MODERN PHYSICS

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

An atom consists of 3 particles namely;

- Protons
- Neutrons
- Electrons
It is made up of the central part called nucleus
around which electrons rotate in orbits. The
protons and neutrons lie within the nucleus and
these particles are sometimes referred to as nuclei
particles or nuclides
Name Symbol Sign of charge.
Protons Positive.
Neutrons No charge.
Electrons Negative.

The nucleus is positively charged

ISOTOPES
 These are atoms of the same element having the
same atomic numbers but different mass
numbers.
Examples:
Hydrogen, carbon, chlorine, oxygen, 20
10𝑁𝑒 , 22
10𝑁𝑒

ATOMIC NUMBER.
This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an
atom.
MASS NUMBER
This is the sum of protons and neutrons in a
nucleus of an atom.
It is sometimes called atomic mass.
It is expressed as
A
Z X

Where A- atomic number and Z – mass number

Given that determine:

a) Mass number = …..35
(b) Number of protons =…..17
 c) Number of neutrons = ….18
Example

1. Given that state

(a) The mass number
(b) Number of protons
(c) Number of neutrons
RADIOACTIVITY.

( Types of Radiation from Radioactive Decay.mp4

) VIDEO CLIP.
This is the spontaneous disintegration of heavy
unstable nuclei to form stable nuclei by release of
energy particles like beta, gamma, alpha and
energy.
Or Radioactivity is the spontaneous disintegration
of unstable radioactive elements with emission of
radiations and energy.
Types of radiations.
There are three types of radiations, namely:
Alpha particle
Beta particle
Gamma ray
ALPHA PARTICLES.
An alpha particle is a helium nuclide which has lost
2 electrons. An alpha particle has mass number4
and atomic number 2 and is positively charged.
4
2𝐻𝑒
PROPERTIES OF ALPHA PARTICLES
-Ionize gases i.e. have a high ionizing power
compared to gamma rays.
-They are deflected by both magnetic and electric
fields.
-They are positively charged.
-They penetrate matter.
Have a low penetrating power compared to
gamma and beta particles.
When unstable nuclei emits an alpha particle,
the mass reduces by 4 and atomic number by 2

E.g. a radioactive substance Undergoes

decay and emits an alpha particle to form Y.
Write an equation for the process.

238 =x + 4
 x =234
92 = y + 2
y = 90 3B, 27/9/2016

BETA PARTICLES
These are high energy radiations.
When radioactive nuclei decay by emitting beta
particles, Mass number is not affected but the
atomic number increases by one.
PROPERTIES OF BETA PARTICLES.
They carry negative charge.
They cause ionization of gases.
They are deflected by both electric and magnetic
fields
They can penetrate matter which is not too thick.

E.g. unstable nuclei decays to form a stable

nuclei Y by emitting a beta particle. Write the
equation to show the process.
 226 = n + 0
n =226
88 = m + - 1
𝑚= 89.

Write down an equation for the process.

GAMMA RAYS.
These are electromagnetic radiations with the
shortest wave length. When unstable nuclei
decays by emitting gamma rays, the mass and
atomic number are not affected.
PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS.
-They have no charge.
-They ionize gases although they have the least
ionizing power compared to beta and alpha
particles.
-They are not deflected by both electric and
magnetic fields
- They penetrate matter; they have the greatest
power compared to other particles.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ALPHA AND BETA
PATICLES.
Both ionize gases.
They both penetrate matter.
They are both deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ALPHA AND BETA
PARTICLES.
Alpha (α-particle) Beta(β-particle)
positively charged negatively charged
have low penetrative have higher penetrative
power power
have higher ionizing have lower ionizing
power power
Deflected towards deflected towards
negative plate in electric positive plate in electric
field. field
helium atom high energy electrons

DEFLECTION OF THE ABOVE RADIATION IN AN

ELECTRIC FIELD.

A- Beta particles
B- Gamma rays
C- Alpha particles.
S.3 BLUE, 28/9/2016.
- The alpha particles are deflected towards the
negative plate indicating that they are positively
charged.
- The beta particles are deflected towards positive
plate indicating that they are negatively charged.
- While gamma rays go through the field un
deflected showing that they carry no charge.
DEFLECTION BY A MAGNETIC FIELD.

