwords , compare at
CampusBooks4Less , order from Chegg , or search eFollett )

Angel, E. (2005) Interactive Computer Graphics: A Top-Down Approach with OpenGL , Addison
Wesley.
(Order from amazon , order from Barnes and Noble , compare at bigwords , compare at
CampusBooks4Less , order from Chegg , or search eFollett )

Farin, G. and D. Hansford (2004) Practical Linear Algebra: A Geometry Toolbox, AK Peters.
(Order from amazon , order from Barnes and Noble , compare at bigwords , compare at
CampusBooks4Less , order from Chegg , or search eFollett )

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Hearn, D. and M.P. Baker (2003) Computer Graphics with OpenGL, Prentice Hall.
(Order from amazon , order from Barnes and Noble , compare at bigwords , compare at
CampusBooks4Less , order from Chegg , or search eFollett )

Luna, F.D. (2003) Introduction to 3D Game Programming with DirectX 9.0, Wordware
Publishing.
(Order from amazon , order from Barnes and Noble , compare at bigwords , compare at
CampusBooks4Less , order from Chegg , or search eFollett )

Schneider, P. and D.H. Eberly (2002) Geometric Tools for Computer Graphics, Morgan
Kaufmann.
(Order from amazon , order from Barnes and Noble , compare at bigwords , compare at
CampusBooks4Less , order from Chegg , or search eFollett )

Shreiner, D. (2004) OpenGL Reference Manual, Addison-Wesley.

(Order from amazon , order from Barnes and Noble , compare at bigwords , compare at
CampusBooks4Less , order from Chegg , or search eFollett )

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