Name:

[Link]:

ERG 211
RENEWABLE ENERGY
AND GREEN
TECHNOLOGY
(1+1)

“When you live for a strong purpose, then hard work isn’t an
option. It’s a necessity”
- Steve Pavlina

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 ERG 211 RENEWABLE ENERGY AND GREEN TECHNOLOGY (1+1)

THEORY

Unit I- Introduction to Renewable energy Sources

Energy crisis – classification of energy sources – renewable energy – significance –

potential - achievements in India. Biomass – methods of energy conversion.

Unit-II Biochemical Energy Conversion

Biofuels – importance – biodiesel and bioethanol production method – flowchart – by

products utilization. Biogas technology – classification - types - factors affecting biogas plants-
alternate feedstocks – applications - biodigested slurry and enrichment.

Unit III – Thermochemical Energy Conversion

Briquetting –methods- advantages and disadvantages -combustion –definition- Improved

chulhas – types – construction features - applications. Pyrolysis – methods for charcoal /biochar
production- comparion of slow and fast pyrolysis. Gasification – chemistry – types – updraft
gasifier -downdraft gasifier – working principles – operation and applications.

Unit IV – Solar Energy Conversion

Solar Energy – characteristics - types of radiation – solar constant-solar thermal devices –

solar water heater – solar cooker – solar pond – solar distillation – working principles and
applications. Solar PV systems – principle – solar lantern - water pumping. Solar driers – natural
and forced convection types – solar tunnel drier – working principles and operation.

Unit V- Wind and other Renewable Energy Sources

Wind – formations - Wind mills – types – horizontal and vertical axis – components –
working principles – applications. Geothermal energy – wave energy – tidal energy – ocean
energy – principle and operation - types – advantages and disadvantages

PRACTICAL

Familiarization with renewable energy gadgets. To study biogas plants, To study gasifier,
To study the production process of biodiesel, To study briquetting machine, To study the
production process of bio-fuels. Familiarization with different solar energy gadgets. To study
solar photovoltaic system: solar light, solar pumping, solar fencing. To study solar cooker, To
study solar drying system. To study solar distillation and solar pond.

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Lecture Schedule

Unit I- Introduction to Renewable energy Sources ( 2 lectures)

1. Energy crisis – renewable energy sources – significance – potential and
achievements in India – energy requirements of agricultural and
horticultural crops.
TB-1: 1-10

2. Biomass – methods of energy conversion – biochemical conversion

methods – thermochemical conversion methods.
TB-1: 12-26
Unit-II Biochemical Energy Conversion ( 3 lectures)
3. Biofuels – importance – biodiesel and bioethanol production method –
flowchart – by products utilization
TB-1: 164-
177; 182-183

4. Biogas technology – classification - types of biogas plants – KVIC and

Deenabandhu model biogas plants – factors affecting biogas plants.
TB-1: 30-43

5. Alternate feedstocks for biogas production – applications of biogas

cooking, lighting and engine operations - biodigested slurry and
enrichment.
TB-1: 45-49

Unit III – Thermochemical Energy Conversion ( 5 lectures)

6. Briquetting – MED – VED – methods – need for briquetting - benefits of

biomass briquettes.
TB-1: 92-99

7. Combustion – improved chulha – single pot – double pot – conventional

chulha – biomass gas stove – constructional features – principles and
applications.
TB-1: 52-57;
64-67

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8. Pyrolysis – methods for charcoal production –biochar production–
comparison between slow and fast pyrolysis.
TB-1: 67-73

9. Mid semester examination

10. Gasification – chemistry – types – updraft gasifier – working principles

operations – application
TB-2: 395-411
11. Downdraft gasifier – working principles – operation and applications.

Unit IV – Solar Energy Conversion (4 lectures)

12. Solar energy – characteristics of solar radiation - types of radiation – TB-1: 101-105
solar constant

13. Solar thermal devices – solar water heater – solar cooker – solar pond – TB-1: 105-114
solar distillation – working principles and applications.
TB-2: 138-
142, 195-197

14. Solar PV systems – principle – solar lantern - water pumping TB-1: 117-123
applications.

15. Solar driers – natural and forced convection types – solar tunnel drier – TB-1: 115-117
working principles and operation.

Unit V- Wind and other Renewable Energy Sources ( 2 lectures)

16. Wind mills – types – horizontal and vertical axis – components – working TB-1: 136 -
principles – applications. 144

17. Energy from ocean, waves, tides. Geothermal energy sources – principles TB-1: 189-205
and operation.

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 Lecture -1
Energy crisis – renewable energy sources – significance – potential and
achievements in India – energy requirements of agricultural and horticultural
crops.
Energy is the driving force in the development of economic growth, progress
and prosperity of any nation. Energy demand in agriculture, industrial, commercial and
household sectors has increased tremendously and placed enormous pressure on its
resources. The economic growth level of any nation will be indicated by the availability
and consumption levels of energy. India’s substantial economic growth is placing
enormous demand on its energy resources. The depleting resources and increasing
pollution of environment due to energy has necessities optimum use of its resources;
which in turn requires proper energy planning to achieve energy security.
Energy availability is about 6,81,347 MW which is depleting resulting in inflation
and energy shortage. The per capita energy consumption has increased from 560 kWh
in 2007, 957 kWh in 2015 to 1100 kWh in 2017. The rate of energy consumption is
increasing by 10% per annum. The per capita energy consumption in USA is 15.5
times, in which India is only 8 times. Energy demand in India is about 1,59,542 MW
and this demand is increasing day by day due to an increase in population,
urbanization and industrialization. India’s crude oil and natural gas production has
been stagnating in recent years. The widening of the demand supply gap has
increased the dependency on imports. Presently, almost 83% of India’s crude oil
availability is through imports.
The fossil fuel supply viz. Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas will be depleted in a few
hundred years. Industrialization, urbanization, population growth, economic growth,
improvement in per capita consumption of electricity, depletion of coal reserve,
increasing import of coal, crude oil and other energy sources and the rising concern
over climate change have put India in a critical position. It has to take a tough stance
to balance between economic development and environmental sustainability.
Therefore, alternate or renewable sources of energy have to be developed to
meet future energy requirement. To reduce dependency on imports, India’s strategy
is the encouragement of the development of various forms of renewable sources of
energy by the use of incentives by the Federal and State governments including the
use of nuclear energy, promoting wind farms, solar and biomass energy.
The following important key points have to be considered to promote energy
security
 Easy availability of energy helps in the process of industrialization in a country
 Production of energy leads to the efficient utilization of natural resources.
 For example solar energy, wind energy and hydro-electricity power can be
generated by using sunlight, wind and water resources respectively

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  Scope of employment opportunities can be possible with the process of
industrialization that is possible with easy availability of energy/power sources
 Easy availability of energy is required for the expansion of infrastructural
development in a country
 Income of a country can be raised with the expansion of the power sector. It
also helps to achieve economic self sufficiency
1.2. World energy scenario
Renewables are the world’s fastest-growing energy source over the projection
period between 2012 and 2040. Annual renewable energy consumption increases by
an average of 2.6%. Nuclear power is the world’s second fastest-growing energy
source, with an annual consumption increasing by 2.3% over that period. Even though
consumption of nonfossil fuels is expected to grow faster than consumption of fossil
fuels, fossil fuels still account for 78% of energy use in 2040. Annual global natural
gas consumption increases by 1.9% Abundant natural gas resources and robust
production including rising supplies of tight gas, shale gas and coalbed methane
contribute to the strong competitive position of natural gas. Although, liquid fuels
mostly petroleum based remain the largest source of world energy consumption, the
liquids share of world marketed energy consumption falls from 33% in 2012 to 30% in
2040. Contributing to the decline are rising oil prices in the long term, which lead many
energy users to adopt more energy-efficient technologies and to switch away from
liquid fuels when feasible.
World use of petroleum and other liquid fuels grows from 90 million barrels per
day in 2012 to 100 million barrels per day in 2020 and to 121 million barrels per day in
[Link] natural gas consumption is projected to increase from 120 trillion
cubic feet in 2012 to 203 trillion cubic feet in [Link] is the world’s slowest-growing
energy source rising by an average 0.6% per year, from 153 quadrillion Btu in 2012 to
180 quadrillion Btu in 2040. World net electricity generation increases by 69% from
21.6 trillion kWh in 2012 to 25.8 trillion kWh in 2020 and to 36.5 trillion kWh in 2040
(International Energy Outlook, 2016).
Renewables are the fastest growing source of energy for electricity generation,
with annual average increase of 2.6% from 2012 to 2040. In contrast to renewables,
coal-fired net generation increases by 0.8%. Electricity generation from nuclear power
worldwide increases from 2.3 trillion kWh in 2012 to 3.1 trillion kWh in 2020 and to 4.5
trillion kWh in 2040 Total world consumption of marketed energy expands from 549
quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) in 2012 to 629 quadrillion Btu in 2020 and to 815
quadrillion Btu in 2040 resulting in 48% increase from 2012 to 2040.
1.3. Indian energy scenario
1.3.1. Renewable energy potential
India is blessed with vast renewable energy sources such as solar, wind,
biomass and hydro energy of about 38.1 GW. In India, renewable energy potential for
solar energy is 8727.64 MW, wind energy is 28,279.40 MW, biomass cogeneration is

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4,882.33 MW, waste to energy is 114.08 MW with the annual biomass production of
500 metric tonnes and small power hydro energy of 4,323.37 MW respectively. The
off grid generation accounts to 1403.40 MW and biogas based system accounts to
49.354MW (MNRE, 2016).
1.3.2. Installed capacity of energy sources
In India, electric power generation is the largest source of greenhouse gas
emissions and accounts for 48% of the carbon emitted. These concerns, point towards
more rational energy use strategies. Perhaps, renewable energy based technologies,
functioning in a sustainable manner is the way forward. The country having diverse
climatic region is well endowed with renewable energy resources. The current installed
power generation capacity in India is about 3,07,278 MW which comprises of 69.10%
from thermal, 1.90% from nuclear, 14.10% from hydro and 14.90% from renewable
sector. [Link] the total installed capacity of renewable and non-renewable
sources of energy (MNRE,2016).
1.1.1. Tamil Nadu energy scenario
Tamil Nadu has a total installed capacity of renewable and non-renewable
energy of 23,104.15 MW. Of which, renewable energy sources contribute about
8432.15 MW. Tamil Nadu has 40% of the entire wind energy potential of India.

Tamil Nadu Solar Energy Policy aims over 3000 MW by 2015. Due to the
astronomical increase in energy demand in recent years, the state has a power deficit
of about 14.9%. To meet the ever-increasing energy demand, TNEB has proposed a
number of next-generation projects to be constructed over the next 5 years (TEDA,
2015). Table 1.1 gives the shares of installed power capacity in various sectors.

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1.4. Classification of energy sources
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
 Primary and Secondary energy sources
 Commercial and Non-commercial energy sources
 Renewable and Non-renewable energy sources
[Link] and Secondary energy sources
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature.
Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as
wood). Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from
radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in earth’s interior and potential energy
due to earth’s gravity.
Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into
secondary energy sources; for example coal, oilor gas converted into steam and
electricity. Primary energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non-
energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in fertilizer
plants.
1.4.2. Commercial and Non-commercial energy sources
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are
known as commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy
are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the
basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern
world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source
not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks of general
population. Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas, etc.
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price
are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include
fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally
gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are
also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy

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accounting. Eg: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating,
electricity generation and drying grain, fish and fruits, animal power for transport,
threshing, lifting water for irrigation and crushing sugarcane and wind energy for lifting
water and electricity generation.
1.4.3. Renewable and Non-Renewable energy sources
Renewable energy is the energy obtained from sources that are essentially
inexhaustible. Examples of renewable resources include wind, solar, tidal and
hydroelectric. The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can be
harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants. Non-renewable energy is the
conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely to deplete with time.
1.5. Renewable energy achievements in India
The current installed capacity of renewable energy gadgets for power
production given by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy for the year 2016 is
listed in Table 1.2.
1.6. Solar energy
India is endowed with vast solar energy. The solar radiation of about 1,74,000
TW is incident over its land mass with average daily solar power potential of 0.25 kWh
per m2and overall potential of 19 GW. The installed capacity is 4579.24 MW in which
3743 MW is from solar photo voltaic and 836.24 MW is from solar thermal sector. India
expects to install an additional 10,000 MW by 2017 and a total of 1,00,000 MW by
2022 (Energy Statistics, 2015).

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1.6.1. Solar energy schemes in India
The government of India is promoting the use of solar energy through various
strategies. The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) was launched on
the 11th January, 2010 by the honourable Prime Minister of India. The objective of this
mission under the brand ‘Solar India’ is to establish India as a global leader in solar
energy, by creating the policy conditions for its diffusion across the country as quickly
as possible. The target of this mission is to achieve 20,000 MW by 2022 with a budget
of 1380 crores. MNRE provides 70% subsidy on the installation cost of a solar
photovoltaic power plant in North-East states and 30% subsidy on other regions.
MNRE along with NABARD implemented a scheme under JNNSM to promote solar
home lighting systems to rural areas. These scheme offers 30-40% subsidies to
promote solar PV home lighting systems (MNRE, 2016). The solar energy can be
effectively harnessed using two basic technologies such as solar thermal and
photovoltaic conversion systems which have been explained in a separate chapter.
1.7. Wind energy
Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the
irregularities of the earth’s surface and rotation of the earth. The terms wind energy or
wind power describes the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical
power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into
mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as
grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power
into electricity.
1.8. Biomass energy
Biomass is defined as renewable energy sources derived from organic
carbonaceous materials originating from plants, animals and micro-organisms that
contain energy in a chemical form that can be converted into fuel. Biomass energy is
produced by green plants by photosynthesis in the presence of sun light. Biomass is
the fourth largest source of energy and most important fuel worldwide after coal, oil
and natural gas.

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 Among renewable energy options, agricultural and biomass residues can be
used as raw materials for the production of solid, liquid and gaseous products.
Biomass has been identified as the possible sustainable renewable source, which can
fulfill the energy demand without polluting the environment. Use of renewable and
carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies could reduce global level coal
consumption and also global CO2 emissions from coal could be reduced to 5.6 Gt by
2035.
Biomass has an estimated annual potential of about 500 million tonnes which
meets 33% of the primary energy needs. It is considered as one of the important
renewable sources for mankind as fuel wood which meets about 75% of the rural
energy needs and rural population constitutes 70% of the total population (MNRE,
2016). Conversion of biomass into energy is undertaken using two main process
technologies namely thermochemical and biochemical. Thermo chemical conversion
process includes combustion, pyrolysis and gasification whereas
biochemical conversion process includes anaerobic digestion and fermentation.
1.9. Other new and renewable energy sources
The other new and renewable sources of energy include hydro, geothermal,
tidal, wave and OTEC.
1.10. Advantages of renewable sources of energy
 Inexhaustible, replenish able and abundant in nature
 Reliable
 Stabilized energy price
 Eco-friendly
 Free of pollution and costs
 Mitigates greenhouse emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO 2), methane (CH4)
and nitrous oxide (N2O)
1.11. Limitations
 Higher capital costs
 Energy is unpredictable and inconsistent since depends on the season
1.12. Energy management in agriculture
The energy sources used in agriculture are mainly of commercial energy, which
is non-renewable in origin, and its consumption is about 80%. Increased usage of
these sources will not only deplete the reserve, but also increases the production cost.
The prime concern is maximizing productivity per unit area with minimum of energy
input and cost. Energy utilized in agriculture varies widely according to the cropping
pattern, type of farm activities and the level of mechanization.
The study on energy consumption pattern in crop production helps in identifying
major energy consuming operations or sources. This also helps in studying the

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possibilities of conservation of energy and also optimal allocation of available energy
sources in crop production system.
The energy consumption in terms of operation and source wise can be
calculated. The operations considered are tillage, sowing, bund making, weeding,
fertilizer application, spraying, harvesting and threshing. The total energy consumed
in each operation was calculated by summing all the individual energy sources used
for each operation. Likewise, each source energy consumption (human, animal,
diesel, electricity, machinery, seed, fertilizer, FYM and chemicals) for all the operations
are also calculated. Further energy management will suggest the time and amount of
application of various inputs in view of considerable increase in yield. Hence, through
energy management studies in agriculture, the available energy sources can be
utilized effectively and efficiently for higher productivity. The quantity of energy
requirement for crop production varies between 5000 and 50000 MJ ha-1 depends on
crops and cultivation practises.
The disadvantages of conventional energy sources are high production cost,
heavy transmission and distribution loss, cause of global warming, green house effect
and acid rain, uncertainty in availability, biggest threat for environment and public
health, very expansive to be maintained, stored and transmitted and exhaustible in
nature.

