History Notes
Making of the National Movement 1870-1947
The Emergence of Nationalism:
India was for the people of India, irrespective of class, colour, caste, creed, language, or gender.
Resources and systems in India were meant for all its people, but the British controlled them and the
lives of the people. This consciousness was clearly expressed by political associations formed after
1850, especially in the 1870s and 1880s.
Key associations formed were Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Indian Association, Madras Mahajan Sabha,
Bombay Presidency Association, and Indian National Congress.
These associations functioned in specific parts of the country, with goals that represented the interests
of all the people of India.
The associations believed in empowering the Indian people to make decisions regarding their own
affairs.
The Arms Act was passed in 1878, prohibiting Indians from possessing arms.
The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 aimed to silence those critical of the government by allowing the
confiscation of assets of newspapers that published "objectionable" content.
The Ilbert Bill of 1883 was introduced, which allowed Indians to try British or European persons and
sought equality between British and Indian judges.
The Indian National Congress was established in December 1885.
Early leaders of the Indian National Congress included Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta,
Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, and S.
Subramania Iyer. These leaders largely came from Bombay and Calcutta.
A nation in the making:
In the first twenty years, Congress demanded the inclusion of Indians in the government and
administration.
It wanted the Legislative Council to be more representative, more powerful, and introduced in
provinces where none existed.
Congress demanded Indians be placed in high positions in the government.
The demand for Indianisation of the administration was a stance against racism, as most important
jobs were monopolized by white officials.
Indianisation would also help reduce the drain of wealth to England.
Other demands included the separation of the judiciary from the executive, the repeal of the Arms
Act, and the freedom of speech and expression.
Congress raised several economic issues, including the poverty and famines caused by British rule.
They demanded a reduction of revenue, a cut in military expenditure, and more funds for irrigation.
Congress also passed resolutions on the salt tax, the treatment of Indian labourers abroad, and the
suffering of forest dwellers.
Moderate leaders published newspapers, wrote articles, and highlighted how British rule was leading
to the economic ruin of the country.
They believed that the British, respecting ideals of freedom and justice, would accept the demands
of the Indians.
“Freedom is our Birthright”:
Many Indians raised questions against the political style of the Congress.
Leaders in Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab, such as Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and
Lala Lajpat Rai, criticized the Moderates for their politics of prayers. These leaders emphasized the
importance of self-reliance and constructive work.
In 1905, Bengal, the biggest province of British India, was partitioned by the British for
administrative convenience.
Instead of removing non-Bengali areas, the British separated East Bengal and merged it with Assam.
Both the Moderates and the Radicals opposed the partition of Bengal.
The massive protests and large public meetings led to the Swadeshi movement, strongest in Bengal
and known as the Vandemataram Movement in deltaic Andhra.
The Swadeshi movement opposed British rule and encouraged ideas of self-help, swadeshi enterprise,
national education, and the use of Indian languages.
Some individuals suggested revolutionary violence was necessary to overthrow British rule.
The All India Muslim League was founded in 1906 by a group of Muslim landlords and nawabs at
Dacca.
The League supported the partition of Bengal and demanded separate electorates for Muslims, a
demand conceded by the government in 1909.
The Congress split in 1907, with the Moderates dominating the Congress and Tilak’s followers
functioning from outside. The two groups reunited in December 1915.
The Congress and the Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact and agreed to work together for
representative government in India.
Growth of Mass Nationalism:
After 1919, the struggle against British rule became a mass movement involving peasants, tribals,
students, women, and occasionally factory workers.
The economic and political situation of India changed after the First World War, leading to a
significant rise in defense expenditure.
Taxes on individual incomes and business profits were increased.
Indian industries expanded during the war, and Indian business groups demanded greater
development opportunities.
The British army's expansion was also required during the war.
In 1917, the Russian Revolution occurred, influencing the Indian independence movement.
The Advent of Mahatma Gandhi:
Mahatma Gandhi emerged as a mass leader after arriving in India from South Africa in 1915.
Gandhi led non-violent marches against racist restrictions in South Africa.
He spent his first year in India traveling to understand the people, their needs, and the overall
situation.
The Rowlatt Satyagraha:
In 1919, Gandhiji called for satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act, which curbed fundamental rights like
freedom of expression and strengthened police powers.
Gandhiji and the people of India observed 6 April 1919 as a day of non-violent opposition to the
Act.