- The beta particle is deflected towards North Pole

because they are negatively charged.
- While alpha particles are deflected towards the
South Pole, according to Fleming’s left hand rule.
- Gamma rays are not deflected because they
possess no charge.
A VIDEO CLIP SHOWING THE ABOVE MOTION.
TUTOR VISTA IN DOCUMENT.

A RADIOACTIVE ELEMENT.
- Is the element whose nucleus disintegrates
gradually and continuously emitting powerful
and invisible radiations.
DANGERS OF RADIATIONS
-Beta and alpha particles cause skin burns and
sores.
-Can cause cancer, leukemia and affect eye sight.
-May damage body cells (reproductive organs
and liver)
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS WHEN DEALING WITH
RADIOACTIVE SOURCES
-Radioactive sources should be held with
forceps.
-Avoid eating, drinking or smoking where
radioactive sources are in use.
-Radioactive sources must be kept in lead boxes.
-Wash hands thoroughly after exposing to
radioactive materials
-Any cut on the body should be covered before
dealing with radioactive sources.
USES OF ALPHA, BETA, AND GAMMA RAYS.
1. Industrial uses.
 -used in tracer techniques to investigate the
flow of liquids in chemical plants.
- used in the automatic control of thickness of
material in industries.
- Study of wear and tear in machinery.
- Gamma rays are used to detect faults in
thickness of metal sheets in welded joints
2. Medical uses
- Controlled amount in treatment of cancer.
- They are used to kill bacteria in food.
- Used to sterilize medical equipment like syringes
3. Archeology
- Used to determine the time that has elapsed
since death of organisms occurred, a process
called carbon dating.
- Geology
They are used to determine the age of rocks.
 IONISING EFFECTS OF RADIATIONS.

- When a radioactive source is brought near the

cap of a charged G.L.E, the leaf falls, this shows
that the G.L.E has been discharged because of
the ionization of air around the cap.
- If the G.L.E is positively charged, negative ions or
(electrons) from air are attracted and the gold
leaf falls and if it is negatively charged, ions are
attracted and leaf also falls.

Ultra
violet
 radiation is incident on a clean zinc plate resting
on the cap of a charged G.L.E as shown.
Explain what is observed if
i) The G.L.E is positively charged
ii) Radio wave is used instead of ultra
violet radiation.

ANSWER
i) No further divergence of the leaf is observed
because the ultra violet radiation eject electrons
from the metal surface but the electrons are
immediately attracted back hence no loss of
charge.
(ii) Radio waves have low energy thus are unable
to release electrons so there will be no effect on the
leaf divergence of the electroscope.

RADIATION DETECTORS
Geiger Muller counters.
1. The radiation enters the tube through the mica
window and ionizes the Argon ions and electrons
Argon → Ar+ (g) + e-
The ions are accelerated towards the cathode
and electrons towards the anode which cause
more ionization by collision with argon atoms at
the electrodes. The ions and the electrons cause
incident pulse which is amplified and fed into the
rate meter
2. Diffusion cloud chamber.
 Radiation from the source leaves trails of positive
gaseous ions along each stroke.
The water/ alcohol vapor molecules are released.
They condense as the ions and form small water
or alcohol droplets. The droplets are then seen as
a track when white light is reflected on them.
GAMMA RAYS.
Gamma rays do not leave an actual track
because they do not ionize gas. If gamma rays are
present whisky or wavy tracks are formed as
shown below.
 Page 550 ABBOTT
ALPHA PARTICLES.
Are short straight and thick tracks.
This is because they are good ionization of gas.
They are massive.
A large number of ions observed which have
different length due to difference in energy.
The tracks obtained are as shown below.
3B, 18/10/16.
BETA PARTICLES.
Tracks made by beta particles are longer and
fainter.
They wander as they are deflected by air
molecules because they are light.
The tracks are as above.
Back ground radiation.
These are radiations which naturally exist even in
the absence of radioactive source. They are
caused by natural tracks of radioactive materials
in rocks, Cosmic rays from outer space.
These cosmic rays are very high energetic
radioactive particles which come from deep in
space.
So the correct count = actual rate - back ground
count rate.
Example
Given that the back ground rate is 2 counts per
minute and the Geiger Muller count rate is 25
counts per minute. Determine the approximate
number of radiations present.
Count rate = 25 - 2 = 23 counts per minute.