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 Lecture -2
Biomass – methods of energy conversion – biochemical conversion methods
– thermochemical conversion methods.
A wide variety of conversion technologies is available for manufacturing
premium fuels from biomass. Conversion of biomass into biofuel can be achieved by
two methods, namely thermochemical and biochemical conversion technologies which
are briefly illustrated in Fig.2.1.

Fig.2.1. Energy conversion routes

Each biomass resources such as wood, dung, vegetable wastes, agro residues
can be treated in many different ways to provide a wide spectrum of useful products.
Biomass can be dried and burnt to provide heat or converted into low calorific value
gas by pyrolysis process. Alternatively, it can be stirred into slurry and digested to yield
methane. Likewise, liquid and gaseous fuels such as methanol and methane can be
manufactured by several different routes and from a variety of biomass.
The choice of process is determined by a number of factors such as location
and type of the feed stocks, physical properties, economics and availability of a
suitable market for the product.
2.1. Thermochemical method of conversion
Thermal conversion processes use heat to convert biomass into solid, liquid
and gaseous products depending on the technology adopted. The basic
thermochemical technologies are combustion, pyrolysis and gasification which
produce different end products.
2.1.1. Combustion
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production
of heat, or heat and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the

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presence of an adequate supply of oxygen. Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common
elements on earth making up 20.9%(v) of atmospheric air. Rapid fuel oxidation results
in large amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to a gas before they
will burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases. During
combustion process, if carbon monoxide (CO) is released, it is called as incomplete
combustion and if carbon dioxide (CO2) is released, it is called as complete
combustion.
2.1.2. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is defined as the thermal degradation of biomass at temperature
between 250 – 900°C in the absence of oxygen to yield solid product called charcoal
or biochar, liquid product called biooil and gaseous product called syngas. The
pyrolysis process is classified into slow, intermediate and fast pyrolysis depending on
its reaction temperature, residence time and type of product required.
 Charcoal or biochar can be used as a substitute for fuel and as a soil conditioner
 Bio-oil can be used as an alternate liquid fuel for engine and other heating
applications
 Syngas can be used for thermal application and power generation
2.1.3. Gasification
Gasification is a thermo-chemical process in which, biomass is thermally
degraded with restricted amount of air / oxygen up to 900 °C to yield a mixture of
combustible gases consisting carbon monoxide, hydrogen and traces of methane
called producer gas. The reactor where the gasification takes place is called as
gasifier. The producer gas can be used for both thermal application and power
generation
2.2. Biochemical method of conversion
Biochemical conversion of organic waste materials involves the activity of
microbes, to get converted into useful products. The biochemical technologies are as
follows:
2.2.1. Aerobic method of conversion
The aerobic method of conversion of biomass is composting. Composting is a
bio-process, in which diverse and mixed group of micro-organisms breakdown organic
materials and transform in to humus like substances in aerobic conditions. The organic
material will normally have an indigenous mixed population of microorganisms derived
from the atmosphere, water or soil. When the moisture content of the wastes is brought
to a suitable level and the mass aerated, microbial action speeds up. As well as oxygen
and moisture, the microorganisms require for their growth and reproduction a source
of carbon (the organic waste), macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium and certain trace elements. In attacking the organic matter, the
microorganisms reproduce themselves and liberate carbon dioxide, water, other

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organic products and energy. Some of the energy is used in metabolism; the
remainder is given off as heat. The end product, compost is made up of the more
resistant molecules of the organic matter, breakdown products, dead and some living
microorganisms, together with products of biochemical reaction.
2.2.2. Anaerobic method of conversion
The biomass is converted into energy in the form of biogas and liquid biofuels
through anaerobic methods. They are as follows:
[Link]. Biogas
Anaerobic digestion involves the microbial digestion of biomass. The process
takes place at low temperature upto 65 °C and requires a moisture content of at least
80 percent. It generates a gas called biogas or gobar gas which consisting mostly of
55-65% methane (CH4) and 35 - 45% carbon dioxide (CO2) with minimum impurities
of hydrogen sulfide. The biogas can be burned directly or upgraded to synthetic natural
gas by removing the CO2 and the impurities. The residue may consist of protein-rich
sludge that can be used as animal feed and liquid effluents that are biologically treated
by standard techniques and returned to the soil.
[Link]. Liquid Biofuels
Depleted supplies of fossil fuel, regular price hikes of gasoline and
environmental damage have necessitated the search for economic and eco-friendly
alternative of gasoline. By 2020, India's dependency on oil imports is projected to go
beyond 90% from 80% at current level. So it is time to shift for alternate fuels like
biodiesel and bioethanol which are produced from biomass, renewable and
abundantly available source.
Ethanol is produced through fermentation of sugar, starch and lignocellulosic
materials. Fermentation is the breakdown of complex molecules in organic compound
under the influence of ferment such as yeast, bacteria, enzymes, etc. fermentation is
well established and widely used technology for the conversion of grains and sugar
crops into ethanol. Ethanol can be mixed with gasoline to produce gasohol (90 percent
gasoline and 10 percent ethanol).
Butanol was tradionally produced by ABE fermentation - the anaerobic
conversion of carbohydrates by strains of Clostridium into acetone, butanol and
ethanol. Acetone–butanol–ethanol (ABE) fermentation is a process that uses bacterial
fermentation to produce acetone, n-Butanol, and ethanol from carbohydrates such as
starch and glucose.
2.3. Chemical method of conversion
Biodiesel is a chemical method of conversion of oil into diesel. Biodiesel is a
variety of ester-based oxygenated fuels derived from natural, renewable biological
sources such as vegetable oils through transesterification process. Biodiesel can be
used as an alternate fuel for diesel engines.

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2.4. Characterization of feedstock
The different properties such as physical properties, proximate analysis,
ultimate analysis, thermal properties and biochemical analysis of the solid and liquid
wastes are determined using standard methods.
2.4.1. Physical properties
a. Bulk density
Bulk density is the main physical property for biomass. It is determined by
weighing the biomass sample filled in a vessel of known volume and calculating the
ratio of the weight of the biomass sample to the volume of the vessel.
W
Bulk density (ρ), kg m-3 =
V
where,
W = Weight of the biomass sample, kg
V = Volume of the vessel, m3
b. True density and porosity
True density is determined by calculating the difference between bulk density
and porosity. The porosity is determined by the device is called air picno meter. It is
expressed in percentage (%).
c. Moisture content
Using hot air oven (Fig.2.2.) moisture content of the sample is determined. By
oven method (ASTM, E-871) about 5 g of powdered sample is taken in a petri dish
and kept inside the oven at a temperature of 103 ± 5°C for 24 h. The moisture content
is calculated by measuring weight of moisture evaporated from the sample (W 2) and
the original sample weight (W 1). The formula is given below.
W1  W2
Moisture content (%) =  100
W1
where,
W1 = Initial weight of the biomass sample, g
W2 = Final weight of the biomass sample, g

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 Fig.2.2. Hot air oven
d. pH
The pH of samples is estimated using the electrometric method (APHA, 1999).
It is measured by pH meter having glass electrode and temperature probe as shown
in Fig.2.3. A 100 mL of the sample is taken in a clean beaker. The electrode is dipped
into the beaker containing waste water sample and the value is noted.

Fig.2.3. pH experiment setup

e. Total solids
The total solid (TS) is determined by the procedure outlined by APHA 1999,
2450 B, a standard method for examination of waste water.
A measured volume of well mixed sample is taken to a pre weighed dish (A)
and evaporated to bone-dry condition in hot air oven. The evaporated sample is dried
for one hour in the oven at 103 - 105 ºC. The dish is then cooled in desiccator and
weighed. The process of drying, cooling and weighing was repeated, until concordant
value of mass is obtained.
(B  A)  1000
Total solids, (mg/L) 
Sample volume, mL
Where,
A = Mass of dish, mg
B = Mass of dish + Dried residue, mg
f. Volatile solids
The residue obtained in TS determination was ignited in a muffle furnace at a
temperature of 550 ± 50 C for 30 minutes, in a closed porcelain crucible (APHA 1999,
Standard Methods, Section 2540 C). After partial cooling, the crucible with residue is
transferred to the desiccator for final cooling. The cycle of igniting, cooling and
weighing is continued until concordant values were obtained.
(A - B)
Volatile solids, (mg/L)  1000
Sample volume, mL
Where,

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 A = Mass of residue + crucible before ignition, mg
B = Mass of residue + crucible after ignition, mg
g. Total suspended solids (TSS)
A well-mixed sample is filtered through a weighed standard glass-fibre filter and
the residue retained on the filter is dried to constant mass in an oven at 103 - 105ºC
(APHA 1999, Standard Methods, Section 2540 D). The increase in mass over empty
dish represents the mass of Total suspended solids.
(D  C)  1000
Total suspended solids , (mg/L) 
Sample volume, mL
Where,
C = Mass of dish + filter, mg
D = Mass of dish + filter + dried residue, mg
h. Volatile suspended solids (VSS)
The residue obtained in TSS determination is ignited in a muffle furnace at a
temperature of 550 ± 50C for 30 minutes, in a closed porcelain crucible (APHA 1999,
Standard Methods, Section 2540 E). After partial cooling, the crucible with the residue
is transferred to the desiccator for final cooling. The cycle of igniting, cooling and
weighing is continued until concordant values are obtained.
(E  F)  1000
Volatile suspended solids , (mg/L) 
Sample volume, mL
Where,
E = Mass of dish + filter + dried residue before ignition, mg
F = Mass of dish + filter + dried residue after ignition, mg

2.4.2. Proximate analysis

Proximate composition such as volatile matter, ash content and fixed carbon
content of the biomass species is calculated by using the procedure and formula given
below. Mostly proximate analysis is determined on dry basis (%).
a. Volatile matter
The volatile matter is determined using muffle furnace (ASTM, E-872). To
measure the volatile content, known content of dried sample is taken in a closed
crucible and kept inside the muffle furnace (Fig.2.4) at 650°C for six minutes and again
at 750°C for another six minutes. The loss in weight of the sample is found out and
the per cent of volatile matter is calculated as,
Loss in weight of the sample, g
Volatile matter (%) = x 100
Weight of moisture free sample, g

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 Fig.2.4. Muffle furnace
b. Ash content
The ash content of the selected biomass is found out (ASTM, E-830) by taking
a known quantity of dried biomass sample in an open crucible and keeping it in a
muffle furnace at about 750°C up to reaching a standard weight. The ratio between
the remaining weight of biomass in the crucible and the sample taken is the fraction of
ash content of tested material.
Weight of ash formed, g
Ash content (%) = x 100
Weight of dried sample, g
c. Fixed carbon
The fixed carbon of biomass sample was calculated by subtracting the sum of
ash content (%) and volatile matter (%) from 100. The fixed carbon is the residue left
after removing the volatile matter and the ash from the substance.
Fixed Carbon, % = 100 - (Volatile matter (%) + Ash content (%))
2.4.3. Ultimate analysis
Elemental composition of biomass is an important property, which defines the
energy content and determines the clean and efficient use of the biomass materials.
However, the ultimate analysis requires very expensive equipment like elemental
analyzer and highly trained analysts. The ultimate analysis of the biomass and other
samples are determined the fractions by weight of the composition in carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen and oxygen is calculated using elemental analyzer (Fig.2.5.).

Fig.2.5. Elemental analyzer

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 Elemental C, H, N and O content 1s estimated using correlation analysis
suggested by (Parikh et al., 2007) from proximate analysis. The correlation formulae
used to find elemental composition is as follows:
C - 0.637 FC + 0.455 VM,
H - 0.052 FC + 0.062 VM, and
O - 0.304 FC + 0.476 VM
Where,
C - Carbon, %
H - Hydrogen, %
O - Oxygen, %
FC - Fixed Carbon, % and
VM - Volatile Matter, %
2.4.4. Thermal properties
a. Calorific value
Calorific value is the major thermal property in the study of biomass for any fuel
applications. Heating value or calorific value is the heat released by the fuel under
ideal combustion conditions. There are basically two types of calorific value namely,
higher heating value (HHV) and lower heating value (LHV).
The Higher Heating Value (HHV) is the total amount of heat in a sample of fuel
- including the energy in the water vapor that is created during the combustion process,
when the combustion process takes place at constant volume and water formed during
the process is condensed and the latent heat of vaporization of water is also
accounted. The heating value determined by using Bomb calorimeter is the Higher
Heating Value (HHV) or otherwise called as Gross Calorific Value (GCV).
In almost all the thermo-chemical conversion processes, such as gasification
and pyrolysis, the process occurs at constant pressure and vapors leave the process
as such without getting condensed. The heating value under these conditions is called
as Lower Heating Value (LHV) or Net Calorific Value (NCV). The Lower Heating Value
(LHV) is the amount of heat in a sample of fuel minus the energy in the combustion
water vapor.
The Lower Heating Value is always less than the Higher Heating Value for a
fuel. The suggested equation for calculating Lower Heating Value (LHV) from Higher
Heating Value (HHV) is,
Lower Heating Value = Higher Heating Value – 2.26 MJ kg-1
Bomb calorimeter is used to determine calorific value of both solid and liquid
samples. The calorific value of the gaseous products is determined using Junkers gas
calorimeter. The unit for solid and liquid fuels is kJ kg-1 or MJ kg-1 and for gaseous
fuels, it is kJ Nm-3 or MJ Nm-3.
Description of bomb calorimeter
The bomb calorimeter consists of a strong stainless steel bomb, inside which
the fuel sample is burnt. The bomb is provided with an oxygen inlet valve and two

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stainless steel electrodes. To one of the electrodes, a small ring is attached. In this
ring, a stainless steel crucible is placed. The bomb is placed in a copper calorimeter
which contains three fourth of water. The copper calorimeter is provided with a
Beckmann thermometer and a stirrer. The copper calorimeter is surrounded by an air
jacket and water jacket.
Working principle of bomb calorimeter
A known weight of fuel sample is taken in the crucible. A fine magnesium wire,
touching the fuel sample, is then stretched across the electrodes. The bomb lid is
tightly screwed.
The bomb is filled with oxygen at 25 atm pressure. The bomb is kept in the
copper calorimeter. Initial temperature of water in the calorimeter is noted after
thorough stirring. The electrodes are then connected to 6V battery. The current is
switched on and the fuel sample in the crucible burnt with the evolution of heat. The
heat liberated due to the combustion of the sample raises the temperature of water in
the calorimeter (Fig.2.6.).

