DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS

BOOK: DIGITAL DESIGN BY MORRIS MANO

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
• An integrated circuit (IC) is fabricated
on a die of a silicon semiconductor
crystal, called a chip, containing the
electronic components for
constructing digital gates.
• The various gates are interconnected
inside the chip to form the required
circuit. The chip is mounted in a
ceramic or plastic container, and
connections are welded to external
pins to form the integrated circuit.
INTEGRATED
CIRCUITS
• The number of pins may range from
14 on a small IC package to several
thousand on a larger package.
• Each IC has a numeric designation
printed on the surface of the package
for identification.
• Vendors provide data books, catalogs,
and Internet websites that contain
descriptions and information about
the ICs that they manufacture.
ADVANTAGES OF IC
• Small size
• Low cost
• Improved performance
• High reliability
• Low power consumption
• Less vulnerability to parameter variation
• Increased operating speed
• Less weight, volume
• Easy replacement
DISADVANTAGES OF IC

• As IC is small in size it is unable to dissipate large amount of power.

Increase in current may produce enough heat which may destroy
the device.
• At present, coils, inductors and transformers cannot be produced
in IC form.
LEVELS OF INTEGRATION
• Digital ICs are often categorized according to the complexity of their
circuits, as measured by the number of logic gates in a single package.
• The differentiation between those chips which have a few internal
gates and those having hundreds of thousands of gates is made by
customary reference to a package as being either a small‐, medium‐,
large‐, or very large‐scale integration device.
• On the basis of chip size, ICs are of the following types
• SSI (Small Scale Integration)
• MSI (Medium Scale Integration)
• LSI (Large Scale Integration)
• VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration)
• ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration)
APPLICATIONS
 SSI (SMALL SCALE INTEGRATION)
• Early developments of the integrated circuits
started in 1949 when German engineer
Werner Jacobi filed a patent on integrated-
circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device
showing five transistors on a common
substrate
• Small‐scale integration (SSI) devices contain
several independent gates in a single package.
IC for Music Creation The inputs and outputs of the gates are
connected directly to the pins in the package.
• The number of gates is usually fewer than 10
and is limited by the number of pins available
in the IC.
MSI (MEDIUM SCALE INTEGRATION)

• Medium‐scale integration (MSI) devices have a

complexity of approximately 10 to 1,000 gates
in a single package.
• Medium-scale integration technology was
prominent between years 1966 and 1971. This
technology is used to make multiplexers,
decoders, counters, and registers.
 LSI (LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION)

• It is the process of integrating or embedding

thousands of transistors on a single silicon
semiconductor microchip.
• LSI technology was conceived in the mid-1970s
when computer processor microchips were under
development.
• They include digital systems such as processors,
memory chips, and programmable logic devices.
• Applications are to be found just about
everywhere: hand-held organizers, cell-phones,
telecommunication equipment, musical
instruments, MP3 decoders and telephony
receivers.
VLSI (VERY LARGE SCALE
INTEGRATION)
• Very large scale integration is the process of
creating an integrated circuit (IC) by combining
millions of MOS transistors onto a single chip.
• Very large‐scale integration (VLSI) devices now
contain millions of gates within a single package.
Examples are large memory arrays and complex
microcomputer chips.
• Because of their small size and low cost, VLSI
devices have revolutionized the computer system
design technology, giving the designer the
capability to create structures that were previously
uneconomical to build.
ULSI (ULTRA LARGE SCALE
INTEGRATION)
• ULSI technology was conceived during the late 1980s
when superior computer processor microchips,
specifically for the Intel 8086 series, were under
development.
• ULSI is a successor to large-scale integration (LSI) and
very large-scale integration (VLSI) technologies but is in
the same category as VLSI.
• Intel 486 and the Pentium series of processors were
built on ULSI principles.
DIGITAL LOGIC FAMILIES

