[CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]

1 [Introduction to Research]

Module 01 Introduction to Research

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Describe research in his/her own words.
2. Summarize the purpose, characteristics, and importance of research.
3. Differentiate the kinds of research.
4. Plan in conducting a research by using the steps in the research process.

What is a research?
Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue (Creswell, 2012).
According to Zulueta (2010), “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of
thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a
more adequate solution to a problem that would be possible. It starts with a problem;
collection of data; analysis of facts, which are critical and reaching decisions based on
actual observations.”
According to Pandey (2015), “Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for
bringing to light new knowledge. It is also responsible for correcting the present mistakes,
removing existing misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing fund of
knowledge. Research is also considered as the application of scientific method in solving
the problems. It is a systematic, formal and intensive process of carrying on the scientific
method of analysis.”
Definitions of Research
The following are the important definitions of research:
“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is
an intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in
purpose and form and always researching to truth.”
J. Francis Rummel
“Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their meanings
or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given
piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in the
field studied.”
P.M. Cook
“Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to
be derived partly or wholly from facts.”
W.S. Monroes

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“Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic intensive process of

carrying on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure
of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a
report of results or conclusion.”
John W. Best
“Research comprises defining and redefining problems ,formulating hypothesis or
suggested solutions, collecting ,organizing and evaluating data, making deductions
and reaching conclusions and at last careful testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.”
Clifford Woody
“Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.”
Redman & Mori
“Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by means of
logical and systematized techniques aims to discover new facts or verify and test old
facts , analyse their sequences , inter-relationships and casual explanation which
were derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference , develop new
scientific tools , concepts and theories which would facilitate reliable and valid study
of human behavior.”
P.V. Younge
(Source: Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey; 2015; Research Methodology Tools
and Techniques; Romania; Bridge Center; Page 8 – 9)
Purposes of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application
of scientific procedure. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has
its own specific purpose, some general objectives of research are:
(i) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into
it. (Studies with this object in view are termed as exploratory or
formative research studies).
(ii) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group.(Studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies).
(iii) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else. (Studies with this object in
view are known as diagnostic research studies).
(iv) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables. (Such
studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

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(Source: Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey; 2015; Research Methodology Tools
and Techniques; Romania; Bridge Center; Page 9 – 10)
Aside from what was mentioned earlier, other purposes or objectives of research
according to Johnson and Christensen (2015) are as follows:
(i) Exploration or attempting to learn about and generate ideas about
phenomena. Exploration is especially important in the early phases
of research because researchers must generate ideas about
phenomena before additional research can progress.
(ii) Description or attempting to describe the characteristics of a
phenomenon. Description is one of the most basic activities in
research. It might simply involve observing a phenomenon and
recording what one sees.
(iii) Explanation or attempting to show how and why a phenomenon
operates as it does. According to many writers, this is the key
purpose of science.
(iv) Prediction, or attempting to predict or forecast a phenomenon.
(v) The fifth objective is called control or influence, or attempting to
apply research to make certain outcomes occur.
Characteristics of Research
According to Kothari (2004)
(i) Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured
with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance
with the well defined set of rules. Systematic characteristic of the
research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does
reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
(ii) Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and
deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the
process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is
the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which
follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes
research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
(iii) Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related
basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and deals with
concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research
results.
(iv) 4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research
results to be verified by replicating the study and thereby building a
sound basis for decisions.
According to Pandey (2015)

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(i) Research is directed toward the solution of a problem.

(ii) Research requires expertise.
(iii) Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles,
or theories that will be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
(iv) Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidences.
(v) Research demands accurate observation and description.
(vi) Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand
sources or using existing data for a new purpose.
(vii) Research is characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply
rigorous analysis.
(viii) Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
(ix) Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible
test to validate the procedures employed the data collected and the
conclusions reached.
(x) Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
(xi) Research is carefully recorded and collected. (xii) Research
sometimes requires courage. According to Zulueta (2010)
(i) Research is empirical. It is the concept that all knowledge is derived
from sense of experience.
(ii) Research is systematic. Uses systematic or follows a step-by-step
procedure in examining a topic or problem.
(iii) Research should be valid. Research to be valid should be based on fact
or evidence that is capable of being justified.
(iv) Research should be reliable. It refers to the consistency of the
research and the extent to which investigations can be replicated.
Importance of Research
According to Creswell (2012)
(i) Research adds to our knowledge. Adding to knowledge means that
you undertake research to contribute to existing information about
issues
(ii) Research improves practice. Research is also important because it
suggests improvements for practice.
(iii) Research informs policy debates. Research also provides information
to policy makers when they research and debate educational topics.
According to Kothari (2004)
(i) Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes
the development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
(ii) Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our
economic system.

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(iii) Research has its special significance in solving various operational

and planning problems of business and industry.
(iv) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a
source of livelihood;
(v) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new
ideas and insights;
(vi) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of
new styles and creative work;
(vii) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations
of new theories.

General Kinds of Research

According to Johnson and Christensen (2014) there are five general kinds of research:
(i) Basic Research. Basic research is aimed at generating fundamental
knowledge and theoretical understanding about basic human and other
natural processes.
(ii) Applied research. Applied Research focuses on answering real-world,
practical questions to provide relatively immediate solutions.
(iii) Evaluation Research. When interventions and social or educational programs
aimed at improving various conditions are implemented, evaluation research
is often carried out to determine how well the programs work in real-world
settings and to show how they might be improved. Evaluation research, or,
more simply, evaluation, specifically involves determining the worth, merit,
or quality of an evaluation object.
(iv) Action Research. Action research is based on the idea that having a
“researcher attitude” is helpful in dealing with your complex and changing
environments. This attitude involves continuously identifying new problems
that you want to work on and trying new strategies and actions to see what
improves your situation.
(v) Orientational Research. Orientational research focuses on collecting
information to help a researcher advance a specific ideological or political
position or orientation that he or she believes will improve some part of our
society.

The Research Process

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research. According to Creswell (2012, 2018) these steps are as follows.
(i) Identifying a research problem. Identifying a research problem consists of
specifying an issue to study, developing a justification for studying it, and
suggesting the importance of the study for select audiences that will read the
report.
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(ii) Reviewing the literature. Reviewing the literature means locating summaries,
books, journals, and indexed publications on a topic; selectively choosing
which literature to include in your review; and then summarizing the
literature in a written report.
(iii) Specifying a purpose for research. The purpose for research consists of
identifying the major intent or objective for a study and narrowing it into
specific research questions or hypotheses. The purpose statement contains
the major focus of the study, the participants in the study, and the location or
site of the inquiry.
(iv) Collecting data. Collecting data means identifying and selecting individuals
for a study, obtaining their permission to study them, and gathering
information by asking people questions or observing their behaviors.
(v) Analyzing and interpreting the data. Analyzing and interpreting the data
involves drawing conclusions about it; representing it in tables, figures, and
pictures to summarize it; and explaining the conclusions in words to provide
answers to your research questions.
(vi) Reporting and evaluating research. Reporting research involves deciding on
audiences, structuring the report in a format acceptable to these audiences,
and then writing the report in a manner that is sensitive to all readers.
Evaluating research involves assessing the quality of a study.

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References and Supplementary Materials

Books
1. C.R. Kothari (2004). Research Methodology Methods and Techniques. New Delhi. New
Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
2. Francisco M. Zulueta, Jose R. Perez (2010). Methods of Research Thesis Writing and
Applied Statistics. National Bookstore
3. John W. Creswell, j David Creswell (2018). Research Design Qualitative Quantitative,
and Mixed Method Approaches (5th Edition). California. SAGE Publication Inc
4. John W. Creswell (2012). Educational Research (4th Edition). Boston. Pearson
Education Inc.
5. Larry B. Christensen, R. Burke Johnson, Lisa A. Turner (2015). Research Methods
Design and Analysis. England. Pearson Education Limited
6. Larry B. Christensen, R. Burke Johnson (2014). Educational Research (5th Edition).
USA. SAGE Publication Inc.
7. Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey (2015). Research Methodology Tools and
Techniques. Romania. Bridge Center

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[Presentation, Data Analysis, and Interpretation of Data]

Module 08 Data Presentation

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the “Result Section” of a research paper.
2. Identify the components of the Result Section.

The Result Section of a Research Paper

The “Result Chapter” contains a clear and comprehensive presentation of the results of
your data analysis. You begin the Results Chapter with an introduction, containing one or
two paragraphs. In it, you provide an overview of the chapter, an advance organizer. The
advance organizer lays out the structure of the chapter; it prepares the reader for what is
to follow.
The purpose of the Results section is to summarize the data that were collected and their
statistical treatment. The Results section should tell the reader how the data were analyzed
and the results of this analysis.
There are two main purposes of the results section: (a) to show the reader that you
competently analyzed the data, and (b) to tell the reader what you found.

Data Presentation
Data presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and
meaningful categories and classifications that is appropriate for study and
interpretation. There are three ways of presenting data: Textual, Tabular, and
Graphical.
Textual presentation of data is a form of presentation that combines words or text
and numerical facts in a statistical report.
Tables is a way of presenting data using rows and columns and it is good for clearly
presenting data on any number of variables and can be used for descriptive or
inferential statistics.
Graphs are pictorial representations of data.
Histograms: good for presenting distributions for a single variable.
Scatterplots: illustrate the relationship between two continuous variables to
help you see: whether the relationship is linear, the direction of the
relationship (upward left to right indicates a positive relationship and
downward left to right indicates a negative relationship), the strength of the
relationship, outlying points, and if you have an intervening (moderating)
variable
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Bar and line graphs: good for illustrating one or more categorical variables
that are the independent variables and one continuous variable that is the
dependent variable. Typically the independent variable(s) is on the x-axis
(horizontal) and the dependent variable is on the y-axis (vertical).
Data Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Data analysis may be defined as an explanation of data or facts in terms of quantity, quality,
attributes, traits, patterns, rends, relationships among others so as to answer research
questions which involves statistical techniques and procedures.