Fig.2.6. Bomb calorimeter

The final temperature of water is noted. The calorific value of the fuel is
calculated as follows.
(W  w)T
CVF, cal g-1 =
M
where,
CVF - Calorific value, cal g-1
W - Water equivalent of calorimeter assembly, cal °C-1
T - Rise in temperature, °C
M - Mass of sample burnt, g
b. Thermo Gravimetric Analyzer
Thermo Gravimetric Analysis / Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) is a type of
testing that is performed on biomass or other residue samples to determine changes
in weight in relation to change in temperature. Such analysis relies on a high degree
of precision in three measurements namely:
1. Weight,
2. Temperature and
3. Temperature change.

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 A derivative weight loss curve can be used to predict the point at which weight
loss is more apparent. The thermo gravimetric analyzer (Fig.2.7.) consists of a high-
precision balance with a pan (generally Platinum) loaded with the sample. The pan is
placed in a small electrically heated oven with a thermocouple to accurately measure
the temperature. The atmosphere may be purged with an inert gas to prevent oxidation
or other undesired reactions.

Fig.2.7. Thermo Gravimetric Analyzer

Analysis is carried out by raising the temperature gradually and plotting weight
in percentage against temperature. The testing temperature is 1000 °C or greater.
After the data are obtained, curve smoothing and other operations may be done such
as to find the exact points of inflection. A TGA graph of coconut shell biomass is given
in Fig.2.8.

Fig. 2.8. TGA graph for coconut shell biomass

c. Energy density
Energy density is calculated using bulk density and calorific value of biomass
feedstock.

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 Energy Density, MJ m-3 = BD x CV
Where,
BD = Bulk Density of the biomass, kg m-3
CV = Calorific Value of the biomass, MJ kg-1
2.4.5. Biochemical analysis
a. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
The BOD test (Fig.2.9.) is carried out by diluting the sample with de-ionized
water with added nutrients, saturated with oxygen, inoculating it with a fixed aliquot of
seed, measuring the dissolved oxygen and sealing the sample (to prevent further
oxygen dissolving in). The sample is kept at 20 °C in the dark to prevent
photosynthesis (and thereby the addition of oxygen) for five days and the dissolved
oxygen is measured again. The difference between the final DO and initial DO is the
BOD.
 Undiluted: BOD = Initial DO - Final DO
 Diluted : BOD = (Initial DO - Final DO) - BOD of blank) x Dilution Factor

Fig.2.9. BOD experiment set up

b. Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
The COD of the samples are analyzed by Dichromate method (APHA, 1989).
The diluted sample is refluxed for 2 hours in a strong acid solution of concentrated
H2SO4 with Ag2SO4 (5.5 Ag2SO4 per kg of H2SO4) and with a known excess of
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) (Fig.2.10.) After digestion, the remaining unreduced
K2Cr2O7 is titrated against ferrous ammonium sulphate (FAS) to determine the amount
of K2Cr2O7 consumed. The oxidizable organic matter is calculated in terms of oxygen
equivalent. Also run blank containing the reagents and a volume of distilled water
equal to that of the sample.
(A - B)  N  8000
COD,(mg/L)
Samplevolume,mL
Where,
A = Volume of FAS used for blank
B = Volume of FAS used for sample

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 Fig.2.10. COD experiment set up
c. Estimation of total organic carbon (TOC)
The TOC was estimated by the wet digestion method of Walkley and Black as
described by Piper, 1989. The diluted 20 ml sample is digested with 50-75 ml of 1N
K2Cr2O7 with 20ml of conc. H2SO4. After 30 minutes, 10 ml of ortho phosphoric acid is
added. This was titrated against 1 N Ferrous Ammonium Sulphate (FAS) with
diphenylamine as indicator. Run blank also without sample in a similar way.
(Bv - Sv)  NFAS  100  0.03
TOC (%) 
Vs
Where,
Bv = Volume of FAS used for blank in titration (mL)
Sv = Volume of FAS used for sample in titration (mL)
NFAS = Normality of FAS
Vs = Volume of test Sample
Organic matter (%) = Organic carbon (%) × 1.724
Total N (%) = Organic matter (%) × 0.05
d. Estimation of total Kjeldhal nitrogen (TKN)
Available nitrogen is estimated in the samples by micro kjeldhal method.
To 1 ml of sample, 2-3 ml of 25 per cent KMnO4 solution was added followed by a few
drops of Conc. H2SO4. To this, 10-15 ml of di-acid (H2SO4 & HClO3 in the ratio 5:2) is
added and the digestion was carried out in a Kjel plus digestion unit. 5 ml of each of
the digested samples is distilled with 20 to 50ml of 40 per cent NaOH and the distillate
titrated against 0.05 N H2SO4.
Titre value 14  [Link] acid make up
Total Kjeldhal Nitrogen,mg/L   100
Volume of acid pipetted

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 Lecture -3
Biofuels – importance – biodiesel and bioethanol production method –
flowchart – by products utilization
Depleted supplies of fossil fuel, regular price hikes of gasoline and
environmental damage have necessitated the search for economic and eco-friendly
alternative to gasoline. By 2020, India's dependency on oil imports is projected to go
beyond 90% from 80% at current level. So it is time to shift for alternate fuels like bio-
diesel, bio-ethanol and bio-butanol which is produced from biomass which is a
renewable energy source and abundantly available.
3.1. Bio-diesel
Bio-diesel is a variety of ester-based oxygenated fuels derived from natural,
renewable biological sources such as vegetable oils. The name indicates, use of this
fuel in diesel engine alternate to diesel fuel. Bio-diesel operates in compression
ignition engines like petroleum diesel thereby requiring no essential engine
modifications. Moreover, it can maintain the payload capacity and range of
conventional diesel. Bio-diesel fuel can be made from new or used vegetable oils and
animal fats. Unlike fossil diesel, pure bio-diesel is biodegradable, nontoxic and
essentially free of sulphur and aromatics.
3.1.1. Importance of Bio-diesel
Bio-diesel is monoalkyl ester of long chain fatty acids produced from the
transesterification reaction of vegetable oil with alcohol in the presence of catalyst and
can be used as fuel. Bio-diesel is a fuel produced through the transesterification
reaction between a triglyceride and an alcohol, typically methanol or ethanol using
sodium hydroxide as catalyst. This fuel has several advantages as compared to the
petroleum-based diesel. The main reason for its utilization is that the bio-diesel has
lower environmental impact than the diesel fuel obtained from petroleum. Bio-diesel is
produced from vegetable oils or fats that are renewable resources, and hence no
accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The amount of sulphur is around
11 ppm. In a regular diesel sulphur content is 1600 ppm, while in low sulphur diesel it
is 500 ppm and for ultra-lower sulphur diesel it is 50 ppm. The cost associated with
this level of purification is too high and the alternative of using bio-diesel as an additive
became very attractive.
Additionally, bio-diesel presents a high lubricity that extends the engine life and
bio-diesel is not toxic and easily biodegradable. The production of bio-diesel using
material of high acidity and therefore lower value requires the development of a
process combining different types of catalysis such as acids and alkalis. The acidity of
these materials is given by free fatty acids which in the presence of a base and water
are transformed into soaps.

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3.1.2. Chemistry of bio-diesel production
Bio-diesel is produced by transesterification of large, branched triglycerides in
to smaller, straight chain molecules of methyl esters, using an alkali or acid or enzyme
as catalyst. There are three stepwise reactions with intermediate formation of
diglycerides and monoglycerides resulting in the production of three moles of methyl
esters and one mole of glycerol from triglycerides. Alcohols such as methanol, ethanol,
propanol, butanol and amyl alcohol are used in the transesterification process.
Methanol and ethanol are used most frequently, especially methanol because of its
low cost, and physical and chemical advantages. They can quickly react with
triglycerides and sodium hydroxide is easily dissolved in these alcohols. Stoichiometric
molar ratio of alcohol to triglycerides required for transesterification reaction is 3:1. In
practice, the ratio needs to be higher to drive the equilibrium to a maximum ester yield.
Triglyceride + ROH ---------catalysts________ Diglyceride + RI COOR
Diglyceride + ROH ---------catalysts________ Monoglyceride + RII COOR
Monoglyceride + ROH ---------catalysts________ Glycerol + RIII COOR
Transesterification has been classified into four major types. They are,
 Alkali catalyzed transesterification
 Acid catalyzed pretreatment
 Catalyst free transesterification
 Enzyme catalyzed transesterification
3.1.3. The Jatropha curcas plant and oil
The oil yielding plant Jatropha curcas L. is a multipurpose and drought resistant
large shrub, which is widely cultivated in the tropics as a live fence. The Jatropha plant
can reach a height up to 5 m and its seed yield ranges from 7.5 to 12 tonnes per
hectare per year, after five years of growth. The oil content of whole Jatropha seed is
30-35 % by weight basis. The problems in use of jatropha oil as fuel in diesel are listed
in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Problems in use of jatropha oil as fuel in diesel engine
Problems Causes
Chocking of injectors on piston and High viscosity of raw oil, incomplete
head of engine combustion of fuel. Poor combustion at
part load with raw oil
Carbon deposits on piston and head High viscosity of oil, incomplete
of engine combustion of fuel.
Excessive engine wear High viscosity of raw oil, incomplete
combustion of fuel. Dilution of engine
lubricating oil due to blow by of raw oil
The above problems can be solved by converting raw jatropha oil into bio-diesel
through transesterification process.

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3.1.4. TNAU Bio-diesel pilot plant
The bio-diesel pilot plant consists of a transesterification reactor with heater, a
stirrer, chemical mixing tank, glycerol settling tank (2 No.) and washing tank. The
capacity of pilot bio-diesel plant is 250 litres/day. The cost of the pilot plant is Rs. 5
lakhs.
[Link] Pilot bio-diesel plant operation
In the pilot bio-diesel plant, jatropha oil is mixed with alcohol and catalyst
mixture in transesterification reactor. The reactor is kept at reaction temperature for
specific duration with vigorous agitation. After reaction, the bio-diesel and glycerol
mixture is sent to the glycerol settling tank. The process flow chart for bio-diesel
production from Jatropha curcus seeds is shown in Fig.3.1.

Fig.3.1. Process flow chart for bio-diesel production from Jatropha curcus
seeds
The crude bio-diesel is collected and washed to get pure bio-diesel. Depending
upon the need, the size of the unit can be scaled up to get higher production.
3.1.5. Properties of Bio-diesel
a. Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of the ability of a liquid to flow or a measure of its
resistance to flow. It is also defined as the force required to move a plane surface of
area 1 square meter over another parallel plane surface 1 meter away at a rate of 1
meter per second when both surfaces are immersed in the fluid; the higher the
viscosity, the slower the liquid flows.
b. Viscosity index
An arbitrary scale used to show the magnitude of viscosity changes in
lubricating oils with changes in temperature.

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c. Flash Point
It is the minimum temperature at which an oil/petro fuel gives out sufficient
vapor to form an inflammable mixture with air and catches-fire momentarily i.e.,
flashes, when flame is applied. Bio-diesel has a flash point (150°C) well above the
flash point of petroleum based diesel fuel (±70°C). Flash point less than 23 ºC is
dangerous and highly inflammable. The safe value is greater than 60-66 ºC.
d. Fire Point
It is the lowest temperature at which vapors given off by oil ignites and
continues to burn for at least 5 seconds. In most cases, fire point is 5-40 ºC higher
than flash point. It gives an idea of fire hazards during the storage and use of oil.
e. Cloud Point
When oil is cooled at a specified rate, the temperature at which it becomes
cloudy or hazy is called the cloud point of oil. This haziness is due to separation of
crystals of wax or increase of viscosity at low temperature. It is determined by cold
filter plugging point test.
f. Pour Point
The temperature at which the oil ceases to flow (or pour) is called the pour
point. Lubricants used in a machine working at low temperature should possess low
pour points; otherwise solidification of lubricant will cause jamming of the machine.
Presences of waxes in the lubricating oil raise the pour point.
g. Freezing Point
It is the temperature at which the fuel oil freezes completely and cannot flow at
all. This is important in case of aviation gasoline because at higher altitudes where
lower temperatures are encountered, the fuel supply from fuel tank to engine may be
impeded due to choking of pipeline if the freezing point of the fuel oil is not sufficiently
low. Aviation gasoline should have freezing point below 60 ºC to avoid trouble due to
crystal formation in feed lines and filters.
h. Octane Number
This is property of gasoline which is used in a spark ignition engine and
expresses its knocking characteristics. Higher the octane number better is the fuel as
maximum permissible power increases with the octane number besides causing
minimum knocking. Octane number of hydrocarbon fuels increases in the order of n-
paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, isoparaffins and aromatics.
j. Cetane Number
Cetane number (CN) is a dimensionless descriptor of the ignition quality of a
diesel fuel (DF). It is property of diesel and is used to indicate its quality and
performance in compression ignition engine. Cetane (C16H34) has a very small ignition
delay period hence it is given a cetane number rating 100. α- methyl naphthalene has
a very high ignition delay period; hence it is given a rating of zero. Regular diesel fuel

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has a cetane number of 42-45 which varies with feed stock.
Cetane number increases in the order aromatics, iso-paraffins, naphthene,
olefins, n-parafins, where as octane number decrease in the same order. The oil of
high cetane number has a low octane number and vice versa. High cetane number
diesel fuel will facilitate easy starting of C.I. engines particularly in cold weather, faster
than warm up, increased engine efficiency and power output and reduced exhaust
smoke, odour and combustion noise.
k. Oxidation Stability
Oils tend to oxidize in contact with air rapidly at higher temperature. Oxidation
products are insoluble, gummy and sticky materials which may clog oil holes, filters,
pipelines and other parts of the oil circulation system. Soluble oxidation products are
corrosive. Hence resistance to oxidation is a desirable property of oil. Oxidation
inhibitors added to improve their resistance. It gets oxidized first and the oil is
protected.
l. Acid Value
Acid value or number determines the acidity of oil. It is defined as the number
of milligrams of the KOH required to neutralize the free acid present in 1 gm of oil.
m. Colour and Fluoresence
Colour of petroleum products indicates the degree of refinement. Distillates are
lighter in colour than the residual oils. A pale colour does not indicate lower viscosity.
The mineral oils show fluorescence in reflected light whereas fixed oils do not show
fluorescence. Hence, fluorescence helps to detect adulteration.
n. Sulphur Content
Sulphur content increases with the increase in the boiling range of the products.
Sulphur content in oil is determined by chemical method. Sulphur is largely present in
oil in the form of corrosive organic compounds. On combustion, it gives off foul gases
corrosive in nature.
The fuel properties of jatropha bio-diesel produced in the pilot plant are given
in the Table 3.2.
Table 3.2. Fuel properties of Jatropha oil and its bio-diesel
Properties Jatropha Oil Jatropha bio-diesel Diesel
Density, g/ml 0.920 0.865 0.841
Viscosity @ 40ºC, Cst 3.5 5.2 4.5
Calorific value, MJ/kg 39.7 39.2 42.0
Flash point, ºC 240 175 50
Cloud point, ºC 16 13 9
3.1.6. Alternate feedstock for bio-diesel production
In India, there are several non-edible oil seed species apart from Jatropha
curcas (Jatropha), such as Pongamia pinnata (Karanja), Azadirachta indica (Neem),