NUCLEAR FISSION.
This is the splitting of nucleus of heavy atoms into
two nuclei. This process can be started with a
bombardment of nuclei with a neutron. The
products of the process are two light atoms and
more neutrons which can make a process
continue.

+ ENERGY.

The energy released in the nuclear fission of

Uranium is about 200 meV.
APPLICATION OF NUCLEAR FISSION.
Used in making atomic bombs.
Used to generate electricity.
Used to generate heat energy on large scale.
CONDITIONS FOR NUCLEAR FISSION TO OCCUR.
 - It occurs at a low temperature in presence of slow
moving neutrons.
-There should be already splitting nuclei into light
nucleus with isotopes which decay to produce
isotopes like high speed neutrons.

NUCLEAR FUSION.
This is the union of two light atomic nuclei to form
a heavy atom.
It involves the release of energy e.g.

An example of fusion of two deuterium nuclei to

produce helium 3 and a neutron with release of
energy.
2 2 3 1
1𝐻 + 1𝐻 2𝐻 + 0𝑛 + Energy.
CONDITIONS FOR NUCLEAR FUSION TO OCCUR.
- Temperature should be very high (108k).
- The light nuclei should be at very high speed to
overcome nuclear division.
USES OF NUCLEAR FUSION.
- Used to produce hydrogen.
- Used to produce electricity.
- Used to produce heat energy on large scale.
Differences between Nuclear fission and Nuclear
fusion.
Nuclear fission. Nuclear fusion.
Is the disintegration of a Is the combining of two
heavy nucleus into two light nuclei to form a
lighter nuclei. heavy nucleus.
Requires low Requires high
temperature temperature.
Requires slow neutron Neutron is not required
for bombardment. but is a product of
nuclear fusion.
Results into four Results into three
products. products.
Energy released is high. Energy released is low.

HALF-LIFE.
The half-life period of a substance is defined as
the time taken for half the atoms in any given
sample of substance to decay.
 It is the time taken for radioactive substance to
decay to half of its original mass.

e.g.
1. If a radioactive element of mass 32 kg decays
to 2 kg in 96 days. Calculate the half-life.

4t =96
t=24 days

2. A certain radioactive substance takes 120 years

to decay from 2 g to 0.125 g. Find the half-life.

Let it be t

4 t = 120
t =30 years
3. The half-life of substance is 5 hours. Find how
long it takes for its mass to disintegrate from 64 g
to 2 g.

5 x 5 =25 hours.
4. A radioactive element has a half-life of 4 years.
If after 24 years 0.15 g remains, calculate the
initial mass of the radioactive material.

Mo = 9.6 g
5. A certain mass of a radioactive material
contains 2.7 x 1024 atoms, how many atoms
decayed after 3200 years if the half-life of
material is 1600 years.

Mass remaining = 6.75 x 1023 atom

Mass decays = original mass - mass remaining
= (2.7 x 1024 - 6.75 x 1023)
 = 2.025 x 1024 atoms
The half-life of radium is 1620 years, what fraction
of radium would have decayed after 9720 years if
we started with 1 g of radium?

GRAPHICAL METHOD OF DETERMINING HALF LIFE

When a graph of count rate against time or
radioactive nuclei is drawn, the half-life of the
radioactive nuclei can be determined as below.

Example 1
The following values were obtained from the readings
of a rate meter of a radioactive isotope of iodine.
Time 0 5 10 15 20
 (min)
Count 295 158 86 47 25
rate
per
Min

Plot a suitable graph and find the half-life of the

radioactive iodine.

2. The following figures were obtained from Geiger

Muller counter due to ignition of the sample of radon
gas.
Time 0 102 155 …m… 300
per
min
count 1600 …t… 200 100 50
Rate
per
min

a) i)Plot a graph of count rate against time

ii) Determine the half-life.
iii) Find the missing values.
b)i) what is the count rate after 200 minutes
ii) After how many minutes is the count rate 1000
per minute?
3. The following figures were obtained from Geiger
Muller counter due to ignition of the sample of radon
gas.