• Digital integrated circuits are classified not only by their complexity or logical operation, but
also by the specific circuit technology to which they belong. The circuit technology is referred
to as a digital logic family.
• Each logic family has its own basic electronic circuit upon which more complex digital circuits
and components are developed.
• The basic circuit in each technology is a NAND, NOR, or inverter gate.
• The electronic components employed in the construction of the basic circuit are usually used
to name the technology. Many different logic families of digital integrated circuits have been
introduced commercially.
• The most popular logic families are:
• TTL transistor–transistor logic;
• RTL resistor-transistor logic;
• DTL diode-transistor logic
• ECL emitter‐coupled logic;
• MOS metal‐oxide semiconductor;
• CMOS complementary metal‐oxide semiconductor
• RTL & DTL have only historical significance since they are no longer used in
the design of digital systems. TTL is a logic family that has been in use for 50
years and is considered to be standard. ECL has an advantage in systems
requiring high‐speed operation. MOS is suitable for circuits that need high
component density, and CMOS is preferable in systems requiring low power
consumption, such as digital cameras, personal media players, and other
handheld portable devices.
IMPORTANT PARAMETERS DISTINGUISHING LOGIC
FAMILIES
• Fan‐out specifies the number of standard loads that the output of a typical
gate can drive without impairing its normal operation. A standard load is
usually defined as the amount of current needed by an input of another
similar gate in the same family.

• Fan‐in is the number of inputs available in a gate.

 IMPORTANT PARAMETERS
DISTINGUISHING LOGIC
FAMILIES
• Power dissipation is the power consumed
by the gate that must be available from the
power supply.
• Propagation delay is the average transition
delay time for a signal to propagate from
input to output. For example, if the input of
an inverter switches from 0 to 1, the output
will switch from 1 to 0, but after a time
determined by the propagation delay of the
device. The operating speed is inversely
proportional to the propagation delay.
• Noise margin is the maximum external
noise voltage added to an input signal that
does not cause an undesirable change in the
circuit output.
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
CHARACTERISTICS

• Bipolar transistor may be of npn or pnp type.

Moreover, they are constructed either with
germanium or silicon semiconductor material. IC
transistors, however are made with silicon and
are usually of npn type.
• The basic data needed for the analysis of digital
circuits may be obtained from the input and
output characteristic curves of a common-
emitter (CE) npn Si transistor.
• The circuit in first figure is a simple inverter
with two resistors and a transistor.
• 𝐼𝐸 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐵 , 𝐼𝐶 = 𝛽𝐼𝐵
• 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is the voltage drop across base to
emitter junction and this junction is forward BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
biased when 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is positive and valued 0.7V
for Si semiconductor.
CHARACTERISTICS
• From the input characteristics curve, if 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is
less than 0.7V, the transistor is said to be cut
off and no base current flows , thus 𝐼𝐶 = 0.
But, when the voltage is greater than 0.6V,
the transistor conducts, and base current
starts to flow.
𝐼𝐶𝑆
• If base current is large enough that 𝐼𝐵 ≥ ,
𝛽
then the transistor is in the saturation
region. At saturation region, when 𝑉𝐶𝐸 =
𝑉
0𝑉, maximum current 𝐼𝐶𝑆 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝐶
EXAMPLE
• Consider the previous inverter circuit with the following parameters:
𝑹𝑪 = 𝟏𝒌𝛀 𝑽𝑪𝑪 = 𝟓𝑽 (𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚)
𝑹𝑩 = 𝟐𝟐𝒌𝛀 𝐻 = 5𝑉 (𝐻𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙)
𝛽 = 50 𝐿 = 0.2𝑉 (𝐿𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙)