Quantitative Data Analysis

There are several interrelated steps used in the process of analyzing
quantitative data. The first step is to prepare the data for analysis. This
involves determining how to assign numeric scores to the data, assessing the
types of scores to use, selecting a statistical program, and inputting the data
into a program, and then cleaning up the database for analysis. The next step
is to report the results that are found using tables, figures, and a discussion of
the key results. Then begins the data analysis. Typically you conduct a
descriptive analysis of the data reporting measures of central tendency and
variation. Then you conduct more sophisticated inferential analysis to test
hypotheses and you examine confidence intervals and effect sizes. Finally,
you interpret the results from the data analysis.
Preparing the Data for Analysis
(i) Score the Data. Scoring data means that the researcher assigns a
numeric score (or value) to each response category for each question
on the instruments used to collect data.
(ii) Select a Statistical Program. After scoring the data, researchers select
a computer program to analyze their data. Academic researchers
generally use statistical programs available as software programs for
desktops or laptops.
(iii) Input Data. After choosing a statistical program, your next step is to
enter the data from your instruments or checklists into the computer
program. Inputting the data occurs when the researcher transfers the
data from the responses on instruments to a computer file for
analysis.
(iv) Clean and Account for Missing Data. After entering data into the
computer grid, you need to determine if there are errors in the data or
missing data. Errors occur when participants in your study provide
scores outside the range for variables or you input wrong numbers
into the data grid. Missing data may result when instrument data is
lost, individuals skip questions, participants are absent when you

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collect observational data, or individuals refuse to complete a

sensitive question.
Statistical Calculations in Analyzing the Data
Descriptive Analysis
(i) Measures of central tendency. Measures of central tendency are
summary numbers that represent a single value in a distribution of
scores. They are expressed as an average score (the mean), the middle
of a set of scores (the median), or the most frequently occurring score
(the mode). In quantitative studies, researchers typically report all
three measures.
(ii) Measures of Variability. Variability indicates the spread of the scores
in a distribution. Range, variance, and standard deviation all indicate
the amount of variability in a distribution of scores. This information
helps us see how dispersed the responses are to items on an
instrument.
(iii) Measures of Relative Position. Measures of relative position are
statistics that describe one score relative to a group of scores. These
measures are standard scores (Z or T scores), quartiles, and percentile
ranks.
Inferential Analysis
(i) Significance of Difference between Means.It is used to determine
whether a true difference exists between population means of two
samples.
(ii) Analysis of Variance. The Z or t tests are used to determine whether
there was any significant difference between the means of two
random samples. The F test enables the researcher to determine
whether the sample means differ from one another to a greater extent
then the test scores differ from their own sample means using the F
ratio.
(iii) Analysis of Co-Variance. It is an extension of analysis of variance to
test the significance of difference between means of final experimental
data by taking into account the Correlation between the dependent
variable and one or more Co-variates or control variables and by
adjusting initial mean differences in the group.
(iv) Correlation Methods. Either of two methods of correlation can be used
for the purpose of calculating the significance of the difference
between Co-efficient of Correlation.
(v) Chi Square Test. It is used to estimate the like hood that some factor
other than chance accounts to the observed relationship. In this test

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the expected frequency and observed frequency are used for

evaluating Chi Square.
(vi) Regression Analysis. For calculating the probability of occurrence of
any phenomenon or for predicting the phenomenon or relationship
between different variables regression analysis is cone.
Interpreting the results respond to each research question or hypothesis. A
typical approach is to respond to each question or hypothesis one by one in
the order in which they were introduced in the statement of the problem.
The researcher presents detailed information and develop explanations
about the specific results of the descriptive and inferential statistical
analyses. Also, the researcher stays close to the statistical findings and draws
implications and meaning form them.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Analyzing qualitative data requires understanding how to make sense of text
and images so that you can form answers to your research questions.

Qualitative Data analysis Process

Qualitative researchers first collect data and then prepare it for data analysis.
This analysis initially consists of developing a general sense of the data, and
then coding description and themes about the central phenomenon.
These steps are not always taken in sequence, but they represent preparing
and organizing the data for analysis; engaging in an initial exploration of the
data through the process of coding it; using the codes to develop a more
general picture of the data - descriptions and themes; representing the
findings through narratives and visuals; making an interpretation of the
meaning of the results by reflecting personally on the impact of the findings
and on the literature that might inform the findings; and finally, conducting
strategies to validate the accuracy of the findings.

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[Presentation, Data Analysis, and Interpretation of Data]

Source: https://slideplayer.com/slide/6413295/
Preparing Data for Analysis
Initial preparation of the data for analysis requires organizing the vast
amount of information, transferring it from spoken or written words to a
typed file and making decisions about whether to analyze the data by hand or
by computer.
At an early stage in qualitative analysis, you organize data into fi le folders or
computer files. Organization of data is critical in qualitative research because
of the large amount of information gathered during a study.
During qualitative data collection, you will collect text or words through
interviewing participants or by writing field notes during observations. This
necessitates a need to convert these words to a computer document for
analysis. Transcription is the process of converting audiotape recordings or
field notes into text data.
With the popularity of computers, researchers have a choice about whether
to hand analyze data or to use a computer. The hand analysis of qualitative
data means that researchers read the data, mark it by hand, and divide it into
parts. Traditionally, analyzing text data involves using color coding to mark
parts of the text or cutting and pasting text sentences onto cards. Some
qualitative researchers like to hand analyze all of their data. A computer
analysis of qualitative data means that researchers use a qualitative
computer program to facilitate the process of storing, analyzing, sorting, and
representing or visualizing the data. A qualitative data analysis computer
program is a program that stores data, organizes your data, enables you to
assign labels or codes to your data, and facilitates searching through your
data and locating specific text or words.
Qualitative Data Analysis

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After you have organized and transcribed your data and decided whether to
hand or computer analyze it, it is time to begin data analysis. This consists of
exploring the data and developing codes as first steps in analysis.
The first step in data analysis is to explore the data. A preliminary
exploratory analysis in qualitative research consists of exploring the data to
obtain a general sense of the data, memoing ideas, thinking about the
organization of the data, and considering whether you need more data.
The further process of analyzing text (or images) in qualitative research
begins when you code the data. Coding is the process of segmenting and
labeling text to form descriptions and broad themes in the data. Using a
visual model will help you learn this procedure. The object of the coding
process is to make sense out of text data, divide it into text or image
segments, label the segments with codes, examine codes for overlap and
redundancy, and collapse these codes into broad themes.
Describing and developing themes from the data consists of answering the
major research questions and forming an in-depth understanding of the
central phenomenon through description and thematic development. Not all
qualitative projects include both description and themes, but all studies
include at least themes. Because description is a detailed rendering of people,
places, or events in a setting in qualitative research, it is easiest to start the
analysis after the initial reading and coding of the data. In addition to
description, the use of themes is another way to analyze qualitative data.
Because themes are similar codes aggregated together to form a major idea
in the database, they form a core element in qualitative data analysis. Like
codes, themes have labels that typically consist of no more than two to four
words.
Interpretation in qualitative research means that the researcher steps back
and forms some larger meaning about the phenomenon based on personal
views, comparisons with past studies, or both. Qualitative research is
interpretive research, and you will need to make sense of the findings.
Interpretation of finding may include: Personal reflections of the researcher
about the meaning of the data and personal views compared or contrasted
with the literature.

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References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. AMAES Student Research Manual
2. Francisco M. Zulueta, Jose R. Perez (2010). Methods of Research Thesis Writing and
Applied Statistics. Philippines. National Bookstore
3. Fred C. Lunenburg, Beverly J. Irby; 2008; Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation;
California; Corwin Press
4. John W. Creswell (2012). Educational Research (4th Edition). Boston. Pearson
Education Inc.
5. Larry B. Christensen et al; 2015; Research Methods Design and Analysis; England;
Pearson
6. Patricia Leavy (2017). Research Design. New York. The Guilford Press
7. Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey; 2015; Research Methodology Tools and
Techniques; Romania; Bridge Center
8. R. Burke Johnson, Larry Christensen (2014). Educational Research (5th Edition). USA.
SAGE Publication Inc.

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[Writing the Introduction]

Module 04 Writing the Introduction

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Recite the tips in writing background of the study and statement of the
problem.
2. Describe background of the study and statement of the problem.
3. Create an outline for the introduction and some of its components.

Introduction and Background of the Study

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of
inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted
by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic,
stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a
hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to
examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal,
and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the
paper(https://libguides.usc.edu/).
The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important
questions for the reader:
(i) What is this?
(ii) Why should I read it?
(iii) What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?
The first chapter in a research paper is the introduction and it consist of the following:
(i) Rationale/Background of the Study
(ii) Statement of the Problem
(iii) Purpose/Objective of the Study
(iv) Significance of the Study
(v) Scope and Limitation
(vi) Hypotheses (if the study is quantitative)
(vii) Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Framework
(viii) Review of Related Literature
Suggested Guidelines in Writing the Background of the Study
The background of the study is an introductory paragraph that gives an overview of
what the research is all about and creates an interest on the reader to know more
about the research study.

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To make this section useful; first, identify the context within which the study will be
conducted and give any background information needed to clarify the context,
second, tell the reader why the study is important and timely, third, build a case for
the statement of the problem to follow, and finally, highlight the key theoretical
constructs that the researcher used (Lunenburg, 2008).
The background of the study maybe composed of three to four paragraphs which
will enable the readers to see at a glance the entire contents of the research work
(Zulueta, 2010).
(i) The first paragraph is intended to provide the readers a mental
readiness, thus giving them the information as to what the problem of
the research is all about. It introduce the study and its justification.
(ii) The second paragraph caries the greater part of this introduction and
the problem that is used as frame of reference. It tells the readers the
scope, circumstances and the coverage of the study.
(iii) The third paragraph revolves around the various conditions that
accompany and determine the purpose of the study.
(iv) The last paragraph is a sort of closing portion that arouses the
curiosity and interest of the readers to know the results of the study.

Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem is one of the most important part of a research study. It
refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the context of either a
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same (C.R. Kothari,
2004). It is the definition of what is to be investigated in the study and it will suggest a
specific answer or conclusion.
The unifying task of the statement of the problem means that the steps taken to solve the
problem are determined by the intent specified in the statement of the problem
(Lunenburg, 2008). The presentation and analysis of data, and the findings, conclusions,
and implications found in subsequent chapters of the research study are all focused on the
statement of the problem.
Suggested Tips in Writing the Statement of the Problem
(i) The problem should be stated both in general and in specific terms. The
general statement of the problem is a reiteration of the title of the study.
(ii) The problem is stated in an interrogatory form. It must ask a question and
sub-problems must follow the main problem which are the key issues for
investigations in the research.
(iii) The problem should be stated in the infinitive to such as examine, analyze,
determine, assess, evaluate, find out, among others.

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(iv) Specific questions should be stated using the following guide question words:
How, Will, What, Is there.
Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study follows the statement of the problem. The objective of any
study is to help solve the stated problem. This section of the research study is designed to
give the readers a brief overview of how you plan to solve the problem defined previously.
This is a section that committee members may go back to several times to make certain
they understand exactly what your purpose is in conducting the study. Developing this
section often helps you become much clearer about the purpose of your study as well
(Lunenburg, 2008). The objective of the study seek to answer the questions in the statement
of the problem, thus, it contains general and specific objectives.
The research objectives should not only flow from the identified research problem but also
have the following characteristics:
(i) Specific. Specific answers the questions "what is to be done?" "how will you
know it is done?" and describes the results (end product) of the work to be
done.
(ii) Measurable. Measurable answers the question "how will you know it meets
expectations?" and defines the objective using assessable terms (quantity,
quality, frequency, costs, deadlines, etc.). It refers to the extent to which
something can be evaluated against some standard.
(iii) Achievable. Achievable answers the questions "can the person do it?" "Can
the measurable objective be achieved by the person?" "Does he/she have the
experience, knowledge or capability of fulfilling the expectation?" It also
answers the question "Can it be done giving the time frame, opportunity and
resources?"
(iv) Relevant. Relevant answers the questions, "should it be done?", "why?" and
"what will be the impact?", "Is the objective appropriate for your role?"
(v) Time – relate. Time-oriented answers the question, "when will it be done?",
“Are there clear time frames attached to the objective?” It refers to the fact
that an objective has end points and check points built into it.