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adhuca indica (Mahua) etc., which could be utilized as a source for production of oil
and can be grown in large scale on non-cropped marginal lands and waste lands.
3.1.7. Byproducts and Utilization
Bio-diesel production produces three major bio-diesel waste products. They are
glycerin, methanol and waste water
[Link]. Glycerin
For every 10 parts of bio-diesel produced, there is 1 part of glycerin is formed.
The utilization of Glycerin is as follows:
 Glycerin can be converted into ethanol through fermentation with a strain of E.
coli. This method of producing ethanol actually has higher yields than the
traditional way of producing ethanol.
 Researchers have found that when glycerin is combined with a harmless strain
of [Link], succinate is formed. Succinate is used to flavor food and drinks, is an
ingredient in perfumes and dyes, and in nontoxic plastic solvents. Succinate
has a large market in the US.
 Formate can be produced from glycerin and E-coli strains. It is a common
preservative in animal feed, and is also used as an antibacterial agent.
 Glycerin can be used to produce a hydrogen rich gas for use in fertilizers, food
production and chemical plants.
 It can also be taken to a wastewater treatment plant where it will be added to a
methane digester.
[Link]. Bio-diesel waste
Bio-diesel waste can be composted by mixing in organic matter such as leaves,
grass clippings, straw, and twigs. Toss the mixture around every couple weeks to
oxygenate it in order to help it decompose. This will also allow any remnant methanol
to evaporate.
[Link]. Remnant Methanol
Excess methanol can be boiled off the glycerin within a closed container and
directed into a condenser. It can then be reused in the next batch of bio-diesel.
[Link]. Waste Water
The source of waste water is the water used to wash the bio-diesel. The waste
water can be treated and reused.
3.1.8. Advantages of bio-diesel
1. Produced from sustainable / renewable biological sources
2. Ecofriendly and oxygenated fuel
3. Sulphur free, less CO, HC, particulate matter and aromatic compounds
emissions

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 4. Income to rural community
5. Fuel properties similar to the conventional fuel
6. Used in existing unmodified diesel engines
7. Reduce expenditure on oil imports
8. Non toxic, biodegradable and safety to handle
3.2. Bio-ethanol
Alcohol possesses most of the desirable attributes of a source of energy. Ethanol
or ethyl alcohol is commonly known as alcohol which is one of the most important and
popular industrial fermented products. It is a primary alcohol (single -OH group),
colourless, volatile and miscible in water in all proportions.
3.2.1. Raw materials for bio-ethanol production
Ethanol can be produced in sufficient quantities from a wide range of raw
materials. These raw materials include sugar, starch, lignocellulosic materials, such as
vegetables, growing crops, waste organic matter such as straw and sawdust, tropical
grasses, farm waste, molasses, water gas, industrial waste like sulphite liquor from paper
and pulp industry, etc.
Environmental and energy security concerns are forcing us to shift to alternate
energy. Currently, biofuel production is minimal and to enhance its production we require
policy support, community and local interest, technological breakthrough and cost effective
feedstock production.
3.2.2. Properties of ethanol
All alcohols have a common feature. Their molecular structure includes a hydroxyl
(OH) radical, which gives them certain characteristics, high latent heat of vaporization
and solubility in water. This water like characteristics is most apparent in the alcohols of
low molecular weight, ethanol and methanol, because the OH radical predominates over
their short hydrocarbon chains. Of the innumerable family of substances known as the
alcohols, only the first two members of the monohydric saturated series, namely,
methanol and ethanol, the most volatile alcohols, are of interest as motor fuel. For the
purpose of comparison the corresponding properties of gasoline a typical hydrocarbon
fuel are also given in the Table 3.3.
Table 3.3. Properties of ethanol, methanol and gasoline (H.B. Mathur, 1988)
[Link] Property Methanol Ethanol Gasoline
1. Formula CH3OH CH3CH2O C4-C12
H
2. C/H mass 3.0 4.0 5.33
3. Relative molecular mass 32.042 46.068 114.224
4. Carbon, % by wt. 37.5 52.0 84.0
5. Hydrogen, % by wt. 12.6 13.2 16.0
6. Oxygen, % by wt. 49.9 34.7 0.0
7. Density at 20C, Kg/M3 792.0 789.5 702.0
8. Boiling point,C 64.96 78.32 125.7

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 9. Freezing point,C -94.9 -117.6 -57.0
10. Heat of vaporization, KJ/Kg 1101.1 841.5 297.3
11. Heat of fusion, KJ/Kg 100.5 104.7 180.0
12. Critical temperature,C 240.2 243.3 296.2
13. Critical pressure, bar 97.08 61.78 24.22
14. Critical density, Kg/m3 358.0 280.0 233.0
15. Compression factor at critical 0.222 0.248 0.274
parameter
16. Coefficient of cubical expansion at 0.00119 0.00110 0.00114
20 C/K
17. Viscosity at 20C, Ns/M2 0.000584 0.00120 0.00054
18. Flash point,C (Pensky-Martin -1.1 12.80 -43
instrument)
19. Spontaneous ignition temp.,C 480 440 425-510
20. Thermal conductivity at 0.212 0.182 0.147
20C,W/mK
21. Vapour pressure at 38C, bar 0.320 0.210 0.800
22. Refractive index-D (D=589.3 mu 1.329 1.361 -
at 20C)
23. Gross heating value, KJ/Kg 22680 29770 47850
24. Net heating value, KJ/Kg 19930 26750 44380
25. Heating value of std. 3253 3528 3540
stoichiometric mixture, KJ/m3
26. Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (mass) 6.46 8.99 14.55
27. Stoichiometric product/ reactant 1.061 1.065 1.057
ratio (molar)
28. Flammability limits:
a. Air/Fuel(% volume) 6.7-36.5 4.0-13.7 1.4-7.3
b. Air/Fuel(% mass) 1.6-121.6 2.7-14.0 6.0-22.0
29. Flame speed, cm/s 55 52 37.5
30. Adiabatic flame temp.,K 2229 2214 2260
31. Octane quality
a. Research octane number 110 106 80-95
b. Motor octane number 92 89 70-85
32. Heat capacity at 25C, J/mol K 81.6 111.5 239.3
33. Entropy at 25C, J/mol K 126.8 160.7 328.0
34. Gibbs energy of formation at - 166.2 - 174.8 6.90
25C, KJ/mol
35. Standard enthalpy of formation at - 238.57 - 277.63 - 259.28
25C, KJ/mol
36. Standard enthalpy of reaction -638.6 -1234.9 -5069.3
(net) at 25C, KJ/mol
37. Dangerous concentrations for 200 1000 500
prolonged exposure, ppm
Table 3.3 reveals that the alcohols are pure substances, boiling at one temperature,
just as does water or lead, while gasoline has a range of boiling point and infact, contains
many different substances, generally known as hydrocarbons. Secondly the gasoline

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contains no oxygen, alcohols contains oxygen and hence alcohol have more volatility.
Volatility sets a limit to the usefulness of the alcohols as fuels. Because of the presence of
substantial quantities of chemically combined oxygen in alcohols, they not only have lower
calorific value but also lower stoichiometric air requirements. For complete combustion of
1 kg of gasoline, about 15 kg of air is required, for ethanol only 9 kg of air is required for
each 1 kg. The internal total energy available from a fuel depends also upon the final
volume of the products of combustion. Alcohols have higher octane rating which enables
higher compression operation without engine knock. Moreover, alcohols are liquid state
fuels that fit into the present infrastructure of the fuel distribution and sales network.
3.2.3. Ethanol Production
Ethanol can be commercially produced by a variety of methods, which can be
broadly classified into two categories: (a) Chemical synthesis and (b) Enzymatic
fermentation. Chemical synthesis make use of stored materials, such as coal and
petroleum, hence are not of lasting utility in view of the non-renewable nature of these raw
materials and their fast depleting reserves. Enzymatic fermentation, on the other hand,
make use of naturally occurring raw materials which are renewable in nature.
Any material which is capable of being fermented by enzymes can serve as a
source for ethanol production. These raw materials can be categorized into three groups:
(i) sugar containing materials, such as sugarcane, sugar beet, sweet sorghum and
molasses - a byproduct of sugar industry, etc., (ii) starch containing materials, such as
corn, algae, cassava etc. and (iii) cellulosic materials, such as bagasse, biomass, wood
wastes, agricultural and forest residues, agro industrial products or wastes like sulphite
liquor from paper and pulp industry, sawdust from saw mills etc.
There are two key reactions to understand how biomass is converted to bio-
ethanol,
 Hydrolysis is the chemical reaction that converts the complex polysaccharides in the
raw feedstock to simple sugars. In the biomass-to-bio-ethanol process, acids and
enzymes are used to catalyze this reaction.
 Fermentation is a series of chemical reactions that convert sugars to ethanol. The
fermentation reaction is caused by yeast or bacteria, which feed on the sugars.
C6H12O6 ----- 2 CH3CH2OH + 2 CO2
Glucose Ethanol Carbon dioxide
[Link]. Ethanol production from sugar materials
Sugar containing materials provide the most potential feedstock for ethanol
production. Sugars (saccharides) are low molecular weight carbohydrates composed
of one or more saccharose group(s). The simplest are monosaccharides. A hexose is
a monosaccharide composed of six carbon atoms. Glucose and fructose are two
hexoses capable of being fermented. Although they have the same formula - C6H12O6
- their molecular structure is different. In more complex sugars, the monomeric units
(disaccharides and polysaccharides) are joined together by a chemical bond called the

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glycolytic link and change the complex sugars into monosaccharides (fermentable
sugars). The ethanol yield from different sugar materials are listed in Table 3.4. The
flowchart of ethanol production from sugar materials is shown in Fig.3.2.
Table 3.4. Ethanol yield per1000 kg feed stock from different sugar materials
Total fermentable solids
[Link] Sugar crop Ethanol yield (kg)
(kg)
1. Sugarcane 112.0 54.3
2. Sorghum 96.0 46.0
3. Sugarbeet 66.7 32.0

Fig.3.2. Ethanol production from sugar materials

[Link]. Ethanol from starch materials
Starch based feedstock include a variety of cereals, grains and tubers like
Cassava. Starchy feedstock can be hydrolyzed to get fermentable sugar syrup and give
an average yield of upto 42 litres of ethanol per 100 kg of feedstock. The flowchart of
ethanol production from starch based materials is shown in Fig.3.3.

Fig.3.3. Ethanol production from starch based materials

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[Link]. Ethanol production from cellulosic materials
Cellulosic ethanol i.e. ethanol from forestry or agricultural waste is considered
a way to prevent displacement of edible crops. The process of producing ethanol from
sugarcane, corn, cassava and other starch materials will be simple and yields more
ethanol as compared to cellulosic materials. And sugar and starchy materials are
used as food materials, so ethanol production from these materials may affect the
supply of food products. The flowchart of ethanol production from cellulosic materials
is shown in Fig.4.4.

Fig.3.4. Ethanol production from cellulosic materials

Ethanol from cellulosic materials which is mainly a waste is a better way and also
efficient in waste utilization. Sugarcane bagasse, wheat straw, wood, and effluent from
paper & pulp industries are the very potential cellulosic feed stocks.
3.2.3. Fermentation types
Although fermentation is only one step in the production process, it is the key
step. Fermentation is a biochemical process in which enzymes produced by
microorganisms transform an organic substance (substrate) into ethanol. The substrate
used in ethanol fermentation is a six-carbon sugar. The microorganisms used in
fermentation whether yeasts, molds or bacteria - contain no chlorophyll and therefore
cannot produce their own food through photosynthesis. Rather, they produce enzymes
that act as catalysis to convert carbohydrates from organic material into energy. These
enzymes start the fermentation process and the biological changes that produce ethanol
from the sugar substrate. Yeasts are the most commonly used microorganisms
responsible for producing the enzymes that convert glucose to ethanol. The complex
reactions and interrelationships of yeast fermentation of a sugar substrate is called the
Embden-Meyerhoff parnas pathway. Yeast species used in ethanol fermentation are
unicellular fungi which exhibit a number of different strategies for growth and

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multiplication. The organisms of primary interest include - Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
[Link], Schizosaccharomyces. pombe.
[Link]. Batch Fermentation
The sugar solution supplemented with yeast nutrients is added to the fermenter
and fermenter is inoculated with a rapidly growing culture of yeast from the seed tank.
Usually the time required to completely utilize the substrate is 36-48 h. The overall
productivity from this process is about 1.8 - 2.5 kg of ethanol produced per m3 fermenter
volume per hour. After completion of fermentation the cells are removed from the broth
medium before distillation.
Advantages
1. Control of microbial contaminants
2. Control of ethanol quality per batch
Disadvantages
1. Higher capital requirement for large scale production because of the number of
fermenters required.
2. Decrease in volumetric efficiency of fermenters, based on time used.
3. Possible variations from batch to batch, requiring homogenization.
[Link]. Continuous Fermentation
In the continuous process, sugars and nutrient mediums are continuously added
to the reactor. The fermenter consists of a vertical cylindrical tower with a conical
bottom. The tower is topped by a large diameter yeast settling zone fitted with baffles.
The sugar solution is pumped into the base of the tower which contains a plug of
flocculent yeast. Reaction proceeds progressively as the beer rises, but yeast tends to
settle back and be retained. High cell densities of 50 to 80 g/h are achieved without an
auxiliary mechanical separator. Residence times of below 4 hours have been possible
with sugar concentration upto 12% sucrose giving 90% conversion of ethanol. This
process is called continuous tower process.
Advantages
1. Higher volumetric efficiency
2. Yeast recycling
3. Establishment of flow growth-rate equilibrium
4. A more consistent product than can be obtained from batch fermentation.
5. Lower capital and labour cost
6. Reduced time requirements
Disadvantages
1. Higher potential for serious microbial contamination
2. Inspite of providing a more consistent product, homogenization is still required.
4.2.4. By-products in ethanol fermentation

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a. Waste Biomass
Due to the anaerobic nature of ethanol fermentation, the overall synthesis of
biomass is limited. In general, a 10% substrate feed with 95% conversion to alcohol will
yield 5.0 g/l of dried cell mass. For recycle processes, a return of 35-40% total biomass
in the broth is all that is required to meet fermentation demands. After concentration,
microbial biomass may be dried and utilized as a high protein food or feed supplement.
b. Stillage
Stillage is the waste water produced after ethanol has been removed by
distillation from a fermented mash. For every volume of ethanol produced by a distillery,
about 15 times that volume of stillage is produced. This effluent has an extremely higher
Biological Oxygen Demand and its discharge, untreated, into natural water courses can
cause severe environmental problems.
c. Fusel Oil
Fusel oil is the mixture of volatile, pungent-tasting alcohol produced during
alcoholic fermentation. Although they are considerably less volatile than ethanol, a
simple distillation with steam (the analyser column) usually results in their complete
carry-over into the distillate, but rectification to produce a high proof product allows the
separation of a fusel oil fraction.
d. Carbon dioxide
For every cubic meter of ethanol formed about 760 kg of CO2 is liberated from
the fermentation system. Of this total, 70-80% can be recovered in a closed system.
After purification to remove aldehydes and alcohol, the gas may be stored in cylinders
or further compressed to solid or liquid form. In the gaseous state, it may be used to
carbonate soda beverages or to enhance the agricultural productivity of greenhouse
plants. Liquid CO2 is frequently used in fire extinguishers, refrigeration processes and
as a feed stock in the chemical industry. The primary use of solid CO 2 is as a refrigerant.
It is compressed to between 17.5 and 21 kg/cm2, cooled, condensed and passed to bulk
storage containers. It can be converted to solid carbon dioxide in hydraulic presses if
required.
3.3. Bio-butanol
Butanol is produced from fossil fuels called petro-butanol and from agricultural
waste called bio-butanoal. Bio-butanol and petro-butanol has the same chemical
properties. Advanced biofuel and conventional petroleum based fuels, such first
generation biofuels is relatively low carbon emissions, and there are environmental
benefits such as reduced sulfur. Butanol is considered as a potential next generation
biofuel.
Butanol has 30 % more energy than ethanol, which can be used in petrol engine
which is designed for cars to run with gasoline blended with 85%. Where 85 % blended
ethanol cannot be used in petrol engine without modifications.