• With input voltage, 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐿 = 0.2𝑉 , we have 𝑉𝐵𝐸 < 0.6𝑉, so the transistor is cut-off. The
collector-emitter circuit behaves like an open circuit; so output voltage is 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 5𝑉.
• With input voltage, 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐻 = 5𝑉 , we have 𝑉𝐵𝐸 > 0.6𝑉. Assuming 𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 0.7𝑉.
𝑉𝑖 −𝑉𝐵𝐸 5−0.7
𝐼𝐵 = = = 0.195𝑚𝐴 (active region)
𝑅𝐵 22𝑘
𝑉𝐶𝐶 −𝑉𝐶𝐸 5−0.2
The maximum collector current assuming 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0.2𝑉, 𝐼𝐶 = = = 4.8𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐶 1𝑘
𝐼𝐶𝑆 4.8
We check for saturation: 0.195 = 𝐼𝐵 ≥ = = 0.096𝑚𝐴, the inequality is satisfied and the
𝛽 50
transistor is saturated. So 𝑉0 = 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 𝐿 = 0.2𝑉
RTL BASIC GATES
• The resistor-transistor Logic(RTL) circuit is one of the basic logic circuits in
digital logic families. It is a bipolar saturated device. The RTL logic is popular
because of its simplicity.
• The RTL circuit consists of resistors at inputs and transistors at the output
side. Transistors are used as the switching device. The emitter of the transistor
is connected to the ground. The collector terminals are tied together and
given to the supply through the resistor RC. The collector resistor is known as
a passive pull-up resistor.
• The basic circuit in RTL IC digital logic family is NOR, NAND and NOT gate. This
basic circuit is the primary building block from which all other more complex
digital components are obtained.
RTL NOT GATE
• Case 1:
When the input is logic Low i.e. False or 0, the NPN transistor will
switch off because there is no base current. As a result, there is
no current flow through the transistor. So a conductive path will
be established between Vcc and output, which makes the output
logic High.
• Case 2:
Let us examine the above transistor circuit when a high
input voltage is applied, i.e. +5V. In this condition, the
transistor T1 gets enough base potential to make it ‘ON’.
As soon as the transistor becomes ON, the supply voltage
(+5V) at Vcc will get a path to the earth through the resistor
R2. At ON condition the transistor will behave short-
circuited ideally, hence entire supply voltage will drop
across resistor R2 and no voltage will appear at OUT and
hence the output of the inverter or NOT gate will be zero.
In actual fact, there will be some voltage drop across the
collector and emitter even at ON condition, of the
transistor.
SIMULATION
 2-INPUT RTL NOR GATE
• The following figure shows the circuit diagram of 2-input RTL
NOR gate. Q1 and Q2 are the two transistors. A and B are the
two inputs, given to the base of two transistors and Y is the
output.
• When both the inputs A and B are at 0V or logic 0, it is not
enough to turn on the gates of both the transistor. So the
transistors will not conduct. Due to this, the voltage +VCC will
appear at the output Y. Hence the output is logic 1 or logic
HIGH at terminal Y.
• When any one of the inputs, either A or B is given HIGH voltage
or logic 1, then the transistor with HIGH gate input will be
turned on. This will make a path for the supply voltage to go to
the ground through the resistor RC and transistor. Thus there
will be 0 v at the output terminal Y.
• When both the inputs are HIGH, it will drive both the transistor
to turn on. It will make a path for the supply voltage to flow to
the ground through resistor RC and transistor. Therefore, there
will be 0 v at the output terminal Y.
3-INPUT RTL NOR GATE

• The 3-input Resistor-Transistor Logic

NOR gate can also be constructed as
shown below. The operation is
similar to the 2-input RTL NOR gate.
2-INPUT RTL NAND GATE
• A simple 2-input NAND gate can be constructed
using RTL Resistor-transistor switches connected
together as shown below with the inputs connected
directly to the transistor bases.
• When both inputs “A” and “B” are “HIGH” then both
transistors are in saturated “ON” states and a state
“LOW” appears at the output (Q). Turning any of the
inputs to logic “LOW” will drive the relative
transistor to the “OFF” state and pulls the output (Q)
high to VCC.
CONSTRUCTING AND GATE USING RTL
TRUTH TABLE VERIFY
DTL BASIC GATES

• Diode-Transistor Logic, or DTL, refers to the technology for designing and

fabricating digital circuits wherein logic gates employ both diodes and
transistors. DTL offers better noise margins and greater fan-outs than RTL, but
suffers from low speed, especially in comparison to TTL.
• RTL allows the construction of NOR gates easily, but NAND gates are relatively
more difficult to get from RTL. DTL, however, allows the construction of simple
NAND gates from a single transistor, with the help of several diodes and
resistors.
DTL NOT GATE
DTL NAND GATE
DTL NOR GATE