Significance of the study

The significance of the study is the argument of the researcher that the study makes a
significant contribution to the audience. This section of the research paper will show how
beneficial the study is to the community, school, students, and future researchers.
Suggested Strategies in Establishing the Significance of the Study
According to Mitchell, to establish that the researcher concepts are important, the
researcher will probably want to use one of the following three strategies:

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(i) Demonstrate the Concept’s Prevalence. One strategy for showing that
your study is important is to show that your general topic area is a
common part of real life.
(ii) Demonstrate the Concept’s Relevance to Real Life. Rather than
emphasizing the concept’s prevalence, you might emphasize its
relevance.
(iii) Demonstrate Historical Precedence. Finally, you might show that
there is a historical precedence for your study.

Scope and Limitation

Scope and limitations comprise one important section of a research paper. The scope
defines the coverage or boundaries of the study in terms of the area or locality and subjects
or population covered, the duration or period of the study and the research issues or
concerns to which the investigation is focused (Ardales, 1992).
Limitations are statements that which informs the reader about the research study to
certain constraint that are not under the control of the researcher. The factors may have an
effect on the interpretation of the results (Lunenburg, 2008).
When discussing the limitations of your research, be sure to:
(i) Describe each limitation in detailed but concise terms;
(ii) Explain why each limitation exists;
(iii) Provide the reasons why each limitation could not be overcome using the
method(s) chosen to acquire or gather the data [cite to other studies that had
similar problems when possible];
(iv) Assess the impact of each limitation in relation to the overall findings and
conclusions of your study; and,
(v) If appropriate, describe how these limitations could point to the need for
further research.

Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Framework

Theoretical and conceptual frameworks guide the paths of a research and offer the
foundation for establishing its credibility. Though these terms seem similar, they are
different from each other in concept and in their roles in the research inquiry. However,
many students find it difficult and confusing to distinguish between these two closely
related frameworks while defining their roles in their research. Yet, the inclusion of a
theoretical and/or conceptual framework is a mandatory requirement in a thesis or
dissertation that shows the student’s map of the research s/he seeks to undertake. A good
comprehension of both frameworks would inure to a good investigation.
A theoretical framework is the ‘blueprint’ or guide for a research (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
It is a framework based on an existing theory in a field of inquiry that is related and/or
reflects the hypothesis of a study. It is a blueprint that is often ‘borrowed’ by the researcher
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to build his/her own house or research inquiry. It serves as the foundation upon which a
research is constructed. Sinclair (2007) as well as Fulton and Krainovich-Miller (2010)
compare the role of the theoretical framework to that of a map or travel plan. Thus, when
travelling to a particular location, the map guides your path. Likewise, the theoretical
framework guides the researcher so that s/he would not deviate from the confines of the
accepted theories to make his/her final contribution scholarly and academic. Thus,
Brondizio, Leemans, and Solecki (2014) concur that the theoretical framework is the
specific theory or theories about aspects of human endeavor that can be useful to the study
of events. The theoretical framework consists of theoretical principles, constructs,
concepts, and tenants of a theory (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).

Importance of Theoretical Framework

(i) It provides the structure in showing how a researcher defines his/her study
philosophically, epistemologically, methodology and analytically (Grant &
Osanloo, 2014).
(ii) Ravitch and Carl (2016) concur that the theoretical framework assist
researchers in situating and contextualizing formal theories into their studies
as a guide.
(iii) It serves as the focus for the research and it is linked to the research problem
under study. Therefore, it guides a researcher’s choice of research design and
data analysis plan.
(iv) The theoretical framework also guides the kind of data to be accrued for a
particular study (Lester, 2005). The theoretical framework, thus, aids the
researcher in finding an appropriate research approach, analytical tools and
procedures for his/her research inquiry.
(v) It makes research findings more meaningful and generalizable (Akintoye,
2015).
A conceptual framework on the other hand is a structure which the researcher believes
can best explain the natural progression of the phenomenon to be studied (Camp, 2001).
It is linked with the concepts, empirical research and important theories used in
promoting and systemizing the knowledge espoused by the researcher (Peshkin, 1993). It
is the researcher’s explanation of how the research problem would be explored. The
conceptual framework presents an integrated way of looking at a problem under study
(Liehr & Smith, 1999). In a statistical perspective, the conceptual framework describes the
relationship between the main concepts of a study. It is arranged in a logical structure to
aid provide a picture or visual display of how ideas in a study relate to one another (Grant
& Osanloo, 2014). Interestingly, it shows the series of action the researcher intends
carrying out in a research study (Dixon, Gulliver & Gibbon, 2001). The framework makes
it easier for the researcher to easily specify and define the concepts within the problem of
the study (Luse, Mennecke & Townsend, 2012). Miles and Huberman (1994, p.18) opine
that conceptual frameworks can be ‘graphical or in a narrative form showing the key
variables or constructs to be studied and the presumed relationships between them.’

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Importance of Conceptual Framework

(i) It assists the researcher in identifying and constructing his/her worldview on
the phenomenon to be investigated (Grant & Osanloo, 2014).
(ii) It is the simplest way through which a researcher presents his/her asserted
remedies to the problem s/he has defined (Liehr & Smith, 1999; Akintoye,
2015).
(iii) It accentuates the reasons why a research topic is worth studying, the
assumptions of a researcher, the scholars s/he agrees with and disagrees
with and how s/he conceptually grounds his/her approach (Evans, 2007).
Difference between Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Framework

Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework

It provides a general or broader set It refers to specific or narrower

of ideas within which a study ideas a researcher utilizes in his/her
belongs. study.

It is based on existing It is based on the concepts which

theory/theories in the literature are the main variables in a study.
which has been tested and validated
by other scholars.

It is in the form of a model that It is a researcher's own constructed

pivots a study, with its exponents model that s/he uses to explain the
and the results of their studies. relationship that exists between the
main variables in his/her study.
It can also be an adaptation of a
model in an existing theory which a
researcher adapts to suit his/her
research purpose.

It is well developed, designed and Its design is not accepted, but it's a
accepted. proposal of the researcher's answer
to the research problem s/he has
defined.

It offers a focal point for It is the framework that shows

approaching the unknown research logically how the research inquiry is
in a specific field of inquiry. to be undertaken.

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It consists of theories that seem It consists of concepts

interrelated with their propositions interconnected to explain the
deduced. relationships between them and
how the researcher asserts to
answer the research problem
defined

It is used to test theories, to predict It is aimed at encouraging

and control the situations within the thedevelopment of a theory that
context of a research inquiry. would be useful to practitioners in
the field.

(Contents pulled from

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322204158_THEORETICAL_AND_CONCEPTUAL_FRA
MEWORK_MANDATORY_INGREDIENTS_OF_A_QUALITY_RESEARCH)

Definition of Terms
The key terms selected to be defined should be chosen based on the following scientific
principle: Distinctions are made between a constitutive definition and an operational
definition. A constitutive definition involves using other words to define a term. An
operational definition ascribes meaning to a term according to specific operations used to
measure it. Your definition of terms can be obtained from a dictionary or a professional
reference source, such as a handbook or encyclopedia in a specific discipline. (Lunenberg,
2008).
Zulueta (2010) suggested the following in writing definition of terms
(i) Define terms which, though common, may have special specific meaning or
are differently used.
(ii) Define terms that are absolutely necessary in the study and do so precisely
by using an authoritative document.
(iii) If it is difficult to find an authoritative definition, find one or two such
definitions; cite them and try to create your own definition as used in the
study.
(iv) Complicated and lengthy definitions like those required in Science or
Mathematics,, should be placed in the Appendix.

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References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Francisco M. Zulueta, Jose R. Perez; 2010; Methods of Research Thesis Writing and
Applied Statistics; National Bookstore
2. Fred C. Lunenburg, Beverly J. Irby; 2008; Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation;
California; Corwin Press
3. John W. Creswell, J. David Creswell; 2018; Research Design Qualitative Quantitative,
and Mixed Method Approaches; California; SAGE Publication Inc.
4. Mark L. Mitchell, Nanina M. Jolley; 2010; Research Design Explained; California;
Cengage Learning
5. Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey; 2015; Research Methodology Tools and
Techniques; Romania; Bridge Center
6. Venancio B. Ardales; 1992; Basic Concepts and Methods in Research; Great Books
Trading
Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. The Introduction; https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction; 3-Oct-2019
2. The Research Problem/Question;
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/introduction/researchproblem; 3-Oct-2019
3. Understanding SMART objectives; https://www.fundsforngos.org/proposal-writing-
2/understanding-smart-objectives-project-proposals/; 3-Oct-2019
4. SMART Objectives; https://hr.wayne.edu/leads/phase1/smart-objectives; 3-Oct2019
5. Limitations of the Study; https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/limitations; 4-
Oct2019
6. Theoretical Framework;
https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/theoreticalframework; 4-Oct-2019
7. Conceptual and Theoretical Frameworks Overview;
https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/library/conceptualframework; 5-Oct-2019 8.
Theoretical and Conceptual Framework: A Mandatory Ingredients of a Quality
Research;https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322204158_THEORETICAL_AN
D_CONCEPTUAL_FRAMEWORK_MANDATORY_INGREDIENTS_OF_A_QUALITY_RESEA
RCH; 4-Oct-2019

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Module 07 Writing the Methods Section

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Recite and describe the different approaches in research design.
2. Describe the methods of data collection and data gathering procedures.
3. Create an outline for the method section of the research paper or
proposal.