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 The process is the fermentation of biomass with Weizmann organism
(Clostridium bacterium) which yields butanol, acetone and ethanol. Bio-butanol
fermentation anaerobic process is similar to the yeast fermentation of sugars to
produce ethanol.
Butanol was tradionally produced by ABE fermentation - the anaerobic
conversion of carbohydrates by strains of Clostridium into acetone, butanol and
ethanol. Acetone–butanol–ethanol (ABE) fermentation is a process that uses bacterial
fermentation to produce acetone, n-Butanol, and ethanol from carbohydrates such as
starch and glucose. The process of the 3 parts of acetone, butanol and ethanol to 1
part produces 6 parts. Bio-butanol fermentation feedstock such as straw and corn
stalks, sugar beets, sugar cane, corn, grain, wheat and cassava, as well as non-edible
energy crops such as energy crops in agricultural products. Fermentation feedstock
for bio-butanol and ethanol are the same.
Butanol from agricultural waste products can be more efficient than ethanol and
methanol production. The octane rating of gasoline is almost equal to butanol and
does not contribute to engine knocking. Best butanol tolerates water contamination
and therefore it is very suitable for ethanol fuel distribution through existing pipelines
is less corrosive.
3.3.1. Advantages of Bio-butanol
1. Bio-butanol can be directly used in pure form or blended in any concentration
with gasoline, while bio-ethanol can only be blended up to 85% or used as pure
form in specially designed engines.
2. Regardless of using bio-butanol as pure vehicle fuel or gasoline extender, there
is no need to make any modification of existing car.
3. It is safer to handle, because it has a lower vapor pressure than bio-ethanol.
4. It can be blended with gasoline at the refinery before storage and distribution,
because it is not hygroscopic, while bio-ethanol could only blend with gasoline
just before use.
5. Since bio-butanol is immiscible with water, it is less likely to contaminate the
groundwater if it spills; while bio-ethanol is completely miscible with water and
will cause water-pollution when it spills.
6. Unlike bio-ethanol, bio-butanol is less corrosive, so it can be used in
infrastructure, such as pipelines, tanks, filling station, pumps, and etc.
7. It has a higher mileage/gasoline blend ratio, based on its higher energy content
8. Compare to bio-ethanol, bio-butanol has a more similarity quantity of the caloric
value, octane number and air-fuel ratio with real gasoline, which means bio-
butanol is more similar with gasoline in characteristics.
3.4.2. Disadvantages of bio-butanol
1. The production of bio-butanol is quite low. The production rate of bio-butanol
yield from ABE fermentation is 10-30 times lower than the bio-ethanol produce
from yeast ethanol fermentation process.

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2. Although bio-butanol has a higher energy density than other low-carbon
alcoholic biofuel, its heating value is still lower than the real gasoline or diesel
fuel, so it needs to increase the fuel flow when it uses as a fossil fuel substitute.
3. Bio-butanol is a kind of alcohol-based fuels, so it still cannot compatible with
some fuel system components, and may cause gas gauge reading mistakes in
vehicles with capacitance fuel level gauging.
4. Bio-butanol may yield more greenhouse gas emissions per unit motive energy
extracted compare to bio-ethanol, due to it contains fewer octane number.
Higher octane number means greater compression ratio and efficiency, and
higher engine efficiency can achieve less greenhouse gas emissions.
5. The higher viscosity of bio-butanol may lead to a potential corrosive or
aggradation problem when it was used in Spark-ignition engines.

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 Lecture -4
Biogas technology – classification - types of biogas plants – KVIC and
Deenabandhu model biogas plants – factors affecting biogas plants.
4.1. Introduction
Biogas is a popularly known renewable source of energy. Biogas production is
based on the phenomenon of biological decomposition of organic materials in the
absence of air. Biogas technology is however, something more than the mechanism
of producing this useful fuel gas. Through this technology very good organic manure,
improved rural sanitation and health care and more importantly prevention of
deforestation and thus ecological balance can be achieved. As energy is now being
looked at from a global perspective, ecology and environment has also become global
concern.
On the energy front, it is already well known that the days of total dependence
on fossil fuels are over and frantic efforts are being made all over the world for adoption
of renewable sources of energy. Biogas, being one of the potential renewable source
of energy has a definite role to play because it reconciles two apparently conflicting
objectives of getting cheaper and better fuel for cooking, lighting, running engines and
good organic manure to supplement and optimize the use of chemical fertilizers from
cattle dung and agricultural residues. Hence, a biogas plant is an asset to a farming
community. Farmers conceive the importance of biogas plant in terms of the
availability of large quantities of better quality manure. One-third to half of cattle dung
is burnt as fuel and thus lost to the soil. A biogas plant doubles the availability of
organic manure. Besides, many social and environmental benefits are also derived
from biogas production. India, having the largest cattle population in the world, offers
a tremendous potential for the development of biogas.
4.2. Biogas
Biogas is produced through anaerobic digestion of organic matter, particularly
human, animal, vegetable and plant wastes, in the absence of air to produce an
inflammable gas which mainly consists of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
The composition and basic information of the biogas is given in table 4.1 and 4.2.
Table 4.1. The composition of biogas
[Link] Composition of gas Content (%)
1 Methane 55-65
2 Carbon dioxide 55-45
3 Hydrogen Trace
4 Hydrogen sulphide Trace
5 Ammonia Trace

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Table 4.2. Basic information about biogas
Particulars Equivalent
1m3 of biogas 1000 liters
1 cft of biogas 0.028 m3
1 m3 of biogas 35.6 cft
Gas requirement for cooking 0.3 to 0.4 m3/day / person
Gas requirement for lighting 0.10 to 0.12 m3 / hr /100 candle
power light
Gas requirement running the engine 0.4 to 0.5 m3/ HP/ hr
Calorific value of biogas 3500 to 4800 Kcal / m 3
Optimum gas to air ratio for complete 1.6 to 7
combustion
Gas production per kilogram of wet 0.04 to 0.05 m3
dung
Optimum temperature for maximum 30 to 35°C
gas production
Optimum cow dung water mixing ratio 1:1
Optimum pH range for biogas 6.8 to 7.2
production
Optimum retention period for the cattle 40 to 50 days
dung slurry
Optimum carbon to nitrogen ratio 30 to 35.1
Availability of dung with cows or About 10 kg / day
bullocks
Availability of dung with buffaloes About 15 kg / day
Availability of dung with calves About 5 kg / day
Methane content of biogas 55 to 65 %
4.2.1. Science of biogas production
Biogas production involves basically four stages namely, hydrolysis,
acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis by the action of respective bacteria.
[Link]. Stages involved in methane production
Formerly, methane fermentation was hypothetically designed as a two-step
process including an acid forming stage followed by a methane forming stage.
However, with the exception of methanol, acetate and formate, methanogenic bacteria
cannot metabolize alcohols and organic acids. The current scheme represents a three-
stage process in which three groups of bacteria are involved.
a. Hydrolytic and acidogenic bacteria
b. Acetogenic bacteria
c. Methanogenic bacteria
As it can be seen, the three groups of bacteria include a wide variety of
microorganisms (Fig.4.1). This diversity reflects the great number of substrates and
intermediary metabolites involved. The main impediment in this field arises from the
difficulty encountered in assessing the in vivo importance of the different groups of
bacteria.

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 First stage Second stage Third stage
Hydrolysis Acetogenesis Methanogenesis
Acidogenesis Dehydrogenesis
Fig. 4.1 Stages involved in methane production
a. Hydrolysis
This involves hydrolysis and liquefaction of large organic molecules by extracellular
enzymes produced by obligate anaerobic bacteria such as Clostridium. Starch and
Glycogen are hydrolyzed to disaccharides by the action of amylases.
These enzymes attack polysaccharides from the non-reducing end of the chain
cleaving alternate glycosidic bonds. Subsequently the disaccharides are cleaved to
monosaccharides by a glycosidase. The specific enzyme involved depends on the
nature of the glycosidic bond and the monosaccharide involved i.e. whether the
configuration is α or β, dextro or laevo and the size of the heterocyclic ring.
Cellulose is hydrolyzed to cellobiose and subsequently to glucose by cellulase and
cellobiase which include both exo and endo glucanases. Lipases and esterase’s
hydrolyse fats and lipids.
When the substrate is a triglyceride of long chain fatty acids, the hydrolysis
proceeds in a stepwise manner, with the rapid formation of di and mono glycerides
followed by slow hydrolysis of monoglycerides. Proteases catalyse the cleavage of
peptide bonds of proteins. Exopeptidases are restricted to terminal peptide bonds and
endopeptidases attack peptide bonds that are centrally located in the peptide chains.
b. Acid Production
After the hydrolysis the initial degradation products can be utilized by
microorganisms provided they are able to pass into the cells through the plasma
membrane. This membrane selectivity regulates the flux of nutrients, ions and waste
products in and out of the cell. It is composed of lipids and proteins. The lipids provide
the structural properties and the proteins provide the membrane with its distinctive
functional properties. It is believed that the various proteins embedded in the
membrane act as carriers for specific substances or types of molecules against a
concentration gradient, the process known as active transport.
Degradation of Monosaccharides
A typical metabolic pathway for the degradation of monosaccharides is the
Embden- Mayerhof-Pamas (EMP) pathway or glycolysis. The end product of glycolysis

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in yeast is ethanol where as in bacteria, it is acetic acid. Carbon dioxide is evolved in
either case. Energy is stored as ATP. NAD is a coenzyme often involved in hydrogen
transfer reaction, which must be regenerated with coupled reactions.
Degradation of Fatty acids
It is generally agreed that the anaerobic degradation of long chain fatty acids
proceeds primarily via -oxidation in which two C atoms at a time are split from the
chain. The sequence shows the removal of one acetate unit, which combines with
reduced coenzyme A (CoA-SH). Acetic acid can then either be liberated from CoA in
a subsequent reaction or the acetate can be transferred to other functional
compounds. FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide) is a prosthetic group for a wide variety
of enzymes (E-FAD) associated with hydrogen transfer reactions.
Decomposition of amino acids
In nature and in anaerobic biological processes, it is suspected that proteolytic
species of Clostridium are largely responsible for the anaerobic decomposition of
amino acids. They can accomplish this in one or two ways. Some amino acids may
be fermented individually by pathways specific to that compound.
[Link] Digestion of glutamic acid
From a molecule of glutamic acid a molecule of pyruvic acid and a molecule of
acetic acid are formed.
ii. Stick land reaction
In this reaction pairs of amino acids are fermented. One amino acid acts as the
electron donor (oxidized) while other as the electron acceptor (reduced).
c. Microbes involved in hydrolysis and acid production stages
In these two steps, both anaerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria are
involved. In the case of anaerobic bacteria oxygen is toxic. Some can tolerate low
levels of oxygen (non-stringent or tolerant anaerobes) but others (stringent or strict
anaerobes cannot even tolerate even low level and may die upon brief exposure to
air. Facultative anaerobic bacteria grow in the presence or absence of molecular
oxygen. In metabolic terms facultative anaerobic forms fall under two categories.
1. Organisms like lactic acid bacteria have an exclusively fermentative energy
yielding metabolism but relatively insensitive in the presence of oxygen. Here, the
organic matter turns out to be both electron acceptor and electron donor.
2. Many yeast and enteric bacteria can shift from a respiratory to a fermentative
mode of metabolism. They use oxygen as terminal electron acceptor when it is
available but can also obtain energy in its absence by fermentation reaction.
There are micro-aerophilic bacteria also which grow well at a partial pressure
of oxygen considerably below that of 0.2 atmosphere present in air. The fourth group
of organisms which take part in the hydrolysis and acid production steps are the
sulphate and nitrate respires. They in the absence of molecular oxygen use nitrates,

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 sulfates, sulfites, thiosulphates and sulphur as electron acceptors. Meanwhile there
are obligate sulphur respires also.
The genera, which have been isolated from anaerobic systems, which do not
directly involve in methane production but associated with the hydrolysis and acid
production, are Clostridium, Aerobacter, Bacillus, Escherichia, Micrococcus,
Paracholobacterium, Proteus, Pseudomonas, Sarcina and Streptomyces. During the
hydrolysis and fermentation steps, very little COD is removed, although some CO 2 is
formed during the process which consists largely of breaking down large molecules
into one or two carbon units. The growth yield of fermentative cells is low due to the
small net production of ATP by substrate phosphorylation.
d. Methane production stage
The low molecular weight acids produced in the acid production stage are
further degraded to methane and carbon dioxide by the highly specialised group of
bacteria referred to as methane producing bacteria or methanogens. Methanogens
are subdivided into two groups
Hydrogenotrophic methanogens
These organisms have the unique ability to couple the product of organic
oxidation (hydrogen) to reduction of carbon dioxide. In this process CO2 is the terminal
hydrogen acceptor and is analogous to oxygen in aerobic respiration. They are the
hydrogen utilizing chemolithotrophs, which convert hydrogen and carbon dioxide into
methane. By this process they obtain energy for growth by oxidizing molecules /
compounds such as hydrogen and formate. Electrons thus generated are utilized to
reduce CO2 with the formation of methane. The energy liberated during this process
is used for the fixation of CO2
CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + H2O
This group helps maintain the very low levels of partial pressure of hydrogen
necessary for the conversion of volatile acids and alcohol to acetate. This means that
in an anaerobic digester if the partial pressure of hydrogen goes high, fatty acid
synthesizing bacteria can generate long chain fatty acids such as propionate and
butyrate from H2 and CO2.
Acetotrophic methanogens
This group of organisms ferments compounds such as acetate and methanol
and form methane and carbon dioxide as the products. These are acetoclastic bacteria
or acetate splitting bacteria, which derive energy by the fermentation process.
CH3COOH CH4 + CO2
About two third of methane is derived from acetate conversion and the one third
as a result of CO2 reduction.

