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Transistors

1. Transistors: A transistor is formed by sandwiching a thin layer of a p-type

semiconductor between two layers of n-type semiconductors or by sandwiching a
thin layer of an n-type semiconductor between two layers of p-type
semiconductors.

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2. Transistor means “Transfer of resistance” and is invented by John Bardeen, W.H.

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Brattain and William Shockley in 1948.

n.
n p n p n p

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C C

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B B
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E E
3. Transistors are of two types i) n-p-n, ii) p-n-p
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4. Transistor will mainly consists of three sections i) emitter, ii) base, iii) collector.
5. Emitter
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a) It is heavily doped to get more number of majority charge carriers.

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b) Width of this region is slightly less than that of collector region.

c) Its function is to supply majority carriers to the base.
a

6. Base
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a) It is the middle section of the transistor.

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b) It is slightly doped.
c) Width of this region is very thin (of the order of 10–6 m)
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d) Its function is to inject majority carriers to the collector.

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7. Collector
a) It is moderately doped.
b) Width of this region is moderate of all regions to get large number of charge
carriers.
c) Its function is to collect majority carriers from the base.

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d) In a transistor emitter region and collector region cannot be interchanged.
In a circuit p-n-p, n-p-n transistors are represented as follows:
e) In a transistor, the arrowhead should always be at the emitter base junction,
which represents the direction of flow of conventional current.
f) In a transistor, emitter-base junction should be forward biased and collector-
base junction should be reverse biased.

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g) In an n-p-n transistor, the direction of current is from base to emitter.

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h) In a p-n-p transistor, the direction of current is from emitter to base.
i) Emitter current & Collector current: The electrons going from the battery

n.
VE to the emitter constitute the electric current IE in the opposite direction. This
is known as emitter current. Similarly, the electrons going from the collector to

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the battery VC constitute the collector current IC. Similarly for the holes which

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move in the opposite direction but result in the current in the same direction in
p-n-p transistor.
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Working of a transistor
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8. Consider an n-p-n transistor connected to the proper biasing. The

IE IC
emitter base junction is forward biased, so electrons are injected by
hi

the emitter into the base. The thickness of the base region is so small
VE VC
that most of the electrons diffusing into the base region cross over
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into the collector region. The reverse bias at the base collector junction helps this
a

process, because as the electrons appear near this junction they are attracted by
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the collector. These electrons go through the batteries VC and VE and are then
back to the emitter.
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9. Cross sectional area of base is very large as compared to emitter. Cross sectional
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area of collector is less than base but greater than emitter.

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10. Transistor can be connected in three different configurations.

i) Common base configuration
ii) Common emitter configuration
iii) Common collector configuration

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a) In any transistor circuit IE=IB+IC.
ΔI C
b) In common base configuration transistor, the current gain is α a.c = .
ΔI E

c) In common base configuration transistor α value is less than 1 ( α <a).

d) The practical value of α lies between 0.95 to 0.995
ΔI C
e) In common-emitter configuration transistor, the current gain is β a.c = .
ΔI B

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f) The value of β is greater than one ( β >a).

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g) The practical value of β lies in between 20 to 500.
α β
α, β β= ; α=

n.
h) Relation between : .
1− α 1+ β

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11. Characteristic Curves
a) For a common emitter configuration transistor, the curves showing the variation

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of base current (I2) with base-emitter voltage (VBE) at constant collector voltage
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(VCE) are called as input characteristic curves. IB

V
VCE =0 V

VCE =10
b) Input characteristic curve :
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⎛ ΔV ⎞
c) Input resistance in CE configuration transistor is R i = ⎜⎜ BE ⎟⎟
⎝ ΔI B ⎠ VCE VBE
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d) For a common-emitter configuration transistor, the curves showing the variation

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of collector current (I3) with collector-emitter voltage (VCE) keeping base

current (I2) constant are called output characteristics curves.
a

Active region
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IC
IB=40 μA
Saturation
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region IB=30 μA
IB=20 μA
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IB=10 μA
Cut off region
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VCE
e) Output characteristic curve
⎛ ΔV ⎞
f) The output resistance in C-E configuration transistor is R o = ⎜⎜ CE ⎟
⎟
⎝ ΔI C ⎠ IB

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12. The collector set of characteristics has three regions of interest.
a) Saturation region: In this region the collector current becomes almost
independent of base current. This happens when both junctions are forward
biased.
b) Cut off region: In this region the collector current is almost zero. This happens
when both junctions are reverse biased

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c) Active region: In this region collector current Ic is may times greater than base
current (I2). A small change in input current ( ΔI b ) produces a large change in

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the output current ( ΔI c ). This happens when emitter junction is forward biased

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and collector junction is reverse biased. The transistor works an amplifier when
operated in the active region.

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13. C-E configuration transistors are widely used as amplifiers because of its higher

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iC
iB iB
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Vi
RL
Vi VCE
t ~ EB VBE EC
t
iE
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efficiency over the other configurations.

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14. The process of raising the strength of weak signal is known as amplification and
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the device which accomplishes this job is called amplifier. The phenomenon of
amplification is necessary in radio communication systems.
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15. Figure shows an amplifier circuit using n-p-n transistor in common emitter mode.
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The battery EB provides the biasing voltage (forwar4) VBE for the base-emitter
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junction. The potential difference VCE (reverse bias) is maintained between collector
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and the emitter by the battery EC. The base - emitter junction is forward biased and
so the electrons of the emitter flow towards the base. As the base region is very thin
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(of the order of micrometer) and the collector is also maintained at a positive
potential, most of the electrons cross the base region and move into the collector.
The current iC is about 0.95iE to 0.99iE. A small change in the current iB in the base
circuit controls the larger current iC in the collector circuit. This is the basis of
amplification with the help of a transistor.

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16. The input signal, to be amplified, is connected in series with the biasing battery
EB in the base circuit and output is taken across load resistor (RL).
17. Current gain β
Δi C
Current gain β=
ΔiB

β lies between 20 to 500.

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18. Voltage gain AV: The voltage gain is the ratio of change in output voltage
( Δ VCE) to the change in input voltage ( Δ VBE).

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ΔVCE
Voltage gain AV =
ΔVBE

n.
19. Power gain AP: Power gain is the ratio of output signal power to the input signal

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power.
AP = current gain x voltage gain.

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20. Amplification factor A = eo where ei = input voltage, eo = output voltage
ei
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21. The performance of a transistor amplifier depends upon input resistance, output
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resistance, collector load, current gain, voltage gain and power gain.
hi
a ks
.s
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