Method Section of a Research Paper

Kallet as cited in libguides.usc.edu, the methods section describes actions to be taken to
investigate a research problem and the rationale for the application of specific procedures
or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information applied to
understanding the problem, thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s
overall validity and reliability. The methodology section of a research paper answers two
main questions: How was the data collected or generated? And, how was it analyzed? The
writing should be direct and precise and always written in the past tense.
The Importance of the methodology section
You must explain how you obtained and analyzed your results for the following
reasons:
(i) Readers need to know how the data was obtained because the method
you chose affects the results and, by extension, how you interpreted
their significance.
(ii) Methodology is crucial for any branch of scholarship because an
unreliable method produces unreliable results and, as a consequence,
undermines the value of your interpretations of the findings.
(iii) In most cases, there are a variety of different methods you can choose
to investigate a research problem. The methodology section of your
paper should clearly articulate the reasons why you chose a particular
procedure or technique.
(iv) The reader wants to know that the data was collected or generated in
a way that is consistent with accepted practice in the field of study.
For example, if you are using a multiple choice questionnaire, readers
need to know that it offered your respondents a reasonable range of
answers to choose from.
(v) The method must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall aims of the
study. For example, you need to ensure that you have a large enough

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sample size to be able to generalize and make recommendations

based upon the findings.
(vi) The methodology should discuss the problems that were anticipated
and the steps you took to prevent them from occurring. For any
problems that do arise, you must describe the ways in which they
were minimized or why these problems do not impact in any
meaningful way your interpretation of the findings.
(vii) In the social and behavioral sciences, it is important to always provide
sufficient information to allow other researchers to adopt or replicate
your methodology. This information is particularly important when a
new method has been developed or an innovative use of an existing
method is utilized.
(Content pulled from https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/methodology)

The Research Design

Research Design refers to the research strategy necessary to complete the research. He/she
should be able to answer the following questions:
(i) How will you do the research?
(ii) What is your theoretical thrust/ approach?
(iii) What kind of data do you want to get? (iv) How will you get this data?
According to Pandey (2015), a research design is simply the framework or plan for a study
that is used as a guide in collecting and analyzing the data. It is a blueprint that is followed
in completing a study. Research design is the blue print for collection measurement and
analysis of data. Actually it is a map that is usually developed to guide the research.

Approaches in Research Design

(i) Quantitative Research. According to Leavy (2017), quantitative research
values breadth, statistical descriptions, and generalizability. Quantitative
approaches to research center on achieving objectivity, control, and precise
measurement. Methodologically, these approaches rely on deductive designs
aimed at refuting or building evidence in favor of specific theories and
hypotheses. Marianne Fallon as cited by Leavy, refers to quantitative
research as a “top down process”. Quantitative approaches are most
commonly used in explanatory research investigating causal relationships,
associations, and correlations.
(ii) Qualitative Research. According to Leavy (2017), qualitative approaches to
research value depth of meaning and people’s subjective experiences and
their meaning-making processes. These approaches allow us to build a
robust understanding of a topic, unpacking the meanings people ascribe to
their lives—to activities, situations, circumstances, people, and objects.
Methodologically, these approaches rely on inductive designs aimed at
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generating meaning and producing rich, descriptive data. Qualitative

approaches are most commonly used in exploratory or descriptive research
(although they can be used in research with other goals).
(iii) Mixed – method research. According to Leavy (2017), mixed methods
research (MMR) involves collecting and integrating quantitative and
qualitative data in a single project and therefore may result in a more
comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. This
is a problem-centered approach to research in which methods and theories
are used instrumentally, based on their applicability to the present study.
Mixed methods designs value both quantitative and qualitative approaches
to research. Methodologically, MMR approaches rely on (1) combining
deductive and inductive designs to generate both quantitative and qualitative
data, and (2) integrating the datasets in some way. These approaches are
appropriate when your purpose is to describe, explain, or evaluate, and are
particularly useful for studying complex problems or issues.

Additional recommended reading

John W. Creswell, J. David Creswell; 2018; Research Design Qualitative
Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches; California; SAGE
Publication

Population, Sample size and Sampling Technique

This section of the research paper describes the population of the study, and the sampling
procedures done in obtaining the sample size.
The purpose of this section is to describe (a) who participated in the study, including their
characteristics (e.g., age, gender, race/ethnicity), (b) how the participants were selected,
and (c) how many participated in the study (Lunenburg, 2008).
For quantitative research, the Population, Sampling, and Subjects: Describes the population
in which you are interested, the study population, and your sampling procedure (i.e.,
probability or purposeful). Discusses any additional strategies used in experimental
designs such as randomization or matching (Leavy, 2017).
For qualitative research, the Sampling, Participants, and Setting: Describes your desired
participants (demographics and particular experiences), the purposeful sampling strategy
that will be used, and how the process will result in participants able to yield rich data. Also
discuss where the research will occur (Leavy, 2017).
For mixed – method research, the Sampling and Participants: Describes the population in
which you are interested, your study population, and your sampling procedures for both
the quantitative and qualitative samples. (Leavy, 2017).
Additional recommended reading
John W. Creswell, J. David Creswell; 2018; Research Design Qualitative

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Quantitative, and Mixed Method Approaches; California; SAGE Publication

Population
The target population is the group of interest to the researcher, the group to which
you would like the results of the study to be generalizable. Generalizability is the
extent to which the results of one study can be applied to other populations
(Lunenburg, 2008).

Sample
According to Johnson and Christensen (2014), “A sample is a set of elements taken
from a larger population according to certain rules. An element is the basic unit
selected from the population. “Individuals” are the most common element sampled;
however, other types of elements are possible such as “groups” (e.g., schools,
classrooms, clinics) or “objects” (e.g., textbooks, school records, television
commercials). A sample is always smaller than a population, and it is often much
smaller.”
Sampling Technique
According to Johnson and Christensen (2014), “Sampling is the process of drawing
a sample from a population. When we sample, we study the characteristics of a
subset (called the sample) selected from a larger group (called the population) to
understand the characteristics of the larger group. After researchers determine the
characteristics of the sample, they generalize from the sample to the population;
that is, researchers make statements about the population based on their study of
the sample. Sampling technique is the specific method used to draw samples.”

Sampling addresses the questions “Who or what is in your study? Where are you
getting your data or content?” Typically, discussions of sampling center around
who is in your study—the subjects, respondents, participants, or collaborators
(Leavy, 2017).

All sampling procedures fit into two umbrella categories: probability sampling and
purposeful sampling.

Probability Sampling
Probability sampling relies on probability theory and involves the use of any
strategy in which samples are selected in a way that every element in the
population has a known and nonzero chance of being selected.

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Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

This is a sampling strategy in which every element in the study population
has an equal chance of being selected.
Systematic Sampling
This is a sampling strategy in which the first element in the study population
is selected randomly and then every kth element, after the first element, is
selected.
Cluster Sampling
This is a multistage sampling strategy. First, preexisting clusters are
randomly selected from a population. Next, elements in each cluster are
sampled (in some cases, all elements in each cluster are included in the
sample).
Stratified Random Sampling
This is a sampling strategy in which elements in the study population are
divided into two or more groups based on a shared characteristic (these
groups are called strata). Then you conduct simple random, systematic, or
cluster sampling on each strata.
Purposeful Sampling
Purposeful sampling (also called purposive or judgment sampling) is based
on the premise that seeking out the best cases for the study produces the
best data, and research results are a direct result of the cases sampled Patton,
2015 as cited by Leavy.
Snowball Sampling
Also called chain sampling, this is a sampling strategy in which one case
organically leads to another (Babbie, 2013; Patton, 2015) as cited by Leavy.
Exemplar of the Phenomenon of Interest
This is a sampling strategy in which a single significant case is selected
because it can provide a wealth of rich data that speak directly to the
research purpose and questions (Patton, 2015) as cited by Leavy.
Homogeneous Sampling
This is a sampling strategy in which cases are sought out because they share
a common characteristic (Patton, 2015) as cited by Leavy.

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Description of Respondents
The respondents are described as a small group or as a big group. Characteristics may
include sex, age level, socio-economic status, marital status, level of intelligence, education,
type of community (urban or rural, barrio or town), ethnic group, and other characteristics
sought by the researcher to describe his respondents. These characteristics of respondents
could be presented in table form.

Research Instruments
Research instruments are the instruments used for gathering or collecting data including
the tools used to measure the variables. This means, for example, detailing the survey used,
own or modified, or an adopted questionnaire with proper acknowledgement.
Methods of Data Collection
According to Lunenburg (2008), “In the “Data Collection” section of the research paper,
describe precisely the physical things you did to obtain data from your participants.
Indicate what steps were taken before, during, and after data collection.”
The Six Major Methods in Data Collection
Methods of data collection is the technique for physically obtaining the data to be analyzed
in a research study (Johnson and Christensen, 2015).
Test
Tests are commonly used data collection instruments or procedures
designed to measure personality, aptitude, achievement, and performance.
Many tests are standardized and come with information on their reliability,
validity, and norms for comparison.

Questionnaire
The second method of data collection is the questionnaire. A questionnaire is
a self-report data collection instrument that is filled out by research
participants. Questionnaires measure participants’ opinions and perceptions
and provide self-reported demographic information. They are usually
paperand-pencil instruments (i.e., participants fill them out), but are
increasingly being placed on the Web for participants to go to and “fill out.”
Questionnaires can include closed ended items (where respondents must
select from the responses given by the researcher) and open-ended items
(where respondents provide answers in their own words).
Interviews
The third method of data collection is the interview method. An interview is a
situation where the interviewer asks the interviewee a series of questions.
Interviews are conducted in face-to-face situations and over the telephone. It

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is also possible to conduct interviews electronically, such as over the

Internet. These interviews can be asynchronous (interaction occurs over
time) or synchronous (interaction happens in real time).
Focus Groups
The fourth method of data collection involves the use of focus groups. A focus
group is a situation where a focus group moderator keeps a small and
homogeneous group (of 6–12 people) focused on the discussion of a research
topic or issue. Focus group sessions generally last between 1 and 3 hours and
are recorded using audio and/or videotapes. A focus group should not be
viewed as a group interview because the emphasis is on small-group
interaction and in-depth discussion among the participants about the issues
being studied. Focus groups are especially useful for exploring ideas and
obtaining in-depth information about how people think about an issue.
Observation
The fifth method of data collection is the observation method, in which the
researcher looks at what people do. Often, it is important to collect
observational data (in addition to attitudinal data) because what people say
is not always what they do! Researchers can observe participants in natural
and/or structured environments. The former is called naturalistic
observation because it is done in real-world settings. The latter is called
laboratory observation because it is conducted in a lab or other controlled
environment set up by the researcher.
Existing or Secondary Data
The sixth and last major method of data collection is the collection of existing
or secondary data. This means that the researcher collects or obtains “data”
that were originally left behind or used for some purpose other than the new
research study. The most frequently used existing data are documents,
physical data, and archived research data. Personal documents are
documents that were written or recorded for private purposes, such as
letters, diaries, and family pictures. Official documents are documents that
were written or recorded for public or private organizations, such as
newspapers, annual reports, yearbooks, and meeting minutes. Physical data
are any material thing created or left that might provide information about a
phenomenon of interest to a researcher, such as the contents of someone’s
trash, wear on the tiles in museums, wear on library books, and soil and DNA
on clothes. Archived research data are secondary research data that were
collected by other researchers for other purposes. When data are saved and
archived, others researchers can later use the data.