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4.3. Factors affecting the biogas production
There are different factors which are affecting the production of biogas. The
optimum conditions of the listed factors are given in the brackets.
1. pH (6.5 – 7.5)
2. Loading rate
3. Size of the material used
4. Temperature (30-35 °C)
5. Retention time (30-55 days)
6. Seeding
7. Uniform feeding
8. Diameter to depth ratio
9. Water to input material mixing ratio (1:1)
10. Total solid content of the feed materials (8-10 %)
11. C:N ratio (30:1)
12. Nutrients
13. Type of feedstocks
14. Toxicity due to end product
15. Acid accumulation inside the digester
4.4. Design of biogas plants
There are many designs and models of biogas plants in operation with each
one having some special characteristics; however, each popular model has some
basic components. Other than these, the fixed dome/roof model plant e.g. Janata
model and the horizontal plug-flow model, have some special components for proper
functioning of these designs.
4.4.1. Basic components
The basic components of plants which are common to most of the models are:
a. Digester or fermentation chamber
b. Gas holder or gas storage chamber
c. Inlet (pipe or tank)
d. Outlet (pipe or tank)
e. Mixing tank
f. Gas outlet pipe
g. Inlet and outlet displacement chambers
h. Plant dome or arched roof
i. Inlet and outlet gates
j. Manhole or digester cover

[Link] Types of Designs

a. Floating gas holder digester (KVIC)
The floating gas holder digester which is used in India is known as Khadi Village
Industries Commission (KVIC) plant. This type was developed in India and is usually

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made of masonry. It runs on a continuous basis and uses mainly cattle dung as input
material. The gasholder is usually made of steel, although new materials such as ferro
cement and bamboo-cement have already been introduced. The original version of
this floating gasholder digester was a vertical cylinder provided with partition wall
except for the small sizes of 2 and 3 m3 of gas per day. The main characteristic of this
type is the need for steel sheets and welding skill.
b. Fixed dome digester
In fixed dome digester, the gas holder and the digester are combined. This
digester, which was developed and is widely used in China, runs on a continuous
batch basis. Accordingly, it could digest plant waste as well as human and animal
wastes. It is usually built below ground level, hence it is easier to insulate in a cold
climate. The digester can be built from several materials, e.g. bricks, concrete, lime
concrete and lime clay. This facilitates the introduction and use of local materials and
manpower. The variable pressure inside the digester was found to cause no problems
in China in the use of the gas.
c. Modified fixed dome digesters
In the Chinese fixed dome digester, a manhole is provided on the top of the
plant. By modifying this design, two designs of Janata and Deenbandhu fixed dome
digesters have been developed. In the Janata fixed dome digester, the bottom is flat
concrete, the digester is cylindrical wall and the dome is a segment of sphere with the
brick masonry. In the Deenbandhu fixed dome biogas digester, the lower part of
concrete is segment of sphere and the upper part of brick masonry is hemisphere.
d. Biogas Plant Models (India)
The different types of family size biogas plants available at present in our
country include
1. KVIC (Khadi and Village Industries Commission) design.
2. PRAD (Planning, Research and Action Division) design
3. Murugappa Chettiar Research Centre design.
4. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University dome type design
5. ASTRA (Application of Science and Technology to Rural Areas) design
6. Himachal Pradesh Capsule design
7. Kacha-Pucca model of Punjab Agricultural University
8. Plug-flow design
9. AFPRO (Action for Food Production) design
10. Roorkee design
11. Deen Bhandhu design
12. Fibreglass fixed dome design (Underground model)
13. Mobile biogas plants
14. Plastic emulsion coated, heavily insulated, temperature controlled Switzerland
biogas plants.
15. IARI (Indian Agricultural Research Institute) design
16. Ganesh Model
17. Ferro-cement Digester Biogas Plant

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 The various designs listed above have their own merits and demerits. They are
popular in different regions depending upon the choice of the beneficiaries. Evaluation
of all the above designs at a particular research station over a period of time may be
a worthwhile proposition in order to arrive at their suitability for extension.
4.4. Construction of biogas plants
4.4.1. General considerations
Proper size (capacity) of the plant should be fixed based on the cattle strength and
family size. Proper place should be selected for the installation of biogas plant based
on the location of cattle shed, kitchen, drinking well, manure pit, elevation of the area,
sunshine and water table of the site. Concrete mix and cement mortar should be
prepared on clean and smooth surface. The richness and thickness of concrete mix
and cement mortar should be based on the water table and type of soil. First class
(quality) bricks should be used for the construction of bio-gas plant. Grooves should
be made at the bricks joint so that inner plastering can be given easily.
The best quality gas holder as per the specification should be purchased from
Government approved workshop. The bottom of the mixing tank should be slightly
higher than the top of the digester. The top level of the outlet pipe should be at least
0.45 m below the top of the digester. During the construction of digester wall, bricks
should be laid in header layer and stretcher layer alternatively, so that joint will not be
in the straight line. Outer side of the digester wall should be back filled and properly
compacted with sand.
4.4.2. KVIC Digester
It mainly consists of two main parts: (1) Digester or pit (2) The gas holder or the
gas collector. The drawings of the KVIC biogas plant of capacity up to 3 and 4 cu.m
and above are given in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2. KVIC biogas plant

[Link]. Digester
Also called as the fermentation plant, it is a sort of well of masonry work, dug
and built below the ground level. The depth of this well varies from 3.5 to 6 metres,
and diameter from 1.35 to 6 metres, depending upon the gas generating capacity and

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the quantity of raw material fed each day. The digested well is divided vertically into
two semi-cylindrical compartments by means of partition wall in the centre. The
partition wall is lower than the level of the digester rim and hence it is submerged in
slurry when the digester is full. Two slanting cement pipes reach the bottom of the
well on either side of the partition wall. One pipe serves as the inlet and the other as
outlet. An inlet chamber near the digester at surface level serves for mixing dung and
water which is done mechanically or manually. The mixture of dung and water in
proportion of 4:5 by volume, called slurry, flows down the inlet pipe to the bottom of
the primary compartment of the digester. The digester is designed to the raw material
for 60 days.
This ensures enough stay time of the input material for complete digestion. The
outlet chamber is again at surface level, just a few cms below the level of the inlet
chamber. If both compartments of the digester are full and if more slurry is added from
the inlet, then an equivalent amount of fermented slurry flows out of the outlet and
discharged into the compost pit.
[Link]. Gas holder
It is a drum constructed of mild steel sheets, cylindrical in shape with a conical
top and radial support at the bottom. It fits into the digester like a stopper. It sinks into
the slurry due to its own weight and rests upon the ring constructed for this purpose.
As the gas is generated the holder rises and floats freely on the surface of the slurry.
A pipe is provided at the top of the holder for flow of gas for usage. To prevent the
holder from tilting a central guide pipe is fitted to the frame and is fixed to the bottom
in the mansonary work.
The pressure, under which the gas is generated in this arrangement, varies
between 7-9 cm of water column. The holder also acts as a seal for the gas. The cost
of the holder constitutes almost 40 per cent of the total cost of the digester.
Since the gas must be dried before it is sent to the over for use, it is better to
send the gas through a vessel filled with soda lime. This will help in better utilization
of available calorific value. Without much pressure drop and difficulty, the gas can be
sent to 15 to 30 m distances from the source point. To ensure leak proof joints the
ends of the metal part are lined in such a way as to prevent shocks. Generally the pit
is deep and narrow, but at places where the water level is low, the design has been
modified and the volume has been taken horizontally.
The floating drum is metallic and it is given an anti-corrosive paint coating. If
not property maintained, the drum corrodes soon and the life of the plant very much
gets reduced. Perhaps the cost and the maintenance factors of this type of digesters
are prohibitive factors for being not very much liked by users. However, the
construction is quite simple and the gas comes out at the constant pressure.
The only maintenance required is the painting of the gas collector at regular
intervals. Many other materials like ferrocement, fibre, glass, reinforced polymer gas
holders are being tried instead of M.S., but all of them are quite expensive. To avoid

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corrosion of the gas holder, a jacketed top of the pit is also suggested wherein the
jacket some type of non-corrosive oil is filled once for all.
4.4.3. Deenbandhu biogas plant
The Deenbandhu model biogas plant has been developed by making use of the
principles of structural engineering as well as the long experience of AFPRO of
working with fixed-dome biogas plants. The advent of Deenbandhu biogas plant is
mainly to reduce the initial cost of installation as well as the subsequent maintenance
cost. The design essentially consists of segments of two spheres of different diameters
joined at their bases. The structure thus formed acts as the digester and the gas
storage chamber, and also provides for empty sphere over the contents of the
digester. The higher compressive strength of the brick masonry and concrete makes
it preferable to go in for a structure which could be always kept under compression. A
spherical structure loaded form the convex side will be under compression and
therefore, the internal load will not have any residual effect on the structure. The design
and construction of Deenbandhu biogas plant is simple (Fig.4.3).

Fig. 4.3. Deenbandu biogas plant

4.5. Comparison between fixed dome and floating drum models
a. Merits of Fixed-Dome Type
Floating gas holder type Fixed-dome type
(i) Capital investment is high Capital investment in the
corresponding size of biogas unit is
low
(ii) Steel gas holder is a must which Steel gas holder is not required
needs to be replaced after few
years due to corrosion damage
(iii) Cost of maintenance is high As there is no moving part, the
maintenance cost is minimized
(iv) Life span of the digester is Life span of the unit is expected to be
expected to be 30 years and that comparatively more
of gas holder is 5 to 8 years
(v) Movable drum does not allow the As the unit is an underground
use of space for other purposes structure, the space above the plant
can be used for other purposes.

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(vi) Effect of low temperature during Effect of low temperature will be less
winter is more
(vii) It is suitable for processing of It can be easily adapted / modified for
dung and night-soil slurry. Other use of other materials along with dung
organic materials will clog the slurry
inlet pipe

b. Merits of Floating Gas-Holding Type

(i) Release of gas is at constant Release of gas is at variable pressure
pressure which may cause slight reduction in
the efficiency of gas appliances. To
operate a diesel engine, attachment
of a gas pressure regulator in the
pipeline is a must.
(ii) Construction of digester is known Construction of the dome portion of
to masons but fabrication of gas the unit is a skilled job and requires
holder requires workshop facility thorough training of masons.
(iii) Location of defects in the gas Location of defects in the dome and
holder and repairing are easy repairing are difficult
(iv) Requires relatively less Requires more excavation work
excavation work
(v) In areas having a high water Construction of the plant is difficult in
table, horizontal plants could be high water table areas
installed.
4.6. After construction of the plant
4.6.1. General
1. Initial filling of the slurry should be done after 2 weeks of curing of the plant.
Care should be taken to avoid the entry of sand and gravel with the slurry in to
the plant.
2. The initial gas obtained should be let out because it will contain more of carbon
dioxide. The right type of burner designed for biogas (as per ISI specification)
should be used for efficient utilization of gas. Do not open the gas valve before
lighting the gas appliances.
3. While boiling water or cooking food stuff, regulate the gas valve in such a way
to utilize more gas during the first half and less gas during the second half (ie.
after boiling) in order to reduce gas consumption. Gas regulator cock or valve
of the burner should be tightly closed.
4. If there is any gas leakage in the burner, doors and windows of the kitchen
should be opened to allow the fresh air to enter and the gas to escape. Never
allow build-up of gas pressure in the dome/gas holder. Do not keep the gate
valve loosely to avoid the wastage of the gas.
5. Fill the plant with properly mixed dung slurry. (mixing ratio of dung : water =1:1)
Recommended quantity of slurry mixed (i,e. 25 kg. dung with 25 litres of water
per cubic meter plant) should be added daily.
6. Remove the condensed water from pipe line at regular intervals.

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7. The burner, burner holes and jets should be periodically cleaned with kerosene
and small iron wire to avoid blocking of gas. Wide bottom utensils should be
preferably used so that loss in heat will be minimum. Pressure cooker should
be used to reduce the gas consumption.
8. Adjust the flame by turning the gas cock and air regulator till blue flame is
obtained. Do not test the biogas flammability at the top of the biogas plant.
9. Do not allow scum to form in the digester, otherwise the production of gas will
be reduced. 0nce the manure pit gets filled up with ejected slurry from biogas
plant, it should be removed to the field or compost pit.

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 Lecture -5
Alternate feedstock for biogas production – applications of biogas cooking,
lighting and engine operations - biodigested slurry and enrichment.
5.1 Applications of biogas
Biogas and digested slurry has multiple applications for the benefit of individual
households as well as the whole of the village and nation. The utilization of biogas and
byproducts are illustrated in Fig.5.1.

Fig.5.1. Utilization of biogas and byproducts

Some of the important applications are:
 Cooking fuel
 Fuel for lighting
 Fuel for motive power to replace diesel oil
 Enriched organic manure of agriculture and aquaculture
 Manure for mushroom growing
 Manure for seed coating
 Use of light to trap insects at the farm
 To treat human excreta and for pollution control
Another important aspect of biogas technology is in relation to improving soil
fertility. It is well known that physical structure of the soil is as important as its nutrient
contents. Biogas plant manure, in addition to providing macro elements like N, P and
K and trace elements like iron, copper, boron etc., also improves the soil water
retention capacity because of its humus content. Apart from this, the biogas plant
manure buffers pH change in the soil and thus equilibrium of soil is maintained.
5.1.1. Biodigested Slurry (BDS)
Biodigested slurry is the by-product obtained from the biogas plant after the
digestion of the dung and generation of the fuel gas. The biodigested slurry is very

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good manure. It is very similar to the farm yard manure available in the farm but it
becomes very much different after the digestion process. This, biodigested slurry
becomes free of weed seeds, odour etc and so it is a highly valuable organic manure
than the farmyard manure. The elemental analysis of biodigested slurry by X-ray
reveals that silicon, phosphorous, sulphur, potassium, calcium and iron are present
with 65.595, 8.275, 3.117, 7.623, 11.693 and 3.698 per cent respectively. Among the
other elements, increased amount of Silicon also play an important role in the plant
growth as well in the yield.
a. Biodigested slurry as organic manure
While supplementing the biodigested slurry, it has to be kept in mind that each
plant has a specific N, P, K requirement and it also varies from place to place according
to the soil nature. Generally, 50 per cent substitution has given best results. Hence,
the amount of chemical fertilizer can be reduced to half and as we know the average
N, P, K contents of biodigested slurry, we can clearly find out the quantity need to be
supplemented. Therefore, partial or full replacement of chemical fertilizer can reduce
the problem of soil infertility. In addition, it reduce pollution, save energy required to
produce chemical fertilizer, provide biogas as an alternative energy source and finally
provide a better life and good yield. The biodigested slurry is used in hydroponics,
aeroponics and aquoponics.
Hydroponics is a subset of hydroculture, which is the growing of plants in a soil
less medium, or an aquatic based environment. Hydroponic growing uses mineral
nutrient (Biodigested slurry) solutions to feed the plants in water, without soil.
Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air or mist environment
without the use of soil or an aggregate medium. Unlike hydroponics, which uses a
liquid nutrient solution as a growing medium and essential minerals to sustain plant
growth; or aquaponics which uses water and fish waste, aeroponics is conducted
without a growing medium. It is sometimes considered a type of hydroponics, since
water is used in aeroponics to transmit nutrients to plants by mixing biodigested slurry
in water.
Aquaponics is essentially the combination of Aquaculture and Hydroponics.
Water is pumped up from the fish tank into the growbed. The water trickles down
through the media, past the roots of the plants before draining back into the fish tank.
The plants extract the water and nutrients they need to grow, cleaning the water for the
fish. Biodigested slurry acts as a food to fish and nutrient to plants.
b. Biodigested slurry and soil properties
Biodigested slurry besides supplying plant food, benefits the soil by influencing
several physical properties of the soil. It helps in soil aggregation and increasing the
soil porosity. It enhances the water holding capacity, prevents leaching of nutrients,
buffers pH changes and improves several other properties like resistance to soil
erosion. Forms complexes with harmful elements like copper, aluminium and minimize
plant toxicity. It absorbs herbicides, pesticides and prevents their washing. It supplies

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N, P and S during degradation. It can be used in any type of soil and for any crop. The
application of recommended dose of manure about 10 tonnes per ha in irrigated areas
and 5 tonnes per ha in dryland areas, increases the yield by 10 - 20 percent of fruit
trees, tea, coffee, sugarcane, millets, rice, jute, vegetables like carrots, bhendi, radish
and sweet potato.
c. Biogas as an insecticide for stored seeds
Biogas containing 60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide has been tested as
a fumigant for insect control in certain pulses. The biogas fumigation has killed all the
pests in about 10-12 days at a pressure of 1.4 kg/cm2. The biogas fumigation did not
affect seed germination, seeding vigour or grain quality and no gaseous methane
residue were left in the gain.
d. Biogas slurry as seedling root dipping medium for rice
Studies have been conducted to evaluate the effect of freshly bio-digested
slurry as seedling root dipping medium for rice. The results showed that seedling root
dipping with a combination of bio-digested slurry, Azospirillum, Phosphobacteria, Zinc
sulphate and Phytohormone enhanced the growth and yield attributes. Root dipping
of seedling with this combination of nutrients increased the grain yield by 5.9 percent
over no dipping. Uptake of N, P and K also enhanced by various root dipping. Uptake
of Zinc was not influenced by dipping treatments.
e. Biogas slurry as seed dressing agency on seed performance
Seeds of maize and rice were soaked in digested slurry and water for 12 hr, 24
hr and 48 hr. The slurry treated seeds were also surface washed with water to remove
any adherents from the seed surface. Treated seeds were evaluated in the laboratory
(28°C, 95% RH) dark and in soil filled pots for germination percentage, moon
germination time and seedling growth; Application of slurry significantly improved the
seed performance over untreated seeds but its effect was equal or less pronounced
than water treatment. Removal of slurry adherents from seed surface before
germination caused improvement in above parameters.
5.1.2. Biogas plant slurry applications
The following are the different methods of applying biodigested slurry as manure.
a. Air dried biogas slurry can be applied by spreading on the agricultural land at
least one week before sowing the seeds or transplanting the seedlings.
b. The liquid slurry can be mixed directly with the running water in irrigation canal
which will enable spreading of the slurry uniformly in the cropped area or in
cultivation land.
c. Biogas slurry can also be coated on the seeds prior to sowing .This acts as
insecticide and prevents seeds or plants from insect attack. This helps in early
germination and healthy growth of seedlings.
d. The digested slurry is fed through the channel, flowing over a layer of green or
dry leaves and filtered in the bed. The water from the slurry filters down which

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 can be reused for preparing fresh dung slurry. The semi-solid slurry can be
transported easily as it was in the consistency of fresh dung and used for top
dressing of crops like sugarcane and potato.
e. Biodigested slurry is also being used for fish culture, which acts as a
supplementary feed. On an average, 15-25 litres of wet slurry can be applied
per day in a 1200 sq. pond. Slurry mixed with oil cake or rice- bran in the 2:1
ratio increases the fish production remarkably. In general organic manures
about 10 t / ha, in the form of FYM or compost or biodigested slurry is
recommended to be applied once in three years to maintain the organic content
of soil, besides providing nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium in the form of
organic fertilizers to the crop.

