Piyush Kumar 231302160
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
SGT UNIVERSITY
Gurugram, Haryana
REPORT FILE
Microprocessor and computer architecture
[130204125]
(2024 – 2025)
FOR
4th SEMESTER
Submitted to: Submitted by:
Mr. Naresh Kumar Piyush Kumar
Assistant Professor 231302160
B. Tech CSE Cyber Security
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Piyush Kumar 231302160
INSTRUCTION SET IN MICROPROCESSOR AND
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
1. Introduction
The instruction set of a microprocessor is a collection of machine-language commands
that the processor can execute. It serves as an interface between software and hardware,
defining how a processor interacts with memory and peripherals. The efficiency of a
microprocessor largely depends on the design of its instruction set.
2. Classification of Instruction Sets
Instruction sets can be broadly classified into two categories:
a) Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) is an architecture designed to reduce the
number of instructions per program by incorporating complex instructions that perform
multiple low-level operations within a single command. These architectures aim to
minimize the software burden by handling complex tasks in hardware.
Characteristics of CISC:
o Requires more transistors for instruction decoding and execution.
o Typically consumes more power due to complex instruction execution.
o Examples: Intel x86, Motorola 68000.
b) Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing) is an architecture that simplifies the
instruction set, aiming for faster execution by using a small set of simple and uniform
instructions. RISC processors emphasize high-speed execution by performing a single
operation per instruction.
Characteristics of RISC:
o Small and simple instruction set with fixed-length instructions.
o Each instruction executes in a single clock cycle (or close to it).
o Examples: ARM, MIPS, PowerPC.
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Piyush Kumar 231302160
3. Difference Between CISC and RISC.
Feature CISC (Complex Instruction Set RISC (Reduced Instruction Set
Computing) Computing)
Instruction Complex, multi-step instructions Simple, single-step instructions
Complexity
Instruction Set Large, with hundreds of instructions Small, with a limited set of
Size instructions
Execution Time Instructions take multiple cycles to Most instructions execute in a single
execute cycle
Decoding Difficult due to variable-length Easier due to fixed-length instructions
Complexity instructions
Memory Usage Requires less memory as single Requires more memory as multiple
instructions perform more tasks simple instructions are needed
Pipeline Less efficient due to varying Highly efficient due to uniform
Efficiency instruction lengths instruction size
Hardware More complex hardware for Simpler hardware, allowing for higher
Complexity instruction decoding clock speeds
Power Generally, consumes more power More power-efficient
Consumption
Application Preferred in desktop computers and Commonly used in mobile, embedded,
servers and real-time systems
4. Types of Instructions.
Type of Instruction Description Examples (Intel 8086)
Data Transfer Move data between registers, memory, and I/O MOV, PUSH, POP, IN,
Instructions devices. OUT
Perform mathematical operations like addition, ADD, SUB, MUL,
Arithmetic Instructions
subtraction, multiplication, and division. DIV, INC, DEC
Execute bitwise operations such as AND, OR, AND, OR, XOR, NOT,
Logical Instructions
XOR, and NOT. TEST
Control Transfer Alter the sequence of execution through JMP, CALL, RET, JC,
Instructions branching, jumping, or calling subroutines. JNC, JZ, JNZ
Manage data transfer between the processor and
Input/Output Instructions IN, OUT
external devices.
Stack & Machine Control PUSH, POP, HLT,
Handle stack operations and processor control.
Instructions NOP, CLI, STI
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Piyush Kumar 231302160
5. Addressing Modes
Addressing modes define how the operand of an instruction is selected. Common addressing
modes include:
1. Immediate Addressing - Operand is specified directly in the instruction.
2. Direct Addressing - Address of the operand is provided.
3. Indirect Addressing - Address of the operand is stored in a register.
4. Register Addressing - Operand is in a register.
5. Indexed Addressing - Effective address is calculated using an index register.
6. Example: Instruction Set of Intel 8086
The Intel 8086 microprocessor has a rich instruction set categorized into five types:
o Data Transfer Group: MOV, PUSH, POP, IN, OUT
o Arithmetic Group: ADD, SUB, INC, DEC, MUL, DIV
o Logical Group: AND, OR, XOR, NOT, TEST
o Branching Group: JMP, CALL, RET, JC, JNC, JZ, JNZ
o Control Group: HLT, NOP, CLI, STI
7. Conclusion
The instruction set is a critical component of microprocessor design, directly impacting
system performance, power consumption, and complexity. The choice between RISC and
CISC architectures depends on the application requirements, with RISC being preferred for
embedded systems and CISC for general-purpose computing.