Time 0 10 155 208 300

per
min
Rate 1600 1400 200 100 50
per
min

a) Plot a graph of count rate against time.

b) Determine the half-life.
c) What is the count rate after 200 minutes?
d) After how many minutes is the count rate
1000 per minute?
e)
Qn(a) Define the following ;
(i) Atomic number.
(ii) Mass number.
(b) A radioactive nuclide 42
19𝑌 emits both beta and
gamma radiations when it decays to nucleus X.
Write a balanced equation for the nuclear reaction.
Give three differences between beta and alpha
particles.
(c)The table below shows the count rate of a certain
radioactive material.
Count 132 86 56 38 24 15
rate(s-1)
Time(days) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Plot a suitable graph and use it to determine;
(i) The half-life of the radioactive sample.
(ii) The count rate after six days.
(d)State two conditions for each of the following to
occur;
(i) Fission.
(ii) Fusion.
THERMIONIC EMISSION
This is the process by which electrons are emitted
from metal surface by heating.
The stream of electrons travel in a straight line
and these streams are called cathode rays.
Cathode rays these are streams of moving
electrons and are negatively charged particles
orbiting around an atom.

PRODUCTION OF CATHODE RAYS USING A

THERMIONIC DIODE.
The circuit is connected as shown
  The metal cathode is heated by a filament
using a low voltage.
 Electrons are emitted thermionically from
the cathode.
 These electrons emitted are accelerated by
EHT towards the anode which is at a
negative potential difference.
 The fast moving stream of electrons at the
cathode towards the anode is cathode rays.
The anode accelerates the electrons to move
from cathode to the anode.
The vacuum ensures that electrons move
freely so that they do not collide with air
molecules.
NB. Thermionic diode/ vacuum diode is an
electric device with two electrodes in a
vacuum. It consists of a hot filament called
cathode surrounded by cylindrical anode which
is enclosed in highly evacuated glass tube.
S.3red 15/10/2015.
PROPERTIES OF CATHODE RAYS.
-They carry a negative charge.
-They are deflected by both electric and magnetic
fields.
-They ionize gases.
-They cause fluorescence to some substance e.g.
zinc sulphide.
-They travel in a straight line.
NB: In an electric field, cathode rays are deflected
towards the positive plate and in the magnetic
field; the direction of deflection is determined
using Fleming’s left hand rule.

( NEW Cathode Ray Experiment Animated.flv.mp4

)VIDEO CLIP.

Electric field.

Magnetic field.
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT CATHODE RAYS
TRAVEL IN A STRAIGHT LINE (THERMIONIC TUBE)

Cathode rays are incident on the maltese cross.

A shadow of the cross is formed on the
fluorescent screen.
The formation of the shadow verifies that cathode
rays travel in a straight line.
The thermionic emission is utilized in cathode ray
oscilloscope (C.R.O) X –ray tube, TV etc.
THE C.R.O

( Cathode Ray Tube.mp4

) VIDEO CLIP.

The C.R.O consists of three main components.

1. The electron gun, this consists of the following
parts;
i) The cathode – used to emit electrons.
ii) The control grid – this is connected to low
voltage supply and is used to control the number
of electrons passing through it towards the anode.
iii) The anode – the anode is used to accelerate
the electrons and also focus the electrons into a
fine beam.
N.B: Since the grid controls the number of
electrons moving towards the anode, it
consequently controls the brightness of the spot
on the screen.
As the grid control is made more negative, it
repels most of the electrons, allowing a few to
reach the screen hence screen appears dark.
When it is made more positive, it attracts the
electrons hence brightening the screen.
2. Deflecting system.
This consists of the x and y plates. They are used
to deflect the electron beam horizontally and
vertically.
X plates are vertical so they deflect the electron
beam horizontally.
Y plates are horizontal so they deflect the electron
beam vertically.
3. Fluorescent
This is where the electron beam is focused to form
a bright spot.
Time base switch – this is connected to the X –
plate and is used to move the bright spot on the
screen horizontally.
The time base generates p.d across the X – plate in
that as the time base is switched on, the bright
spot is formed on the screen. The bright spot
sweeps steadily and horizontally, repeatedly from
left to right and this leads to generation of an a.c
voltage.
Electrical energy-k.e-light energy (spot)
ACTION OF A C.R.O.
When an alternating current (a.c) is applied to the
y- plate and time base (x –plate) is off, the spot is
deflected vertically. The vertical line is observed.

When time base (x- plate) is switched on and

there is no signal on the y-plate, the spot is
deflected horizontally. The horizontal line is
observed.
When an a.c is applied on the y-plate and time
base is on, a wave form is observed on the screen.