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 Lecture -6
Briquetting – MED – VED – methods – need for briquetting - benefits of
biomass briquettes
Biomass energy has been attracting attention as an energy source since zero
net carbon dioxide accumulation in the atmosphere from biomass production and
utilization can be achieved. Among several kinds of biomass, agro residues have
become one of most promising choices. They are available as a free or almost free,
indigenous and abundant energy source. But it is generally difficult to handle them
because of its bulky nature, low combustion characteristics and copious liberation of
smoke. It is estimated that around 650-700 million tonnes of agricultural residues
produced in a year. In that whole amount 350 million tonnes of residues are surplus
which is burnt in the open field. These residues can yield huge amount of energy
containing fuel if it is used appropriately. The problem of handling and transport of
these residues due to low bulk density can be rectified by briquetting technology. This
process increases the fuel values of the residues.
The compaction of biomass in the form of solid fuels has yielded a simple
solution of complex problems related with low density, high volume and expensive
handling, transportation and storage of most of the biomass. The compacted fuel is
more or less similar to coal and has potential to replace the conventional solid fuels
and even diesel to meet the local energy needs of various sectors. These briquettes
burns as good as coal, leave less ash content, emit less or no smoke and have low
ignition point.
6.1. Biomass materials suitable for densification
Almost all agro residues can be briquetted. Agro residues such as saw dust,
rice husk, tapioca waste, groundnut shell, cotton stalks, pigeon pea stalks, soybean
stalks, coir pith, mustard stalks, sugar cane bagasse, wood chips, tamarind pod, castor
husk, coffee husk, dried tapioca stick, coconut shell powder are the commonly used
raw materials for briquetting in India. The factors that mainly influence on the selection
of raw materials are moisture content, ash content, flow characteristics, flow
characteristics, particle size and availability in the locality. Moisture content in the
range of 10-15% is preferred because higher moisture content will pose problems in
grinding and more energy is required for drying. The ash content of biomass affects
its slagging behavior together with the operating conditions and mineral composition
of ash. Biomass feedstock having up to 4% of ash content is preferred for densification.
The granular homogeneous materials which can flow easily in conveyers, bunkers and
storage silos are suitable for densification.
6.2. Densification
Biomass densification may be defined as compression or compaction to
remove inter and intra-particle voids. This technology can help in expanding the use
of biomass in energy production, since densification improves the volumetric calorific
value of a fuel, reduces the cost of transport and can help in improving the fuel situation

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in rural areas. Five densification processes are practiced commercially namely, baling,
pelleting, cubing, briquetting and extrusion.
a. Compression baling and roll-compressing process can reduce biomass volume
to one-fifth its loose bulk. These processes are useful for agricultural biomass and
certain types of forest biomass. e.g. crops from energy plantations, logging residues.
b. Pelleting employs a hard steel die which is perforated with frequently placed holes
0.3 to 1.3 cm in diameter. The die rotates against inner pressure rollers, forcing the
continued biomass through the holes with pressures of 7 kg/mm 2. As the biomass is
extruded through the die, small dense pellets are broken off at a specified length.
c. Cubing is a modification of pelleting which produces larger cylinders or cubes, 2.5
to 5.0 cm in diameter.
d. Briquetting is defined as the compaction of biomass feedstocks between rollers
with cavities, producing forms like charcoal briquettes.
e. Extrusion uses a screw extruder to force a feedstock under high pressure into a
die thereby forming large cylinders (2.5 to 10 cm) of densified biomass. Binding agents
such as paraffin or resin are often added to modify properties of the fuel logs
6.2.1. Advantages
1. The process increases the net calorific value of material per unit volume
2. The end product is easy to transport and store
3. The fuel produce is uniform in size and quality
4. It helps solve the problem of residue disposal
5. It helps to reduce deforestation by providing a substitute for fuel wood.
6. The process eliminates the possibility of spontaneous combustion waste
7. The process reduces biodegradation of residues
6.2.2. Disadvantages
1. High investment cost and energy input to the process
2. Undesirable combustion characteristics such as poor ignitability, smoking,
etc are often observed.
3. Tendency of briquettes to loosen when exposed to water or even high
humidity weather
6.3. Densification Process
There are four basic steps involved in the densification process namely,
collection of raw materials, preparation of raw materials, compaction and cooling and
storage.
6.3.1. Collection of raw materials
In general, any material that will burn, but is not in a convenient shape, size or
form to be readily usable as fuel is a good candidate for briquetting.
6.3.2. Preparation of raw materials
The preparation of raw materials includes drying, size reduction, mixing of raw
materials in correct proportion, mixing of raw materials with binder etc.

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a. Drying
The raw materials are available in higher moisture contents than what required
for briquetting. Drying can be done in open sun, in solar driers with a heater or with
hot air.
b. Size reduction
The raw material is first reduced in size by shredding, chopping, crushing,
breaking, rolling, hammering, milling, grinding, cutting etc. until it reaches a suitably
small and uniform size (1 to 10 mm). For some materials which are available in the
size range of 1 to 10 mm need not be size reduced. Since the size reduction process
consumes a good deal of energy and hence this should be as short as possible.
c. Raw material mixing
It is desirable to make briquettes of more than one raw material. Mixing will be
done in proper proportion in such a way that the product should have good compaction
and high calorific value.
6.3.3. Compaction
Compaction process takes place inside the briquetting machine. The process
depends on the briquetting technology adopted.
[Link]. Binding Agent
A binding agent is necessary to prevent the compressed material from springing
back and eventually returning to its original form. This agent can either be added to
the process or, when compressing ligneous material, be part of the material itself in
the form of lignin. Lignin, or sulphuric lignin, is a constituent in most agricultural
residues. It can be defined as a thermo plastic polymer, which begins to soften at
temperatures above 100°C and is flowing at higher temperatures. The softening of
lignin and its subsequent cooling while the material is still under pressure is the key
factor in high pressure briquetting.
[Link]. Densification techniques
Densification essentially involves two processes, the compaction under
pressure of loose material to reduce its volume and to agglomerate the material so
that the product remains in the compressed state. On the basis of compaction, the
briquetting technologies can be divided into
1. High pressure compaction
2. Medium pressure compaction with a heating device
3. Low pressure compaction with a binder
At present two main high pressure technologies: ram or piston press and screw
extrusion machines, are used for briquetting.

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a. Piston press densification
A reciprocating piston pushes the material into a tapered die where it is
compacted and adheres against the material remaining in the die from the previous
stroke (Fig.6.1). A controlled expansion and cooling of the continuous briquette is
allowed in a section following the actual die. The briquette leaving this section is still
relatively warm and fragile and needs a further length of cooling track before it can be
broken into pieces of the desired length. The most common type of briquette press
features a cylindrical piston and die with a diameter ranging from 20-125 mm. The die
tapers somewhat towards the middle and then increases again before the end. The
exact form of the taper varies between machines and biomass feedstock and is a key
factor in determining the functioning of the process and the resulting briquette quality.

Fig.6.1. Piston press densification

b. Screw Press densification
In the screw press technology, the biomass is extruded continuously by a screw
through a taper die which is heated externally to reduce the friction (Fig.6.2). Material
is fed continuously into a screw which forces the material into a cylindrical die, which
is often heated to 250-300 °C to raise the temperature to the point where lignin starts
flowing and pressure builds up smoothly. Briquettes produced from screw press are
often of high quality than piston-press unit but the power requirement per tonne of
briquette produced is also high.

Fig.6.2. Conical screw press densification

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Table 6.1. Comparison of piston press and screw press densification
Parameters Piston press Screw Press
Optimum moisture content
10-15 8-9
of raw material (%)
Wear of contact parts low in case of ram and high in case of screw
die
Output from the machine In strokes Continuous
Power 50 60
consumption(kWh/ton)
Density of 1-1.2 1-1.4
briquette(gm/cm³)
Maintenance High Low
Combustion performance
not so good very good
of briquettes
Carbonization to charcoal not possible makes good charcoal
Suitability in gasifiers not suitable Suitable
Homogeneity of briquettes non-homogeneous Homogeneous
c. Pelletization
Pelletizing is closely related to briquetting except that it uses smaller dies
(approximately 30 mm) so that the smaller products are called pellets. The pelletizer
has a number of dies arranged as holes bored on a thick steel disc or ring and the
material is forced into the dies by means of two or three rollers. The material to be
pelletized is fed in the cylinder and when the rollers ride over this material and rotate,
they push the material through holes in the die against resistance from pellets already
formed in the die holes. The two main types of pellet presses are flat and ring type.
The flat die type features a circular perforated disk on which two or more rollers rotate.
The ring die press features a rotating perforated ring on which rollers press onto the
inner perimeter. Large capacity pelletizers are available in the range of 200 kg/h to 8
ton/h. Thus, pellet press capacity is not restricted by the density of the raw material as
in the case of piston or screw presses. Power consumption falls within the range of
15-40 kWh/ton.
6.3.4. Cooling and Storage
Briquettes extruding out of the machines are hot with temperatures exceeding
200 oC. They have to be cooled and stored. Compacting biomass waste into briquettes
reduces the volume by 10 times, making it much easier to store and transport than
loose biomass waste. Other fuel types tend to be difficult to handle and are hazardous.
Briquettes can be produced in a variety of sizes and have a long shelf-life.
6.4. Briquette Analysis
6.4.1. Determination of Combustion properties
The combustion properties include percentage of volatile matter, fixed carbon,
ash content and heating value. The percentage of volatile matter, fixed carbon and

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ash contents of four representative samples were determined based on ASTM
Standard E711-87 (2004).
6.4.2. Determination of bulk density
The volume and the weight of a briquette have to be measured in order to be
able to determine the bulk density. Weight measurements were performed with a
normal laboratory balance, the volume of the samples was determined by using a
graduated cylinder. The average bulk density was calculated from three measurement
series per sample.
6.4.3. Determination of water content
The water content was measured by weighing a fuel sample (about 100 g
(w.b.)) before and after drying at 105 °C according to O¨ NORM G 1074.
6.4.4. Measurement of strength and durability
The effectiveness of the briquettes created during the densification process has
been measured in terms of strength and durability. Procedures used for measuring the
compressive resistance, abrasive resistance, impact resistance, and water resistance
of the densified products are discussed below.
a. Water resistance
Short-term exposure to rain or high humidity conditions during transportation
and storage could adversely affect the quality of the densified products. Lindley and
Vossoughi measured the water resistance as the percentage of water absorbed by a
briquette, when immersed in water. Each briquette was immersed in water at 27 C
for one min.
b. Impact resistance
Impact resistance (or drop resistance or shattering resistance) test may
simulate the forces encountered during emptying of densified products from trucks
onto ground, or from chutes into bins. The drop resistance test to determine the
durability of biomass pellets and briquettes. Pellets were dropped from 1.85 m height
onto a metal plate 4 times. The weight retained as the percentage of the initial weight
was taken as the pellet/briquette durability.
c. Water stability test
When the briquette is dipped into the water, if it falls to pieces in under 5
minutes, and that usually represents very low briquette quality. When the briquette
falls to pieces in under 15 minutes, it shows medium briquette quality and in less than
20 minutes, it is sign of good briquette quality. However, this method is only of an
informative character.

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6.5. Utilization of briquetted fuel
Briquettes made from biomass can be used easily anywhere in place of
conventional fuels like coal, fuel wood, kerosene and diesel. Effectively they can be a
substitute for such non-renewable fuels without loss of efficiency.
6.5.1. Replacement for conventional fuel
Wood, coal, dung, cake and kerosene are at present most widely used fuels for
domestic cooking. However, scarcity in oil supplies is likely to continue in spite of the
rising cost and more judicious use. In the coal sector, the increase in production to the
stipulated demand would require stupendous efforts and a high level of efficiency on
the part of agencies like Coal India Ltd. The coal reserves are being exhausted as
faster rate. Therefore in village areas where wood, coal, kerosene is used as fuel,
briquetted fuel will serve as a better replacement. For domestic cook stoves 12-25 mm
diameter briquettes are more suitable.
Briquettes can be used in boilers, gasifiers, furnaces for thermal applications.
For these applications 50-60 mm size briquettes are preferred. Briquettes of 60-90
mm size are being used in big boilers and gasifiers. Producer gas obtained from
briquette based gasifiers after cooling and cleaning of tar and dust can be used for
running 100% gas operated electric generating sets. On an average 1 kg biomass
briquette can produce 1 kWh of power.

