Topic 8.

11

The Civil Rights Movement Expands

lam woman, hear me roar/ln numbers too big to ignore . . .

I am woman watch me grow/See me standing toe to toe , , .
Helen Reddy, "I Am Womans' 1971

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Learning Objective: Explain how and why various groups responded to

s
4
calls for expansion of civil rights from 1960 to 1980. I

o ne aspect of the protest movements of the 1960s that continued into later
decades was the movement by a variety of other groups to gain both relief
from discrimination and recognition for their contributions to U.S. society,
including women, Latinos, American Indians, and the gay community.

The Women's Movement

The increased education and employment of women in the 1950s, the civil
rights movement, and the sexual revolution all contributed to a renewal of the
women's movement in the 1960s. In addition, some feminists who participated
in the countercultures of the 1960s rejected many of the social, economic, and
political values of their parents' generation and advocated changes in sexual
norms.
Betty Friedan's book The Feminine Mystique (1963) gave the movement
a new direction by encouraging middle-class women to seek fulfillment
in professional careers in addition to filling the roles of wife, mother, and
homemaker. In 1966, Friedan helped found the National Organization
for Women (NOW), which adopted the activist tactics of other civil rights
movements to secure equal treatment of women, especially for job opportunities.
By this time, Congress had already enacted two antidiscrimination laws: the
Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. These measures
prohibited discrimination in employment and compensation on the basis of
sex but had been poorly enforced.
In 1972, Congress also passed Title IX, a statute to end sex discrimination
in schools that receive federal funding. Though far-reaching, the law is best
known for its requirement that schools provide girls with equal athletic
opportunities. Many believe that these new opportunities in athletics proved to
be a key step in promoting women's equality.

TOPIC 8.11 THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT EXPANDS 657

 Campaign for the Equal Rights. Amen d ment Feminists achieved a major
. . . . d the E ual Rights Amendment
leglslatlve victory in 1972 when Congress posse <1 . .
. . . d t stated: "Equality of rights
(ERA). Thls proposed constitutional amen men
under the law shall not be denied or abridge d by the United States. or by any
state on account of sex.»> Although NOW an d O th C r 8 rou P S campaigned hard
for the ERA, it )ust missed ratification by th e require
' d 38 states. It was .defeated
in part because of a growing reaction against femlnls m by conservatives who
feared the movement threatened the traditional roles of women.
Achievements Even without the ERA, the women's movement
accomplished fundamental Chan ges in atit 1 u des and hiring practices. In
increasing numbers, women moved Into pro essions pre viousl Y. dominated
' . f . byd
men: business, law, medicine, and politics. Although women still experience f
the "glass ceiling" in the corporate world, American society at the beginning o
the 21st century was less and less a man's world.

Latino Americans
Most Latino Americans before World War II lived in the Southwestern states,
but in the postwar years new arrivals from Puerto Rico, Cuba, and South and
Central America increasingly settled in the East and Midwest. After suffering
deportation during the Great Depression, Merdcan workers returned to the
United States in the 1950s and 1960s to take low-paying agricultural jobs.
The farm workers were widely exploited before a long series of boycotts led
by César Chavez and the United Farm Workers Association finally gained
collective bargaining rights for them in 1975.
Latinos achieved goals in other areas as well. Meidcan American activists
also won a federal mandate for bilingual education requiring schools to teach
Hispanic children in both English and Spanish. In the 1980s, a growing number
of Hispanic Americans were elected to public office, including as mayors of
Miami, San Antonio, and other large cities. The Census Bureau reported that, in
2000, Hispanics, including Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and other Latin Americans,
had become the country's largest minority group.

American Indian Movement

In the 1950s, the Eisenhower administration had made
an unsuccessful
attempt to encourage American Ind ions to leave reservation
. b , . . . s and assimilate
into ur an America. American Indian leaders resisted
the loss of cultural
identity that would have resulted from such a 1
d . . . . . po icy. To achieve self-
eterm1nat1on and revival of tribal traditions, the A
American Indian
Movement (AIM) was founded in 1968. Militant
actions soon followed,
including AIM's takeover of the abandoned prison on
Alcatraz Island in San
Francisco Bay in 1969. AIM members also occupied Wou d d
. . 11 € Knee, South
D a kOta, in
' 1973, which
. was the slte of the infamous massa
CIT of American
Indians by the U.S. cavalry in 1890.

658 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP' EDITION

 _Ye Total Percentage
H

1950 343,410 0.2

508,675 0.3
1960
1970 827,255 0.4

1980 1,420,400 0.6

1990 1,959,234 0.8

2000 2,475,956 0.9

2010 2,932,248 0.9

Source: U.S. Census Bureau. Figures include Alaska Natives.

American Indians had successes in the late 20st century. Congress passed
the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975, which gave reservations and tribal
lands greater control over internal programs, education, and law enforcement.
Federal courts supported efforts to regain property and compensation for treaty
violations. American Indians attacked widespread unemployment and poverty
on reservations by improving education through the Tribally Controlled
Community College Assistance Act of 1978 and by building industries and
gambling casinos on reservations under the self-determination legislation.
Interest in the cultural heritage of American Indians was also overcoming
old prejudices. By the 2010 census, nearly3 million people identified themselves
as American Indian or Alaska Native, and more than 2 million more identified
themselves as a combination of American Indian or Alaska Native and some
other ethnic group.