When time base is switched off and no signal to

the y- plate, a spot is only observed.
Time base off and no signal on y- plate
USES OF A C.R O.
1. Frequency measurements
This is achieved by comparing a wave form of
known frequency with unknown frequency
Method
Adjust the time base of a C.R.O until one
complete wave is obtained without altering the
control grid of the C.R.O; apply a signal of known
frequency.
Then compare the frequency by counting the
number of complete waves.
2. Measurement of p.d.
A C.R.O can be used as voltmeter because the
distance spot is deflected depends on the p.d
between the plates.
Method
 Connect a cell 1.5V to the y-plate and adjust the
grid control until the trace indicating the p.d is
1cm above 0 so that every 1cm deflection
represents a p.d of 1.5V
Get unknown p.d and connect it to y-plate and
then compare the deflection by counting the
number of cm deflected. This means that we can
measure unknown p.d.
3. Used to study wave forms of current and
voltage.
4. Used in the manufacture of T.V.

Example
1. A C.R.O with time base switch on is
connected across a power supply; the
wave form shown below is obtained.

Distance between each line is 1cm

 i) Identify the type of voltage generated from
the power source alternating currents
ii) Find the amplitude of voltage generated if
voltage gain is 5 Vcm-1.
Amplitude = 2cm, 1cm = 5 V.
2cm is equivalent = (5 x2) V
= 10 V.
Calculate the frequency of power source if the time
base setting on the C.R.O is 5.0 X 10-3 scm-1

Time for 2cycles = 8 x 5.0 x 10-3

8 𝑥 5.0 𝑥10−3
Time for 1 cycle = .
2
= 0.02s
1 1
Frequency = = = 50 Hz.
𝑇 0.02
S3B 26/10/2016.

2. (a) Give one reason why it is possible to

use a wider screen in a television set
than in a C.R.O.
In T.V, deflection of electron beam is by magnetic
field which gives a wider deflection. In C.R.O, it is by
electric field which gives a smaller deflection.
(b) State one advantage of using a C.R.O. as a
voltmeter.
- Can measure both a.c and d.c voltages.
- Not damaged by over loading.
- Electrons act like a pointer of negligible inertia.
- Has definite resistance hence accurate.
UNEB 2015.
X – RAYS.

( X Rays.mp4
) VIDEO CLIP.

These are electromagnetic radiations produced when

fast moving electrons are stopped by a metal target.
TYPES OF X – RAYS.
i) Soft x- rays
ii) Hard x – rays
Soft x –rays are produced at a low potential.
They have a low penetrating power.
That is; they have a low frequency and long wave
length.
Hard x –rays are produced at a high potential.
They have a high penetrating power.
That is; they have a very high frequency and short
wave length.
X – RAYS PRODUCTION.

 The cathode is heated to emit electrons

by thermionic emission using a low
voltage supply.
 A large p.d is used on the anode to accelerate
the electrons.
 On reaching the anode, the fast moving
electrons hit the metal target of a high melting
point.
  The kinetic energy of electrons is converted into
heat and x- rays. (About 99% of kinetic energy is
converted to heat and 1% is converted to x-
rays.)
The x – ray tube is evacuated to prevent fast
moving electrons from being hindered by friction due
to air resistance. The heat generated is conducted
away through the copper anode to the cooling fins.
The magnitude of x-rays produced is determined by
the number of fast moving electrons heating the
target.
Cooling in the x-ray tube.
It is achieved either by:
- Use of radiation fins or
- Circulating liquid, oil or water through hollow
anode.
PROPERTIES OF X- RAYS.
-Readily penetrate through matter.
-They are not affected by electric and magnetic fields.
-They cause fluorescence and have no charge.
-They cause ionization.
-They travel in straight lines.
 HEALTH HARZARDS
 They destroy cells especially hard x- rays.
 Cause gene mutation or genetic change.
 Cause damage of eye sight and blood.
 Produce deep skin burns.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS.
Direct and frequent exposure should be avoided.
Soft x-rays should always be used on human
tissues.
-Workers dealing with x-rays should wear
shielding jackets with a layer of lead.
-Exposure should be avoided for unborn babies
and very young children.
-Avoid unnecessary exposure to x –rays
-Keep exposure time as short as possible.
-The x- ray beam should only be restricted to parts
of the body being investigated.
USES OF X- RAYS.
(a) In hospitals (Medicine.)
-Used to investigate bone fractures.
-Detects lung cancer.
 -Used to treat cancer especially when it has not
spread; by radiotherapy.
That is very hard x-rays are directed to the cancer
cells so that the latter are destroyed.
-Used to detect internal ulcers along a digestive
tract.
-Used to locate swallowed metal objects
(b)Industrial use
- Used to detect cracks in car engines and pipes.
-Used in inspection of car tyres.
-Used to locate internal imperfections in welded
joints e.g. pipes, boilers and storage tanks.
- Used to detect cracks in building.
3RED, 20/10/2015.
(c) X-ray crystallography.
Used to determine inter – atomic spacing in the
crystal.
HOW AN X-RAY IS USED TO LOCATE BROKEN PARTS
OF A BONE.
Bones are composed of much denser material than
flesh hence if x- rays are passed through the body;
they are absorbed by the bones onto a photographic
plate which produces a shadow photograph and
bones. 3B/1ST/11/2016.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CATHODE RAYS AND X-RAYS.
CATHODE RAYS X- RAYS
Negatively charged. Neutral.