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Data Gathering Procedures

According to Creswell (2012), “There are five steps in the process of data collection.
This process involves more than simply gathering information; it includes
interrelated steps. It involves the steps of determining the participants to study,
obtaining permissions needed from several individuals and organizations,
considering what types of information to collect from several sources, locating and
selecting instruments to use that will net useful data for the study, and finally,
administering the data collection process to collect data.”
Determining the participants to study
This involves determining whether you will study individuals or entire
organizations (e.g., schools) or some combination. If you select either
individuals or organizations, you need to decide what type of people or
organizations you will actually study and how many you will need for your
research. These decisions require that you decide on a unit of analysis, the
group and individuals you will study, the procedure for selecting these
individuals, and assessing the numbers of people needed for your data
analysis.

Obtaining permissions needed from several individuals and organizations

After identifying and selecting participants for your study, you next need to
obtain their permission to be studied. This permission will ensure that they
cooperate in your study and provide data. Besides cooperation, their
permission also acknowledges that they understand the purpose of your
study and that you will treat them ethically.
Collecting specific data
With the identification of participants and a procedure for gaining
permission, you next turn to the specific forms of data that will help you
answer your research questions or address your research hypotheses. This
step involves identifying the variables in your questions and hypotheses,
finding definitions for these variables, and considering types of information
that will help you assess these variables,
Locating and selecting instruments
This answer the questions: What instrument will you use to collect your
data? Do you find one to use or develop one yourself? If you search for one to
use, how will you locate this instrument? Once you find the instrument, what
criteria will you use to determine if it is a good instrument to use?
Additional recommended reading:
John W. Creswell (2012). Educational Research. Boston. Pearson

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[Methodology]

Statistical Treatment of Data

The kind of statistical treatment depends upon the nature of the problem and the data
gathered.
The statistical manipulations organize raw data systematically; its techniques help the
researcher in determining the validity and reliability of his research instruments and give
meaning and interpretation to data; and statistical treatment is used to test the hypotheses,
which are to be accepted and rejected.
Statistical Tests and their Uses:
(i) Chi Square. Chi Square is used to test independence of group membership. It is
applicable find the independence between two (2) nominal variables. Before using
Chi Square, the researcher must ensure that variables are nominal or ordinal, that
the observed frequencies should be greater than 5, that the sample must be
randomly drawn from population and that the data consists of raw frequencies. The
variables themselves must be independence of each other mutually exclusive and
exhaustive.
Researchers might prefer to use chi square because does not require large sample
size and does not require normality of the sample scores. It also has fewer
assumptions and is, in general, much easier to learn and apply. However, it is less
powerful compared to ANOVA and it is difficult to test complex hypothesis with it.
(ii) Factor Analysis. Factor analysis is the statistical computation used in order to
reduce a great number of variables/factors. The goal is to end up with a smaller
number of variables/factors that encompass all the original variables/factors. It can
be used to establish construct validity of instruments. The specific process is called
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). It can also be used to flesh out factors,
especially in exploratory researches. This is called Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA).
Before either CFA or EFA can be done, it must be assumed that the data possesses
normality, linearity, factorability of R, absence of multicolinearity and singularity.
There should be a large enough sample size and an absence of outliers among the
sample.
(iii) Regression. Regression is used to determine the degree of how one variable affects
another. It measures how strong or weak the relationship between two or more
variables. A regression equation can explain the relationship of several IV’s on one
DV. The IVs that have the weakest relationships can be omitted as extraneous
variables. The regression equation can serve as predictive equation on how the DV
changes as IVx changes. As such, it can be used for model building and testing. In
order to perform regression, variables must be at the continuous level. Sample must
have no outliers. Data/variables must have normality, linearity, homoscedasticity,
independence of errors, and absence of multicolinearity.

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[Methodology]

(iv) T-Test. T-test can determine whether there is a significant difference between two
groups. It is used for interval and/or ratio level data. Assumptions are: data has
normality, homogeneity of variance, the DV is continuous while the IV is discrete.
(v) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). To test hypotheses that are more complex than what
the t-test can handle, ANOVA can be used. It is used to test differences between
more than 2 groups. It is also used to test differences in 2 or more IVs. ANOVA can
only be used on interval or ratio level of data. Groups must be equal in size. Data
must have normality and homogeneity of variance.
(vi) Frequency and Percentage Distribution. Used to determine the percentage usually
for data on profile (e.g. level, age, gender, etc.).
(vii) Mean. Used to get average or central value (e.g. level, extent, status, etc.).
(viii) Pearson-Product Moment. Used to find the degree of the association of two sets of
variables, X and Y or to test the significant relationship between the two variables.
(ix) Multiple Correlation. Used to test if the independent variables have influence on the
dependent variables.
(x) Multiple Regression. Used to predict, singly or in combination, from among the
independent variables the dependent variables.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals

1. AMAES Student research manual
2. Fred C. Lunenburg, Beverly J. Irby; 2008; Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation;
California; Corwin Press
3. John W. Creswell (2012). Educational Research (4th Edition). Boston. Pearson
Education Inc.
4. Larry B. Christensen et al; 2015; Research Methods Design and Analysis; England;
Pearson
5. Patricia Leavy (2017). Research Design. New York. The Guilford Press
6. Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey; 2015; Research Methodology Tools and
Techniques; Romania; Bridge Center

Course Module
 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
[Methodology]

Course Module
 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
[Bibliography]

Module 06 Bibliography

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Recite how to make proper citation.
2. Write proper citation using IEEE format.

The Bibliography
The bibliography section of the research paper contains the list of works cited, as well as
works consulted but not cited (example, background reading not necessarily cited) in the
construction of the research. The list of references is numbered and arranged
alphabetically. References must be cited properly, both in the text as well as in the
reference list at the end of the thesis. Anything that uses or refers to the ideas of another
person must be properly acknowledged including direct quotations, paraphrased passages,
author’s previous work and ideas and works done by others.
For format on the writing of references, research papers in IT, Computer Science, and
Engineering must use the IEEE citation and referencing style. Research papers in Business,
Accountancy, Education, Arts and Sciences must use the APA citation and referencing style.

IEEE Referencing
All sources of information, such as quotes or borrowed ideas, must be acknowledged
in your writing.
In the IEEE referencing style, a number [X] is inserted at the point in your writing
where you cite another author's work. At the end of your work, the full reference [X]
of the work is provided. Citations and their corresponding references are provided
in the order they appear throughout your writing.
IEEE in-text citations consist of numbers provided in square brackets, which
correspond to the appropriate sources in the reference list at the end of the paper.
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Citing Sources in the Text
The in-text citations numbers start at [1] and continue in ascending order
throughout the paper – unless you are referring to a source you have already cited
in your text, in which case you can use the previously assigned number.
Each in-text citation number should be enclosed by square brackets and appear on
the text line, inside sentence punctuation, with a space before the bracket, e.g.
Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems are widely used for circuit analysis
simplification [13].

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[Bibliography]

Citations of references may be given simply as “in [1]...”, rather than as “in reference
[1] ...”.
Furthermore, citations may be grammatically treated either as if they were:
- footnote numbers, e.g.
As shown by Jones [4] …
For more details, see [1], [3], [7]. as
mentioned earlier [3], [4]-–[6], [8] …
Taylor et al. [5] have noted … -
or nouns:
As seen in [2] …
According to [4] and [6]–[8] …
In contrast to [5, p. 7], it is evident that…
As demonstrated in [4] …
When authors are mentioned, they may be treated in the following way:
Rickard [5] has shown …
Jones [6], and Zheng and Rogers [7] have stated …
Azzarello et al. [3] stated that they were unable to determine why …
If there are more than three authors, provide et al. (meaning ‘and others’) after the
first author in the text of the paper. Note that et al. is not italicised in the in-text
citations. In the reference list, however, list all the authors for up to six authors– use
et al. only if the names are not given. Also use et al. in the reference list for more
than 6 authors, e.g.:
[8] J. D. Bellamy et al., Computer Telephony Integration, New York: Wiley, 2010.
Do not mention authors of a source or provide date of publication within the text
(e.g. “in Jones [1]” should be changed to “in [1]”) except in such cases where the
author’s name is integral to the understanding of the sentence (e.g. “Jones [1]
proposed a new approach for sensor and actuator selection problems).
Editing the in-text citation numbers may require renumbering the whole reference
list. Please check that the in-text citation numbers match the reference list numbers.
(Content pulled from http://libraryguides.vu.edu.au/)
The Reference List in IEEE
At the end of the paper provide full details of all references cited in-text. The
reference list should be arranged in the order of appearance of the in-text citations,
not in an alphabetical order, beginning with [1], and continuing in an ascending

Course Module
 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
[Bibliography]

numerical order, from the lowest number to the highest. In the reference list, only
one resource per reference number is acceptable.
Publication titles of books and journals are italicised. In the publication titles, all
‘major words’ (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and pronouns) are also capitalised.
Use lower case for ‘minor’ words, such as conjunctions (and, or, not, but), articles (a,
an, the), and prepositions (in, on, near, as, at, by, for, etc.), providing they are not the
first word in a title or subtitle. Titles of articles, chapters, etc. are placed in quotation
marks, in lower case.
Format the reference list using 1.5 line spacing and single paragraph spacing
between each reference.
(Content pulled from http://libraryguides.vu.edu.au/)
The Reference List in IEEE
The typical components of a reference list are laid our below. Each reference entry
should generally contain the referencing elements in the following order (if one of
these elements is not recorded in the original source, then you can only use the
elements provided - do not make others up):
(i) Citation number, enclosed within square brackets, is aligned along the left
margin. The text of the entry is indented 2 or 3 spaces;
(ii) Author(s) name(s): first names’ initials are placed first, followed by last
names;
(iii) Title of the article, book chapter, conference paper or report is typed in
double quotation marks, with text provided in lower case;
(iv) Book , Journal or Conference Title is typed in italics. Capitalize the first letter
of each important word in the title;
(v) Publication information: City, State (if U.S.) or Country if City is not well
known: Publisher Name, Date;
(vi) Page number(s) if applicable, i.e. if you are referencing a book section, a book
chapter in an edited book, or an article. Page numbers are cited as p. for a
single page or pp. for multiple pages.
Examples:
[1] R. E. Ziemer and W. H. Tranter, Principles of Communications: Systems, Modulation,
and Noise, 7th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2015.

[2] J. D. Bellamy et al., Computer Telephony Integration, New York: Wiley, 2010.

[3] C. Jacks, High Rupturing Capacity (HRC) Fuses, New York: Penguin Random House,
2013, pp. 175–225.
[4] N. B. Vargafik, J. A. Wiebelt, and J. F. Malloy, "Radiative transfer," in Convective Heat.
Melbourne: Engineering Education Australia, 2011, ch. 9, pp. 379–398.