Satyagraha Sabhas were set up to launch the movement.
In April 1919, there were several demonstrations and hartals across the country, which were met with
brutal repression by the government.
The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, inflicted by General Dyer in Amritsar on Baisakhi day (13 April), was
one of the brutal acts of suppression.
During the Rowlatt Satyagraha, participants ensured that Hindus and Muslims were united in their
opposition to British rule.
Mahatma Gandhi envisioned India as a land of all its people, including Hindus, Muslims, and people
of all other religions.
Khilafat Agitation and Non-Cooperation Movement:
In 1920, a harsh treaty was imposed on the Turkish Sultan, leading to the Khilafat agitation.
Leaders Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali initiated the Non-Cooperation Movement, which Gandhi
supported.
The movement gained momentum between 1921-22, with people surrendering British titles,
boycotting the legislature, and rejecting foreign goods.
The imports of foreign cloth dropped drastically during this time.
People’s Initiatives:
Some people resisted British rule non-violently, interpreting Gandhiji's call in their own way.
These protests were sometimes not in accordance with Gandhiji's ideas and were linked to local
grievances.
In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organized nonviolent campaigns against high land revenue
demands by the British.
In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, people picketed liquor shops.
In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants staged several "forest
satyagrahas," sometimes grazing their cattle in forests without paying grazing fees.
In Sind, Muslim traders and peasants were very enthusiastic about the Khilafat call.
In Bengal, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance gave strong communal unity and strengthened the
national movement.
In Punjab, the Akali agitation led by Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants from their gurdwaras.
The People’s Mahatma:
Gandhi believed in class unity, not class conflict.
Peasants believed Gandhi would help them fight against zamindars, and agricultural laborers hoped
for land reforms.
Peasants in Pratapgarh, United Provinces, stopped illegal tenant evictions, believing Gandhi had won
this victory for them.
The Happenings of 1922-1929:
Gandhi called off the Non-Cooperation Movement.
Afterward, some leaders argued for constructive work in rural areas, while others- Motilal Nehru and
C.R Das- suggested fighting elections to the councils.
In 1930, the Civil Disobedience Movement was launched.
The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a Hindu organization, and the Communist Party of India
were formed.
In 1929, Congress resolved to fight for Purna Swaraj under Jawaharlal Nehru, and "Independence
Day" was observed on 26 January 1930.
The Simon Commission, introduced in 1927 and headed by Lord Simon, was established to
determine the future course of India.
The March to Dandi:
In 1930, Gandhiji led a march to break the salt law, which granted the state a monopoly on the
manufacture and sale of salt.
The Salt March connected the general desire for freedom to a specific grievance shared by all,
ensuring it did not divide the rich and poor.
Gandhiji and his followers marched over 240 miles from Sabarmati to Dandi, a coastal town, where
they broke the government law by gathering natural salt from the seashore and boiling seawater to
produce salt.
Peasants, tribals, and women participated in large numbers in the march.
The Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy and announced elections to
provincial legislatures in 1937.
In September 1939, the Second World War broke out.
Congress leaders were willing to support the British war effort, but they demanded independence in
return.
The British refused to concede the demand, and as a result, the Congress ministries resigned in
protest.
Rowlatt Act (1919): The Rowlatt Act curbed fundamental rights such as the freedom of expression and
strengthened police powers. Gandhiji called for a satyagraha against this act, and 6 April 1919 was
observed as a day of non-violent opposition to it. The protests were met with brutal suppression,
including the Jallianwala Bagh massacre on 13 April 1919 by General Dyer.
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): On 13 April 1919, General Dyer opened fire on a peaceful gathering of
people in Amritsar’s Jallianwala Bagh. The brutal repression of the Rowlatt Satyagraha culminated in this
massacre, which caused outrage across the country.
Khilafat Agitation (1920): This agitation arose in response to a harsh treaty imposed on the Turkish
Sultan or Khalifa by the British. The Khilafat leaders, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali, initiated the
agitation and called for a full-fledged Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhiji supported the movement,
and it became part of the wider fight for Swaraj.
Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922): The Non-Cooperation Movement, initiated by Gandhiji,
aimed to oppose British rule through non-violent means. It involved boycotting British goods, institutions,
and titles, and surrendering British honors. Thousands of students left government-controlled schools,
and many lawyers gave up their practices. However, after the Chauri Chaura incident, the movement was
called off.