Low penetrating. Highly penetrating.

Can be deflected by both Cannot be deflected by
magnetic and electric both magnetic and
fields. electric fields.
Travel at low speed. Travel at high speed.

PHOTO ELECTRIC EMISSION

This is the emission of electrons from a certain
metal plate e.g. zinc plate when electromagnetic
radiation falls on it.

Consider a zinc plate and an anode closed in vacuum

in which an ammeter and a cell are connected in
series as shown below.
Electrons are produced by zinc atoms photo
electrically, the electrons are attracted by the anode
and produce current in the circuit hence the ammeter
deflects.
If gas is introduced, current increases slowly because
gas particles collide with electrons and hence this
reduces the number of electrons reaching the anode.
CONDITIONS FOR PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT TO TAKE
PLACE
- Depends on the nature of the metal.
Light incident on the metal surface must have a
certain minimum frequency known as threshold
frequency.
3BLUE:
THERMIONIC DIODE (diode valve)
A diode is an evacuated glass containing
anode and cathode and restricts current in
one direction and does not permit the
reverse direction.
A cathode can be directly heated by passing
current through it or can be indirectly heated
by passing filament wire close to it.

ACTION.
When the cathode gets heated, it emits
electrons to form a space charge around it
which is then attracted by the anode causing
flow of electrons.
The electrons at the anode are detected by
the milliammeter connected to the anode.
 By varying the anode potential for different
heater currents a graph of anode current Ia
and Va is obtained as below.

From the graph, it is observed that –

I) The higher the heater current, the
higher number of attractions to the
anode.
II) A certain value of anode potential, all
electrons available at the cathode are
being attracted to the anode ,this is
known as saturated point and the
corresponding current is known as
saturation current.
 III) Saturation current is the maximum
current flowing in a diode at a particular
temperature.
The most important property of diode is
that it conducts in one direction with
low resistance and opposite direction; it
has a very high resistance. Therefore it
acts as a rectifier.
A rectifier allows current to flow in one direction.
Rectification is the process of converting a.c to
d.c.

in (a) it is a forward bias so the bulb lights

In (b) it is a reverse bias the bulb does not light.
PROCESS OF RECTIFICATION:
-With no diode, the voltage output across the
load resistor,
alternating current input voltage = p.d across the
resistor

-With one diode, the out voltage is half

way rectified on screen.

The source of a.c is connected in series with

the diode; the output from the circuit will
flow in one direction in series of pulses as
shown above. This is called half-wave
rectification. The variation in the input and
 output voltages with time may be seen by
connecting the input and output terminals, in
turn, to a C.R.O as shown above.
-With four diode output voltage a full wave is
rectified.
Both half cycles of a.c are rectified. The
current follows the direction as indicated in
the figure below. The diodes are all pointing
round the sides of square towards B and
away from D. if the current direction is
traced through the diodes, as A and C
become alternately positive and negative
from the a.c input, then the output current
will always flow out of B, through the load
and back to D. Therefore in both half cycles,
current flows in the same direction.

+a -
b
 EXPLANATION
During half cycle, when a is positive
and b is negative p and r will conduct.
During the next half cycle if a is
negative and b is positive o and q conduct.
In both half cycles current flows
through R in one direction of a to b.