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 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
[Bibliography]

[5] H. C. Hottel and R. Siegel, "Film condensation," in Handbook of Heat Transfer, 2nd ed.
W. C. McAdams, Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011, ch. 9, pp. 78–99.

[6] W. M. Rohsenow, "Heat transmission," in Thermal Radiation Properties, vol. 3, M. W.

Catton and J. P. Hartnett, Eds. New York: Macmillan, 2012, ch. 9, pp. 37–62.

[7] H. Schmidt-Walter and R. Kories, Electrical Engineering. A Pocket Reference. Boston:

Artech House, 2007. Accessed on: Oct. 16, 2016. [Online]. Available:
http://ebrary.com

[8] H. H. Gaynor, Leading and Managing Engineering and Technology, Book 2:

Developing Managers and Leaders. IEEE-USA, 2011. Accessed on: Oct. 15, 2016.
[Online].
Available:http://www.ieeeusa.org/communications/ebooks/files/sep14/n2n802/L
eading-and-Managing-Engineering-and-Technology-Book-2.pdf

[9] G. H. Gaynor, "Dealing with the manager leader dichotomy," in Leading and Managing
Engineering and Technology, Book 2, Developing Leaders and Mangers. IEEE-USA,
2011, pp. 27–28. Accessed on: Jan. 23, 2017. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ieeeusa.org/communications/ebooks/files/sep14/n2n802/Leadingan
d-Managing-Engineering-and-Technology-Book-2.pdf

[10] M. Cvijetic, "Optical transport system engineering," in Wiley Encyclopedia of

Telecommunications, vol. 4, J. G. Proakis, Ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003, pp.
1840–1849. Accessed on: Feb. 5, 2017. [Online]. Available: http://ebscohost.com

[11] T. Kaczorek, "Minimum energy control of fractional positive electrical circuits",

Archives of Electrical Engineering, vol. 65, no. 2, pp.191–201, 2016.

[12] P. Harsha and M. Dahleh, "Optimal management and sizing of energy storage under
dynamic pricing for the efficient integration of renewable energy", IEEE Trans. Power
Sys., vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 1164–1181, May 2015.

[13] A. Vaskuri, H. Baumgartner, P. Kärhä, G. Andor, and E. Ikonen, "Modeling the spectral
shape of InGaAlP-based red light-emitting diodes," Journal of Applied Physics, vol.
118, no. 20, pp. 203103-1–203103-7, Jul. 2015. Accessed on: Feb. 9, 2017. [Online].
Available: doi: 10.1063/1.4936322

[14] K. J. Krishnan, "Implementation of renewable energy to reduce carbon consumption

and fuel cell as a back-up power for national broadband network (NBN) in
Australia," Ph.D dissertation, College of Eng. and Sc., Victoria Univ., Melbourne, 2013.

[15] C. R. Ozansoy, "Design and implementation of a Universal Communications Processor

for substation integration, automation and protection," Ph.D. dissertation, College of
Eng. and Sc., Victoria Univ., Melbourne, 2006. [Online]. Accessed on: June 22, 2017.
[Online]. Available: http://vuir.vu.edu.au/527/
Course Module
 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
[Bibliography]

[16] M. T. Long, "On the statistical correlation between the heave, pitch and roll motion of
road transport vehicles," Research Master thesis, College of Eng. and Sc., Victoria
Univ., Melb., Vic., 2016.

[17] R. King (2008, Oct.). Engineers for the Future: Addressing the Supply and Quality of
Australian Engineering Graduates for the 21st Century, Australian Council of
Engineering Deans. Accessed on: Feb. 1, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/sites/default/files/shado/ACED/Engineers
%20for%20the%20Future.pdf

[18] Audel Electrician's Pocket Manual, 2nd ed., Wiley Pub., Indianapolis, IN, 2003.

[19] Operational Procedure – Electrical Safety Rules CEOP8030, no. 14, Essential Energy,
Sept. 2016. Accessed on: Feb. 1, 2017. [Online]. Available:
https://www.essentialenergy.com.au/asset/cms/pdf/contestableWorks/CEPG8030
.pdf

[20] Safe Working on or Near Low-voltage Electrical Installations and Equipment, AS/NZS
4836:2011, 2011.

[21] N. Tesla, "System of electrical distribution," United States Patent and Trademark
Office 390,413, Oct. 2, 1888.

[22] Fixing System for an Electrical Plate, Legrand Australia Pty Ltd. (2016, Dec. 22).
2016905338. Accessed on: Feb. 1, 2017. [Online]. Available: AusPat

[23] S. r. Ayyubi, Y. Miao, and H. Shi, "Automating standalone smoke alarms for early
remote notifications," in: ICARCV, (13th Intern. Conf. on Cont. Automa. Robotics &
Vision), Marina Bay Sands Singapore, Dec. 2014.

[24] W. M. Brown, A. Semin, M. Hebenstreit, S. Khvostov, K. Raman, and S. J. Plimpton,

"Increasing molecular dynamics simulation rates with an 8-fold increase in electrical
power efficiency", in SC '16 Proc. of the Int. Conf. for High Perf. Computing,
Networking, Storage and Analysis, Article No. 8, Salt Lake City, Utah, IEEE Press
Piscataway, November 13 - 18, 2016. Accessed on: Feb. 10, 2017. [Online]. Available:
ACM Digital Library

[25] D. Smith, “17th Construction Squadron Relocation Infrastructure Project,” Canberra

Parliamentary Standing Committee on Public Works, Canberra, ACT, Rep. no. 5, June
2015, pp. 5–7.

[26] G. Glass, "Electrical Safety Program: Nonelectrical Crafts at LANL, Live #12175," Los
Alamos National Lab. (LANL), Los Alamos, NM, LA-UR--16-29637, 2016. Accessed on:
Feb. 1, 2017. [Online]. Available: doi:10.2172/1338684

Course Module
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[Bibliography]

[27] H. King, Class Lecture, Topic: "Lecture 3- AC Circuits." NEF2251/VAM3112, College of

Engineering and Science, Victoria University, Melbourne, Vic., Apr. 2016.

[28] Films Media Group (2006), Electrical components. Part one: Resistors, Batteries and
Switches [DVD]. Monmouth Junction, NJ: Shopware.

[29] Kanopy Streaming Service (2012). Engineering: The Break Press [Streaming Video].
Accessed on: Feb. 9, 2017. Available: https://vu.kanopystreaming.com
(Content pulled from http://libraryguides.vu.edu.au/)

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. AMAES Student Research Manual (2016)
2. John W. Creswell, J. David Creswell; 2018; Research Design Qualitative Quantitative,
and Mixed Method Approaches; California; SAGE Publication Inc.
Online Supplementary Reading Materials
1. IEEE Referencing. http://libraryguides.vu.edu.au/ieeereferencing/gettingstarted.
7Oct-2019
2. IEEE Referencing. http://libraryguides.vu.edu.au/ieeereferencing/referencelist. 7Oct-
2019

Course Module
 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
[Review of Related Literature]

Module 05 Review of Related Literature

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the purpose of Review of Related Literature.
2. Describe the sources of Literature.
3. Describe the steps in conducting review of related literature.

The Review of Related Literature

To further determine the value of studying the proposed topic or research study, what
direction to take, and how to move from a general research topic to a specific research purpose
and research questions, you need to conduct a literature review (Leavy, 2017). The review of
related literature helps to determine whether the topic is worth studying, and it provides
insight into ways in which the researcher can limit the scope to a needed area of inquiry
(Creswell, 2018).
The review of related literature and studies is an activity in the research process related to the
research problem. After the problem has been identified, information is needed to support the
problem under study so that it can be put in the proper context and the research study can
proceed effectively. The review of related literature and studies should be presented in topical
form, irrespective of whether it is local or foreign, and not necessarily in chronological order
(Zulueta, 2010).
The review of the literature section of the research study will provide the basic rationale for
your research from which will emerge the statement of the problem, research questions or
hypotheses, and design of your study. Therefore, it is recommended that you begin work on the
“Review of the Literature,” prior to writing the different sections in chapter one, for you will
need to know the theory and previous research relevant to your problem.

Purpose of Literature
According to Christensen, Johnson and Turner (2015).
(i) Will tell you the degree to which the problem you have identified has
already been researched. If it has been heavily researched, you should
either revise the problem and your research questions in light of the
results so that your study builds on the current literature, or you should
look for another problem.
(ii) Might give you ideas as to how to proceed in designing your study so that
you can obtain an answer to your research question.
(iii) Can point out methodological problems specific to the research question
you are studying.

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2 [Introduction]

(iv) Can identify whether special groups or special pieces of equipment are
needed and perhaps give clues as to where to find the equipment or how
to identify the particular groups of participants needed.
(v) Will provide needed information for preparing the research report,
because this research report requires that you not only set your study in
the context of prior studies but also that you discuss the results in
relation to other studies.
According to Zulueta (2010).
(i) It delimits the research problem.
(ii) It selects new line of investigation.
(iii) It avoids fruitless approaches.
(iv) It gains methodological insights.
According to (https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/literaturereview) the purpose
of a literature review is to:
(i) Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the
research problem being studied.
(ii) Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
(iii) Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
(iv) Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
(v) Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
(vi) Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
(vii) Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
(viii) Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very
important].

Sources of Literature
According to Lunenburg (2008).
(i) Handbooks and encyclopedias. Handbooks and encyclopedias provide
an excellent place to begin your literature search. Handbooks and
encyclopedias summarize major research contributions in specific
areas.
(ii) Annual reviews. Annual reviews are published yearly and provide
comprehensive reviews of the literature on specific topics. These
topical reviews are written by specialists in the field. Annual reviews
can be excellent resources if your topic has been reviewed recently.
(iii) Review articles. Another excellent source for a literature search are
review articles. Some journals in education and related fields
periodically devote entire issues of the journal to specific topics.
These are comprehensive reviews of research on a specific topic.
(iv) Government documents. Government documents are another useful
source of information. Government documents provide a massive
Course Module
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3 [Introduction]

amount of information that is published regularly. Search for various

government agencies that have created Websites on which they post
newly funded projects.
(v) Major public search engines. Major search engines used by the public
at large can also provide helpful information for use in literature
reviews for dissertations and master’s theses. You can use search
engines (browsers) such as Microsoft Explorer, Netscape, Opera, or
Safari to search for information on a variety of topics using keywords,
wherever the search engine has indexed the Web.
According to Christensen, Johnson, and Turner (2015).
(i) Books. This is actually a good place to start your literature search
because it will provide you with an introduction to your research
topic and a summary of the literature published up to the time of the
writing of the book.
(ii) Journals. After you have examined several books and have become
familiar with your research topic, your next step is to identify relevant
journal articles. Most of the current information about a research
topic is usually found in journals.
(iii) Internet Resources. The Internet is an additional resource that can be
used to acquire information.
(iv) Computer Databases. With advances in computer technology and
particularly the Internet, it has become possible to store and access
large data sets electronically.