Salt Law (1930): Gandhiji led the Salt March to Dandi in 1930 to protest against the British monopoly on
salt. He and his followers marched over 240 miles, breaking the law by collecting natural salt from the
seashore and boiling seawater to make salt. This protest became a key part of the Civil Disobedience
Movement.
Forest Satyagrahas: Tribals and peasants in areas like Guntur (Andhra Pradesh) staged forest satyagrahas,
protesting against the British restrictions on forest resources, such as grazing fees. The protests were non-
violent and aimed at securing the rights of local communities over forests.
Swadeshi Movement (1905): The Swadeshi Movement was launched in response to the partition of Bengal
by the British in 1905. It encouraged the boycott of British goods, the promotion of self-reliance, and the
use of Indian languages. It was most prominent in Bengal but also spread to other regions like deltaic
Andhra where it was known as the Vandematram Movement.
Akali Agitation (1920s): The Akali Agitation in Punjab was a movement by Sikhs to remove corrupt
mahants supported by the British from their gurdwaras. The movement was closely associated with the
Non-Cooperation Movement and sought to cleanse the Sikh religious institutions from British influence.
Civilising the “Native”, Educating the Nation
Early Indian Thinkers on Education:
From the early 19th century, many thinkers in India began to talk about the need for a wider spread
of education.
Impressed with developments in Europe, some Indians felt that Western education would help
modernize India.
They urged the British to open more schools, colleges, and universities and spend more money on
education.
Some thinkers reacted against Western education. Notably, Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath
Tagore were two such individuals who criticized Western education.
Aurobindo Ghose’s Vision for National Education:
Aurobindo Ghose, in a speech delivered on January 15, 1908, in Bombay, stated that the goal of
national education was to awaken the spirit of nationality in students.
Education should inspire students to contemplate the heroic deeds of ancestors.
Ghose emphasized that the education should be imparted in the vernacular so that it could reach the
largest number of people.
He also advocated that students should remain connected to their roots but take full advantage of
modern scientific discoveries and Western experiments in popular governments.
Additionally, he believed that students should learn some useful crafts, so they could find moderately
remunerative employment after leaving school.
Mahatma Gandhi’s Critique of English Education:
Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of Indians, making
them see Western civilization as superior, which eroded their pride in their own culture.
Gandhi called this type of education “sinful” and said it enslaved Indians, casting an "evil spell" on
them.
Gandhi believed that this education made Indians admire British rule and distant from their own
culture and surroundings.
He advocated for education in Indian languages and criticized the use of English as the medium of
instruction. He believed English education distanced Indians from the masses, who spoke their local
languages.
Gandhi emphasized the importance of practical knowledge and manual labor. For him, education
meant developing a person’s mind and soul, not just learning to read and write. He proposed that
children should begin their education by learning useful handicrafts, which would help them
understand the processes involved and develop their minds.
Rabindranath Tagore’s Approach to Education:
Tagore founded Santiniketan in 1901 with a vision for a new kind of education, one that was free
from rigid and oppressive systems.
Tagore, in his own childhood, had been frustrated by the suffocating schooling system in Calcutta,
which he felt stifled creativity and freedom.
He believed that the childhood years should be a time of self-learning and creativity. Tagore wanted a
system where teachers understood children’s needs and allowed them to explore their own thoughts.
To facilitate this, he chose a natural environment, setting up Santiniketan away from the city, in a
rural setting, where children could live in harmony with nature.
Tagore sought to combine the best aspects of Western civilization with traditional Indian values.
Unlike Gandhi, Tagore did not completely reject Western ideas; he wanted to integrate modern
Western science and technology with Indian tradition.
Tagore also emphasized the teaching of art, music, and dance alongside science and technology.
The Debate on National Education:
As nationalist sentiments spread, various thinkers began considering how education could serve the
goal of building a nation.
Some thinkers wanted to work within the existing British system, proposing reforms to make it more
inclusive and widespread.
Others, like Gandhi and Tagore, sought a more radical transformation, calling for an education
system that would be deeply rooted in Indian culture and values.
The question of what constituted "national" education became a key debate in the intellectual and
nationalist circles of the time.
This debate continued after independence as the country tried to define what a truly national
education system should be.