Asian Americans
Americans of Asian descent had become the fastest growing ethnic minority
by the 1980s. 'he largest group of Asian Americans were of Chinese ancestry,
followed by Filipinos, Iapanese, Indians, Koreans, and Vietnamese. A strong
dedication to education resulted in Asian Americans being well represented
in the best colleges and universities. However, at times, Asian Americans
suffered from discrimination, envy, and Japan-bashing, while the less-educated
immigrants earned well below the national average.

Gay Rights Movement

In 1969, a police raid on the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in New York City, sparked
both a riot and the gay rights movement. Gay activists urged homosexuals to be
open about their identity and to work to end discrimination and violent abuse.
By the mid-1970s, homosexuality was no longer classified as a mental illness,
and the federal Civil Service dropped its ban on employment of homosexuals.
In 1993, President Clinton attempted to end discrimination against gays and
lesbians in the military, but settled for the compromise "don't ask, don't tell"
policy People would not be asked or expected to describe their sexual identity,
but the military could still expel people for being gay or lesbian.

TOPIC 8.11 THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT EXPANDS 659

The Warren Court and Individual Rights
As chief justice of the Supreme Court from 1953 to 1969, Earl Warren had an
impact on the nation comparable to that of John Marshall in the early 1800s.
Warren's decision in the desegregation case of Brown v. Board of Educatzon of
Topeka (1954) was by far the most important case of the 20th century involving
race relations. Then, in the 1960s, the Warren Court made a series of declslons
that profoundly affected the criminal-justice system, state political systems,
and the definition of individual rights. Before Warren's tenure as chief justice,
the Supreme Court had concentrated on protecting property rights. During
and after his tenure, the Court focused more on protecting individual rights.
Criminal Iustice Several decisions of the Warren Court concerned
defendants' rights. Four of the most important were the following:

» Mapp v. Ohio (1961) ruled that evidence seized illegally cannot be used
against the accused in court.
Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) required that state courts provide counsel
(services of an attorney) for indigent (poor) defendants.
» Escobedo v. Illinois (1964) extended the ruling in Gideon, giving
suspects the right to have a lawyer present during questioning by the
police.
» Miranda v. Arizona (1966) extended the ruling in Escobedo to require
the police to inform an arrested person of his or her right to remain
silent.

Reapportionment Equality Before 1962, many states included at least one

house of their legislatures (usually the senate) that had districts that strongly
favored rural areas to the disadvantage of cities. In the landmark case of Baker
v. Carr (1962), the Warren Court declared this practice unconstitutional. In
Baker and later cases, the Court established the principle of "one man, one
vote," meaning that election districts would have to be redrawn to provide
equal representation for all citizens.
Freedom of Expression and Privacy Other rulings by the Warren Court
extended the rights mentioned in the 1st Amendment to protect the actions
of protesters, to permit greater latitude under freedom of the press, to ban
religious activities sponsored by public schools, and to guarantee adults' rights
to use contraceptives.

• Yates v. United States (1957) said that the 1st Amendment protected
radical and revolutionary speech, even by Communists, unless it was a
"clear and present danger" to the safety of the country.

• Engel v. Vitale (1962) ruled that state laws requiring prayers and Bible
readings in the public schools violated the 1st Amendment's provision
for separation of church and state.

660 UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP' EDITION

 • Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) ruled that, in recognition of a citizen's
right to privacy, a state could not prohibit the use of contraceptives
by adults. (This privacy case provided the foundation for later cases
establishing a woman's right to an abortion.)
The Warren Court's defense of the rights of unpopular individuals,
including people accused of crimes, provoked a storm of controversy. Critics
called for Warren's impeachment. Both supporters and critics agreed that the
Warren Court profoundly changed the interpretation of constitutional rights.

REFLECT ON THE LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. Explain how and why various groups responded to calls for expansion
of civil rights from 1960 to 1980.

KEY TERMS BY THEME

Civil Rights Movement Equal Rights Amendment gay rights movement

Expands (SOC) (ERA) Warren Court
women's movement César Chavez Mapp in Ohio
Betty Friedan United Farm Workers Gideon v. Wainwright
The Feminine Mystique Association Escobedo in Illinois
National Organization for Hispanic Americans Miranda v. Arizona
Women (NOW) American Indian Movement reapportionment
Equal Pay Act of 1963 (AIM)
Baker v. Carr
Civil Rights Act of 1964 Indian Self-Determination
one man, one vote
Title IX Act of 1975
Yates v. United States
Asian Americans

MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

Questions 1-2 refer to the excerpt below.

"We, men and women who hereby constitute ourselves as the National
Organization for Women, believe that the time has come for a new
movement toward equality for all women in America, and towards a full
equal partnership of the sexes. . . .

NOW Bill of Rights: Equal Rights Constitutional Amendment, Enforce

Law Banning Sex Discrimination in Employment, Maternity Leave Rights
in Employment and in Social Security Benefits, Tax Deduction for Home
and Child Care Expenses for Working Parents, Child Care Centers, Equal
and Unsegregated Education, Equal lob Training Opportunities and
Allowances for Women in Poverty, Rights of Women to Control Their
Reproductive Lives."

National Organization for Women, Lune 1966

TOPIC 8.11 THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT EXPANDS 661