Steps in Conducting Review of Related Literature According

to Creswell (2018).
(i) Begin by identifying key words, which is useful in locating materials in
an academic library at a college or university. These key words may
emerge in identifying a topic or may result from preliminary readings.
(ii) With these key words in mind, use your home computer to begin
searching the databases for holdings (i.e., journals and books). Most
major libraries have computerized databases, and we suggest you
focus initially on journals and books related to the topic.
(iii) Initially, try to locate about 50 reports of research in articles or books
related to research on your topic. Set a priority on the search for
journal articles and books because they are easy to locate and obtain.
Determine whether these articles and books exist in your academic
library or whether you need to send for them by interlibrary loan or
purchase them through a bookstore.

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4 [Introduction]

(iv) Skim this initial group of articles or chapters, and collect those that
are central to your topic. Throughout this process, simply try to obtain
a sense as to whether the article or chapter will make a useful
contribution to your understanding of the literature.
(v) As you identify useful literature, begin designing a literature map. This
is a visual picture (or figure) of groupings of the literature on the topic
that illustrates how your particular study will add to the existing
literature and position your study within the larger body of research.
(vi) As you put together the literature map, also begin to draft summaries
of the most relevant articles. These summaries are combined into the
final literature review that you write for your proposal or research
study. Include precise references to the literature using an
appropriate style guide, such as the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (American Psychological
Association [APA], 2010) so that you have a complete reference to use
at the end of the proposal or study.
(vii) After summarizing the literature, assemble the literature review,
structuring it thematically or organizing it by important concepts. End
the literature review with a summary of the major themes and suggest
how your particular study further adds to the literature and addresses
a gap in the themes. This summary should also point toward the
methods (i.e., data collection and data analysis) that need to be
undertaken to add to the literature.
According to Leavy (2017).
(i) Searching for literature on your topic using keywords, locating both
recent research and landmark studies.
(ii) Establishing priorities for reducing and focusing the review.
(iii) Sorting through the literature by reading abstracts and scanning
articles.
(iv) Reading the literature and taking careful notes with citation
information.
(v) Summarizing each piece of literature and producing a catalogue of
these summaries.
(vi) Synthesizing and structuring the literature.
According to Mitchell (2012).
(i) Consult books.
(ii) Track down articles referenced in those books. Note: Older, bound
issues of journals may be in different parts of the library than newer
issues.

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5 [Introduction]

(iii) Read those articles and their reference sections. Then, track down the
research cited in those articles.
(iv) Scan current issues of journals that are general in scope.
(v) Identify key terms that will allow you to search the literature.

Guidelines on Effective writing of Literature and Review

According to Zulueta (2010)
(i) Research papers must be written in a formal style, which is in the
third person, not the first person.
(ii) Avoid highly descriptive writing style, not appropriate for a scholarly
research.
(iii) Use the active voice for direct impact and easy understanding.
(iv) Avoid the se of jargon; use familiar terms in place of terminologies (v)
Language should be neutral gender, no sexy language like his.
(vi) Make the conclusions and contradictions found in the literature clear
in the report.
(vii) Use short sentences; avoid elongated and run-on expressions.
(viii) Use proper grammar and proofread the work.
(ix) Never plagiarize; give credit to the original author of ideas.
(x) Pay attention to the structure and form of published articles, which
are good examples of how literature reviews can be written.
According to Lunenburg (2008), the following techniques can be used to organize
your Review of the Literature:
(i) Organize your material in a funnel. The funnel provides a good
analogy for the shape of the review of the literature. The idea is that
the literature review is organized so that more general information is
discussed first, and the information most closely related to the
research reported in your thesis or dissertation is discussed last.
(ii) Be selective. A good literature review needs to be selective. It is
permissible to draw upon the research of others and incorporate them
into your own thesis or dissertation. However, a skillful researcher
draws on primary source material rather than relying on review
articles and secondary sources.
(iii) Make an outline. Make an outline of the major headings you plan to
use in your review of the literature. Developing and following an
outline while writing will accomplish two things: (a) It will produce
focused, logical prose, and (b) it will help you avoid becoming
overwhelmed by the sheer volume of mate rial to be covered in a
lengthy review of the literature.

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6 [Introduction]

(iv) Write the introduction. The introduction should introduce the

research problem, including the key variables examined in the study,
and describe the scope and organization of the review. Conclude the
introduction with a paragraph that describes the sequence of the
literature you will cover, often referred to as an advance organizer,
using the exact headings that appear in the chapter.
(v) Use headings. Divide your literature review into useful major sections
(headings) and subsections (subheadings). Judicious use of headings
and subheadings serves two functions: (a) It helps readers understand
the organization of your review, and (b) it helps readers follow your
transitions from one topic or subtopic to another.
(vi) Use transitions. Use transitions between paragraphs to provide
connections between ideas. Use transitions within paragraphs to
provide a change from one sentence to another or from one section of
the paragraph to another.
(vii) Write a summary. Your Review of the Literature section should end
with a brief summary of the literature you reviewed. Thus, the
summary provides an overview of the historical, theoretical, and
empirical literature that supports your investigation.
(viii) Be careful not to plagiarize. When writing a thesis or dissertation, it is
often necessary to include extracts from journal articles, books, or
research reports. These extracts are used to support your arguments
and to help set the context for your research. It is important for you to
give credit to the author(s) of the work you have extracted.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. Francisco M. Zulueta, Jose R. Perez; 2010; Methods of Research Thesis Writing and
Applied Statistics; National Bookstore
2. Fred C. Lunenburg, Beverly J. Irby; 2008; Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation;
California; Corwin Press
3. John W. Creswell, J. David Creswell; 2018; Research Design Qualitative Quantitative,
and Mixed Method Approaches; California; SAGE Publication Inc.
4. Larry B. Christensen, R. Burke Johnson, Lisa A. Tuurne (2015). Research Methods
Design and Analysis (12th Edition). England. Pearson Education Limited.
5. Mark L. Mitchell, Nanina M. Jolley; 2010; Research Design Explained; California;
Cengage Learning
6. Patricia Leavy (2017). Research Design. New York. The Guilford Press
Online Supplementary Reading Materials

Course Module
 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
7 [Introduction]

1. The literature Review; https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/literaturereview; 7Oct-

2019

Course Module
 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
[Parts of a Research Paper]

Module 03 Parts of a Research Paper

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Restate the different parts of a research Paper.
2. Create an outline on some parts of the research paper.

Parts of a Research Paper

A written format of a research work is known as thesis or research report. All such works
may differ considerably in scope of treatment and details of presentation. Even then all
types of research reports are expected to follow a general uniform, common pattern of
format, style and structure. The general format of research report is evolved and it has
become a tradition in academic area. A research report or thesis is an organized format of
research work done. It is viewed in three major categories(Singh, 2006):
A. Preliminaries, B.
Textual Body, and
C. References.
Each category are outlined as follows
I. Preliminary Section
A. Title Page
B. Approval Sheet
C. Dedication (Optional and 1 page only)
D. Acknowledgements (Optional and 1 page only)
E. Abstract
F. Table of Contents
G. List of Tables (Optional)
H. List of Figures (Optional)
I. List of Abbreviations (Optional)
J. List of Symbols (Optional)
II. Main Body
A. Introduction
1. Rationale/Background of the Study
2. Statement of the Problem
3. Purpose/Objective of the Study
4. Significance of the Study
5. Scope and Limitation
6. Hypotheses (if the study is quantitative)

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[Parts of a Research Paper]

7. Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Framework

8. Review of Related Literature

B. Methods
1. Research Design
2. Population, Sample Size, and Sampling Technique
3. Description of the Respondents
4. Research Instruments
5. Data Collection or Data Gathering Procedure
6. Statistical Treatment of Data
C. Results
1. Data Presentation
2. Data Interpretation
3. Data Analysis
D. Discussion
1. Summary of Results
2. Conclusion
3. Recommendations
III. Reference Section
A. Bibliography
B. Appendices
C. Biographical Sketch
The research proposal that the student will present is composed of the preliminary section,
section A and B of the main body and the reference section.

The Preliminary Section

Title Page
This page contains the title of the research, name of proponents and a statement
regarding the qualification for which the research is submitted. It also contains the
name of the institution, to which the research is being submitted, and the month and
year of submission.
The first part of any research study is its title. If the title is not clearly stated it will
not help the researcher in his work. A good title should clearly identify the research
study (Pandey, 2015). It should convey the main theme of the problem investigated
and if possible one should give a clue about the method or type of research involved
(Singh, 2006).

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[Parts of a Research Paper]

Approval Sheet
This page bears the name of the proponent/s and title of the thesis, together with
the signature of the adviser, college dean and members of the oral defense panel.
This page certifies that the thesis has been duly approved, and must bear the date of
approval.
Dedication and Acknowledgement
These sections recognize persons and organizations who/which assisted the
proponents in the completion of the thesis. Acknowledgements should be expressed
simply and tactfully.
Abstract
This is a presentation of the thesis summary. Included in the thesis abstract are the
statement of the problem, objective/s of the study, methodology, major findings,
significance and conclusions. The abstract should not be less than 200 words but not
to exceed 500 words, and should be typed single-spaced. Normally the abstract does
not include any reference to the literature.
Table of contents
A sequential listing of all major parts of a thesis with corresponding page numbers.
Included in the table of contents are the titles of chapters, sections and subsections,
bibliography and appendices. Also included are the titles of the preliminary pages as
well as the required forms.
List of Tables
A comprehensive listing of titles of all tables found in the body of the thesis with
indication of the corresponding page numbers. Tables should be numbered in
sequence, using Arabic numerals. For example, the third table appearing in chapter
two should be labeled Table 2.3.

List of Figures
List of charts, graphs, maps and other illustrations used in the thesis. Specific items
consisting of 12 or more must be listed separately. For example, if there are more
than 12 illustrations, then there must be a separate list of illustrations. List the exact
title or caption of each figure and its corresponding page. Figures should also be
numbered in sequence, using Arabic numerals. The first figure in the third chapter is
labeled Figure 3.1.
List of Abbreviations and Symbols
All abbreviations used in the thesis are listed for easy reference of the reader. This
section, however, is optional.

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[Parts of a Research Paper]

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. AMAES Student Research Manual
2. Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey; 2015; Research Methodology Tools and
Techniques; Romania; Bridge Center
3. Yogesh Kumar Singh; 2006; Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics;
New Delhi; New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

Course Module
 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
1
[Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendation]

Module 09 Summary, Conclusions, and

Recommendation

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the content of the Summary section.
2. Describe the content of Conclusion section.
3. Describe the content of Recommendations section.

The Discussion Chapter

This chapter includes a summary of the main findings of the thesis, and states the deduction/s
obtained. It also presents the significance of the study, and relates findings to the objectives
and problems written in the introduction part of the thesis. Recommendation/s must be stated
in this chapter. This part usually directs the reader to conduct further research on some
specific areas related to the thesis topic. This chapter contains the Summary, Conclusion, and
Recommendations.

Summary
A summary is a statement that reviews the major findings to each of the research
questions or hypotheses. Discussions and implications should not be mentioned in
this section. The major findings is presented on a one-on-one correspondence with
the research problems. Thus, the number of major findings is based on how many
specific research problems enumerated in Statement of the problem section of
Chapter 1. In this section, you will state each individual research question again and
provide findings for each question.
Conclusions
The conclusions section is very important, because it is the summative statement of
the researcher’s study. Its function is similar to the summary of findings, except that
the conclusions section is the conclusion of the whole study. It provides closure to
the entire project. Conclusions are assertions based on the findings. By reading your
conclusions, readers discover to what extent research questions posed have been
answered or to what extent hypotheses are sustained or not sustained. Thus,
conclusions address issues that support or fail to support your theoretical
framework.
Recommendations
Future research directions are suggestions made by the researcher about additional
studies that need to be conducted based on the results of the present research.

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2
[Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendation]

These suggestions are a natural link to the limitations of a study, and they provide
useful direction for new researchers and readers who are interested in exploring
needed areas of inquiry or applying results to educational practice.
Any research must ultimately answer the question “So what?” This section directly
answers this question on at least three levels. There are other possible implications
and recommendations.
(i) Theoretical Issues. This section explains 1) the theoretical value of the
findings and 2) the soundness of the original study framework. It must chart
future research directions on the same topic but use a different theoretical
perspective. It may also offer a new theory—this is particularly important for
a dissertation.
(ii) Methodological Issues. This section explains the soundness of the
methodology as it was implemented. It discusses the implications of the
methods, the units of analysis, sampling scheme, research instruments, and
data gathering procedures on the resultant findings. It must chart future
directions on the same topic but use a different methodology.
(iii) Practical Issues. This section describes the practical implications and
applications of the findings. Examples include recommendations on
improving media literacy and communication practice.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. AMAES Student Research Manual
2. Fred C. Lunenburg, Beverly J. Irby; 2008; Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation;
California; Corwin Press
3. John W. Creswell (2012). Educational Research (4th Edition). Boston. Pearson
Education Inc.

Course Module
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[Preliminaries]

Module 02 The Research Topic and Problems

Course Learning Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the student should be able to:
1. Describe a research topic and research problem.
2. Differentiate research topic from research problem.
3. Choose an area where to conduct a research.
4. Identify a research problem where he/she will start to conduct a research
study.

Identification of Research Topic

The first step in conducting a research study is to choose a suitable topic. The topic is the
subject or subject matter of a proposed study. Describe the topic in a few words or in a
short phrase. The topic becomes the central idea to learn about or to explore (Creswell,
2018).
The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or pin points the task of a
researcher. It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study
from different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the
problem, but a problem is made on the basis of the topic (Pandey, 2015).
The researcher should begin their topic selection by identifying two or three broad areas in
which many different types of research may be pursued (Lunenburg, 2008). Research areas
includes but not limited to:
A. Computer Studies
1. Cloud Computing
2. Cyber Security
3. Database and Data Management
4. Data Mining and Analytics
5. Computer Graphics
6. Computer Architecture
7. Artificial Intelligence Technology
8. System and Software Development
9. Networking
10. Mobile Computing
B. Engineering
1. Mechatronics/Robotics
2. MPU-based Research
3. Socio-Economic and Computer Engineering

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[Preliminaries]

4. Wireless Technology
5. Environmental Science

Sources of Research Topic

Where do ideas for research studies originate? Where should you look for a
researchable idea? Some of the major sources of ideas are everyday life, practical
issues, past research, and theory (Johnson and Christensen, 2014).
Researchers initially come to a topic because of their personal interests, experiences
and values, previous research experience, and/or opportunities in the form of
funding or collaborations (Leavy, 2017).
Sources of ideas for broad topic areas include: (a) textbooks, (b) professional
journals, (c) dissertations, (d) theories, (e) current employ-ment, and (f) existing
databases (Lunenburg, 2008).

Criteria in Choosing Research Topic

The following are checklist to help you select an initial research topic (Leavy, 2017):
(i) Interest. Select a general topic about which you are interested in
learning more.
(ii) Researchable. After you have identified a general topic, you will need
to make sure it is researchable. In other words, is it feasible to conduct
research on this topic? At this early stage, consider issues such as
whether or not you’ll have access to the participants or data needed to
investigate the topic.
(iii) Significance. Consider the significance, value, or worth of the project.
To begin, does this topic align with your values system, sense of
morality, or political orientation? Is there a social justice imperative to
learning more about this topic? Is it important, in relative terms, to
learn more about this topic? Is there a need for researchers to learn
more about this topic? Can the research be applied in some real-world
setting?
(iv) Knowledge, Skills, Funding, and Time. It’s also important to take a
personal inventory to determine personal preparedness. Beyond
considering what your interests and resources are, think about your
capabilities as a researcher.
(v) Research is intended to contribute to a shortage of research on a topic,
fill a gap in the literature, or offer an alternative view to existing
research.
In selecting an appropriate topic for a thesis or dissertation, the following criteria
should be considered as important: (a) interest, (b) significance,(c) available data,
(d) knowledge and skills, (e) manageability, and (f) funding (Lunenburg, 2008).

Course Module
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[Preliminaries]

Identification of Research Problem

A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for
the same (Kothari, 2004).
The identification and analyzing a research problem is the most crucial step of research
process. A problem cannot be solved effectively unless a researcher possesses the intellect
and insight to isolate and understand the specific factors giving rise to the difficulty (Singh,
2006).
It is wrong to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or
statement of the problem. A topic or title and research problem are not the synonyms but
they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of field
studied, whereas a topic or title is the verbal statement of the problem (Pandey, 2015).
The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;
Step I. Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the
research work.
Step II. The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the
field of his specialization.
Step III. The researcher should review the research conducted in area to know the
recent trend and studies are being conducted in the area.
Step IV. On the basis of review, the researcher should consider the priority field of
the study.
Step V. The researcher should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem
or employ his personal experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take
help of supervisor or expert of the field.
Step VI. The researcher should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to
be investigated.
Sources of the Research Problem
The following are some sources of a research problem:
(i) The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of
education are obvious sources.
(ii) Social developments and technological changes are constantly
bringing forth new problems and opportunities for research.
(iii) Record of previous research such specialized sources as the
encyclopedias of educational, research abstracts, research bulletins,
research reports, journals of researches, dissertations and many
similar publications are rich sources of research problems.

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(iv) Textbook assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers

will suggest additional areas of needed research.
(v) Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas
with faculty members and fellow scholars and students will suggest
many stimulating problems to be solved, close professional
relationships, academic discussions and constructive academic
climate are especially advantageous opportunities.
(vi) Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing
practices and research oriented academic experience will effectively
promote problem awareness.
(vii) The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts
of the field and most experienced persons of the field. They may
suggest most significant problems of the area. He can discuss certain
issues of the area to emerge a problem.
Tips in Selecting a Research Problem
According to C.R. Kothari the following points may be observed by a researcher in
selecting a research problem or a subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will
be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average
researcher.
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so
that the related research material or sources of research are within
one’s reach.
(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria
that must also be considered in selecting a problem. In other words,
before the final selection of a problem is done, a researcher must ask
himself the following questions:
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry
out the research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those
who must participate in research as subjects?
If the answers to all these questions are in the affirmative, one may
become sure so far as the practicability of the study is concerned.
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

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[Preliminaries]

There are five ways to assess whether you should research a problem (Creswell,
2012):
(i) Study the problem if your study will fill a gap or void in the existing
literature.
(ii) Study the problem if your study replicates a past study but examines
different participants and different research sites.
(iii) Study the problem if your study extends past research or examines
the topic more thoroughly.
(iv) Study the problem if your study gives voice to people silenced, not
heard, or rejected in society.
(v) Study the problem if your study informs practice.
Existence of the Research Problem
Research problem does exist if the following conditions are met (C.R. Kothari, 2004)
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or
the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants
nothing, one cannot have a problem.
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for
obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain. This means that there
must be at least two means available to a researcher for if he has no
choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with
regard to the selection of alternatives. This means that research must
answer the question concerning the relative efficiency of the possible
alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
If there exist a problem then analyzing the problem is the next thing to do. The
following are the major tasks to be performed in analyzing a problematic situation
as given below (Singh, 2006):
(i) Accumulating the facts that might be related to the problem.
(ii) Setting by observations whether the facts are relevant.
(iii) Tracing any relationship between facts that might reveal the key to
the difficulty.
(iv) Proposing various explanations for the cause or the difficulty.
(v) Ascertaining through observations and analysis whether these
explanations are relevant to the problem.
(vi) Tracing relationship between explanations that may give an insight
into the problem solution.

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(vii) Tracing relationship between facts and explanations.

(viii) Questioning assumptions underlying the analysis of the problem.
(ix) Tracing the irrelevant facts which are not concerned with the
problem.
(x) Locating the irrelevant explanations which are not related to the
problem.
After going through these processes, the researcher will be able to define or state
the problem.

Techniques Involved in Defining a Problem

Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research
study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this a
frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research
problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all
relating points (Kothari, 2004).
(i) State the problem in general way.
(ii) Understand the nature of the problem.
(iii) Survey the available literature.
(iv) Develop ideas through discussion
(v) Rephrase the research problem
(vi) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in
the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.
(vii) Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research
problem should be clearly stated.
(viii) A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the
criteria for the selection of the problem) should be provided.
(ix) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available
must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
(x) The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem
is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research
problem.

References and Supplementary Materials

Books and Journals
1. AMAES Student Research Manual

Course Module
 [CPE 6398 – CpE Design Project 1]
[Preliminaries]

2. C.R. Kothari; 2004; Research Methodology Methods and Techniques; New Delhi; New
Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
3. Fred C. Lunenburg, Beverly J. Irby; 2008; Writing a Successful Thesis or Dissertation;
California; Corwin Press
4. John W. Creswell, J. David Creswell; 2018; Research Design Qualitative Quantitative,
and Mixed Method Approaches; California; SAGE Publication Inc.
5. Larry B. Christensen et al; 2015; Research Methods Design and Analysis; England;
Pearson
6. Patricia Leavy (2017). Research Design. New York. The Guilford Press
7. R. Burke Johnson, Larry Christensen (2014). Educational Research (5th Edition). USA.
SAGE Publication Inc.
8. Rabhat Pandey, Meenu Mishra Pandey; 2015; Research Methodology Tools and
Techniques; Romania; Bridge Center
9. Yogesh Kumar Singh; 2006; Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics;
New Delhi; New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers

Course Module