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 Lecture -7
Combustion – improved chulha – single pot – double pot – conventional chulha –
biomass gas stove – constructional features – principles and applications
Thermochemical conversion technologies use thermal energy in the form of
heat to convert biomass into solid, liquid and gaseous products. The basic
thermochemical conversion technologies are combustion, pyrolysis and gasification
are principally classified based on the reaction temperature, availability of oxygen,
residence time and type of product obtained.
7.1. Introduction to combustion of fuels
Fuel may be defined as a combustible substance available in bulk, which on
burning in presence of air / oxygen generates heat that can be economically utilized
for domestic and industrial purposes. The common fuels are compounds of carbon
and hydrogen; in addition, variable percentages of oxygen and small percentages of
sulphur and nitrogen are also present.
Biomass fuels are normally thermally degradable solids. Fuels may be directly
delivered to the combustion furnace, but they are not combusted directly. These
materials in a hot furnace are converted into volatile materials and carbonaceous chat,
which burn with entirely different combustion characteristics. After mixing with air, the
volatile products react with oxygen and burn with flames at the gaseous phase within
the furnace space, whereas the carbonaceous char burns with glowing ignition at the
solid phase on the grate. These two modes of combustion have entirely different
chemical mechanisms and kinetics, which are dependent on both the chemical and
physical compositions of the substrate and design of the combustion system.
Combustion of organic materials not only generates natural components of air
such as carbon dioxide and water but also produces carbonaceous residues, smoke
and tar and obnoxious gases of carbonyl derivatives, unsaturated compounds and
carbon monoxide.
The various types of fuels like solid, liquid and gaseous fuels are available for
firing in boilers, furnaces and other combustion equipments. The selection of right type
of fuel depends on various factors such as availability, storage, handling, pollution and
landed cost of fuel. The knowledge on the fuel properties helps in selecting the right
fuel for the right purpose and efficient use of the fuel.
7.1.1. Direct Combustion
Direct combustion is a mature and well established technology with numerous
operating plants around the world. In combustion, the waste fuel is burnt in excess air
in a controlled manner to produce heat. Flue gases from efficient combustion are
mainly carbon dioxide and water vapour, with small amounts of other air emissions,
depending on the nature of the biomass fuel. The flue gases are cleaned using flue
gas scrubbers, bag filters and electrostatic precipitators, and if required, further
chemical processing to reduce emission of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and other

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pollutants. The combustion heat is used to raise steam in a boiler. The steam is
expanded through a turbine connected to a generator, thereby producing electricity.
The combustion process is explained in Fig.7.1.
If there is a requirement for heat adjacent to the power plant, the energy plant
can be configured as a cogeneration plant to generate electricity and provide heat
simultaneously to nearby industries or other applications, such as district heating. This
is done extensively in the sugar industry, where bagasse (crushed sugar cane residue)
is used as fuel for providing the energy needs of the sugar mill.

Fig.7.1. Direct Combustion System

Biomass fuels may also be co-combusted with fossil fuels in the existing power
stations and cement kilns. This usually entails feeding relatively small quantities of
biomass into the plant with the conventional fuel, without disturbing the operation of
the plant. Grate furnaces are a common type of bioenergy combustion technology for
converting woody biomass and bagasse to energy.
7.2. Principles of combustion
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production
of heat, or heat and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the
presence of an adequate supply of oxygen. Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common
elements on earth making up 20.9% of our air. Rapid fuel oxidation results in large
amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to a gas before they will burn.
Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases. Fuel gases will burn in
their normal state if enough air is present.
Most of the 79% of air (that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of other
elements. Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing diluter that must be
present to obtain the oxygen required for combustion.
Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion
of fuels and diluting the flue gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer through
the heat exchange surfaces. It also increases the volume of combustion by-products,
which then have to travel through the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow
the introduction of additional fuel-air mixture. This nitrogen also can combine with

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oxygen (particularly at high flame temperatures) to produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx),
which are toxic pollutants.
Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen in the air to form
carbon dioxide, water vapour and sulphur dioxide, releasing 8,084 kcal, 28,922 kcal
and 2,224 kcal of heat respectively. Under certain conditions, carbon may also
combine with oxygen to form carbon monoxide, which results in the release of a
smaller quantity of heat (2,430 kcal/kg of carbon). Carbon burned to CO2 will produce
more heat per unit of fuel than when CO or smoke is produced. Each kilogram of CO
formed means a loss of 5654 kcal of heat (8084-2430).
C + O2 → CO 2 + 8084 kcal/kg of Carbon

2C + O2 → 2 CO + 2430 kcal/kg of Carbon

2H 2 + O2 → 2H2O + 28,922 kcal/kg of Hydrogen

S + O2 → SO2 + 2,224 kcal/kg of Sulphur

7.2.1. 3 T’s of Combustion

The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel. This
is accomplished by controlling the "three T's" of combustion which are (1) Temperature
high enough to ignite and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2) Turbulence or intimate mixing
of the fuel and oxygen, and (3) Time sufficient for complete combustion.
Commonly used fuels like natural gas and propane generally consist of carbon
and hydrogen. Water vapor is a by-product of burning hydrogen. This robs heat from
the flue gases, which would otherwise be available for more heat transfer.
Natural gas contains more hydrogen and less carbon per kg than fuel oils and
as such produces more water vapor. Consequently, more heat will be carried away by
exhaust while firing natural gas. Too much, or too little fuel with the available
combustion air may potentially result in unburned fuel and carbon monoxide
generation. A very specific amount of O2 is needed for perfect combustion and some
additional (excess) air is required for ensuring complete combustion. However, too
much excess air will result in heat and efficiency losses.

Fig.7.2. Types of combustion

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 Not all of the heat in the fuel are converted to heat and absorbed by the steam
generation equipment. Usually all of the hydrogen in the fuel is burned and most boiler
fuels, allowable with today's air pollution standards, contain little or no sulfur. So the
main challenge in combustion efficiency is directed toward unburned carbon (in the
ash or incompletely burned gas), which forms CO instead of CO2. The types of
combustion are illustrated neatly in Fig.7.2.
7.2.3. Combustion Controls
Combustion controls assist the burner in regulation of fuel supply, air supply,
(fuel to air ratio), and removal of gases of combustion to achieve optimum boiler
efficiency. The amount of fuel supplied to the burner must be in proportion to the steam
pressure and the quantity of steam required. The combustion controls are also
necessary as safety device to ensure that the boiler operates safely.
7.2.4. Conditions for efficient combustion
The following requirements are to be fulfilled for efficient combustion of any fuel in
a furnace:
1) A sufficient amount of air (higher than stoichiometric amount of air) must be
supplied in order to ensure the supply of sufficient oxygen for completion of the
combustion reactions.
2) The fuel mass and the oxygen of the air must be in free and intimate contact.
3) While burning solid biomass and other solid fuels, the volatile combustion
products leaving the fuel bed must be intimately mixed with the secondary air.
4) The volatile combustion products leaving the fuel bed must not be allowed to
cool below the ignition point until the reactions are complete.
5) The volume of the furnace is to be designed in such a way that the provision
for expansion of the gases during the process of combustion at high
temperature is made.
7.2.5. Stochiometric calculation of air requirement
It is possible to predict the amount of air needed to burn one kg of fuel
completely based on combustion equations. Equation for theoretical air requirement
can be given by the equation,
Kg of Air
-------------------- = 11.53C + 34.34(H2 – O2/8) + 4.29S
Kg of Fuel
Where,
C, H2, O2 and S are the fractions, by weight, of each chemical constituent of the
fuel.
[Link] Excess Air
During combustion, insufficient amount of air causes a reduction in fuel
efficiency, creates highly toxic carbon monoxide gas and produces soot. To ensure
enough oxygen to completely react with the fuel, extra combustion air is usually

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supplied. This extra air, called “Excess Air,” is expressed as the percent air above the
amount theoretically needed for complete combustion. In real-world combustion, the
excess air required for gaseous fuels is typically about 15%.
% O2 measured
% Excess Air = ------------------------------------ x 100
20.9 - %O2 measured
[Link]. Combustion efficiency
Combustion efficiency is a measure of how effectively energy from the fuel is
converted into useful energy. Combustion efficiency is determined by subtracting the
heat content of the exhaust gases, expressed as a percentage of the fuel’s heating
value, from the total fuel-heat potential, or 100%.
Stack heat losses
% Combustion Efficiency = 100% - --------------------------------- x 100
Fuel heating value
7.4. Improved Chulhas
In India, 80% of total population lives in villages. The major energy demand of
rural population is for cooking which contributes to about 98% of their total energy
consumption. Wood, agricultural waste and biomass are used as fuel in rural kitchen.
The cooking appliances which are commonly used in rural houses have very low
thermal efficiency (10 to 15%) and hence per capita energy consumption in rural areas
is much higher than that in urban areas.
Conventional stoves waste a lot of energy and pose many pollution hazards.
Most traditional stoves can utilize only 2 – 10% of the energy generated by the fuel.
The growing gap between availability and demand for fire wood, poor thermal
performance and pollution caused by traditional stoves forced the technologists to
concentrate their attention on improving the thermal efficiencies of stoves.
7.4.1. Single pot chulha
The single pot chulha has a double wall with a gap of 2.5 cm. It has a grate at
the bottom of the combustion chamber (Fig.7.4). Legs have been provided in the four
corners of the chulha (5 cm height) as the ash can be collected below the grate. The
outer wall has two rectangular secondary air openings at the lower portion on both
sides for air entry. The inner wall has 1 cm diameter holes which maintain a triangular
pitch of approximately 3 cm. The secondary air enters through the rectangular
opening in the outer wall, gets heated in the annular chamber and while moving up it
passes through the holes in the combustion chamber. The preheated air helps in
proper burning of the fuel. The efficiency of single pot improved chulha is 24%.

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 Fig.7.4. and 7.5. Single and Double pot chulha
7.4.2. Double pot improved chulha
The TNAU double pot portable chulha (chimneyless) is made with two walls
(Fig.7.5). Around the first pot, an annular chamber having a width of 2.5 cm is left and
the outer wall is constructed. The outer wall is also extended to cover the second pot
in which case the annular chamber width is 3.5 cm, because of the smaller diameter
of the second pot hole. Two secondary air inlets are made, one on the outer wall with
rectangular shape (17 cm x 1 cm) near the combustion chamber and the other at the
bottom of the second pot hole with round shape having a diameter of 5 cm. At the
bottom of the first pot hole in the base, a hole of diameter 14 cm is made and a grate
(C.I.) is placed over it. For the entry of secondary air to the first pothole, 1 cm dia holes
are made with a triangular pitch of 3 cm on the inner side of first pot hole and also on
the tunnel projecting into the second pot hole. The efficiency of single pot improved
chulha is 26%.
7.4.3. TNAU Noon Meal Improved Chulha (Community Chulha)
This community model (TNAU noon meal chulha) double pot chula is made up
of local materials such as clay, sand, paddy husk etc. This chulha has two air inlets (6
x 9 cm) on the sides of the fire box mouth for better combustion (Fig.4.6). Tunnels
were provided to pass the flame to the second pot and carry smoke easily into the
chimney pipe. The height of the first pot hole is made lower (40 cm) than the second
pot hole (48 cm) for the better propagation of flame.

Fig.7.6. TNAU Noon meal improved chulha

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7.4.4. Biomass gas stove
The biomass gas stove has been developed for small scale thermal application
in Agriculture and allied industries. This stove widens the market for agro wastes,
makes possible a higher efficiency and in some cases reduces the time and
investment, all by comparison with combustion. The biomass gas stove is a natural
convection type updraft gasifier consisting of a cylindrical body made of clay, sand and
paddy husk with its top open and bottom closed. The diameters and height of the
stove are 290mm and 630mm respectively (Fig.7.7). This can be reduced depending
on the applications. An iron grate to hold the biomass is fixed at 50 mm from the base
of the reactor. The bottom is provided with an air opening cum ash removal door. At
the top, provision is made to place vessel for cooking, boiling etc. The biomass viz.,
wood chips, agricultural residues like coconut shell, groundnut shell, arecanut husk,
tree barks and leaves can be used in this biomass gas stove. The feedstock materials
used should preferably be in the form of small chips, splinters and small logs.

Fig. 7.7. Biomass gas stove

The stove can be ignited in two methods. One is igniting from bottom and other
is from the top. In the first method, a bed of ignited charcoal (½- 1 kg) to a depth of
50mm is placed over the grate. Then the biomass used is dumped over the red hot
charcoal. A white gas emanates first and the following the combustible gas is ignited.
Whereas in the second method, it is ignited at the top with diesel soaked waste cotton
or by using easily combustible agricultural residues. Initially burning is started in
combustion mode and then changes to gasification mode. The stove consumes 4 to
5 kg of biomass per hour. The quantity varies with the type of biomass used. The
efficiency of single pot improved chulha is 25%.

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 Lecture 8

Pyrolysis – methods for charcoal production –biochar production– comparison

between slow and fast pyrolysis

8.1 Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is defined as the thermal degradation of biomass at the temperature of

about 250-900ºC in the absence of oxygen to yield solid, liquid and gaseous products.
The solid product so obtained is called as charcoal/ biochar which is rich in carbon
content up to 60-80% and thus has more calorific value. The oil from condensable vapors
is called as pyrolysis oil (also known as bio-oil, biocrude) at room temperatures and non-
condensable gases such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and light
molecular weight hydrocarbon gases such as methane, collectively called synthesis gas (
syngas or producer gas)/

8.1.1 Types of pyrolysis process

Depending upon the temperature and time of the pyrolysis process, the product
yield percentage is given below in table 8.1.

1. Slow pyrolysis (250-400 ºC)

2. Intermediate pyrolysis (350-450 ºC)
3. Fast pyrolysis (500-900 ºC)

Table 8.1. Product yield (%) during pyrolysis process

[Link] Products Slow pyrolysis Intermediate Fast pyrolysis

pyrolysis
1 Biochar (%) 35 25 12
2 Bio-oil (%) 30 50 75
3 Producer gas (%) 35 35 13

In general, higher percentage of solid product (char) will be produced from slow
pyrolysis and higher percentage of liquid product (bio oil) will be produced from
intermediate and fast pyrolysis.

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8.1.2. Products of pyrolysis process

When the biomass is thermally decomposed between 250 and 900 ºC in absence of
oxygen, three kinds of products namely biochar or charcoal, bio-oil and producer gas will
be obtained. The production process and applications of the products are described in
detailed manner.

[Link] Biochar

The solid products include char which forms on surface of reacting particles and
the residue after the pyrolysis. Depending on temperature, the char fraction contains
inorganic materials ashed to varying degrees, any uncovered organic solids and
carbonaceous residues, produced on thermal decomposition of the organic components,
particularly lignin.

a. Production of biochar

The biomass substances like agro and wood residues such as Prosopis, Casuarina,
Coconut shell and saw dust etc., are thermally degraded in the absence of oxygen
condition at temperature between 250-400 ºC to yield a solid product called biochar. The
reactor used to produce biochar is called slow pyrolyzer. The biochar yield will vary
between 30-35%. Biochar retains~ 20% of the weight and 30% of the energy of the
biomass and hence ~70% of the energy is released as usable vapours.

The slow pyrolyzer consists of bottom chamber, top chamber and chimney. The
bottom chamber is called combustion unit, where charcoal is used as the fueling source.
The top chamber is covered with the biomass material where the pyrolysis process takes
place to produce biochar. The heat is passed from bottom chamber to top chamber and
volatiles were released through the chimney setup at the top. Once the reactor is cooled to
atmospheric temperature, the biochar is collected and used for several applications.

b. Characteristics of biochar
 High carbon content (60-90%)
 Heating value is 25-30 MJ Kg-1 which can be used as a fuel
 Resistant to biodegradation
 Significant adsorptive qualities
 Nutrients essentially lock on to the structure
 Increases water retention, moisture holding capacity and soil organic carbon
 Enhances microbial biomass and soil biology
 Reduces fertilizer requirements by improving retention of soluble nutrients

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  Improves nutrient retention by increasing cation exchange capacity (CEC) by
about 50% and reduces nutrient runoff to water ways
 Adjusts soil pH
 Reduces N leaching by 60% increases crop productivity by 38% to 45%, saving
20% fertilizer and 10% savings in irrigation and seeds
c. Applications of biochar
 It can be used as a soil conditioner, and there by it mitigates green house gas
emissions in the atmosphere.
 It can be used as an absorbent to treat waste water by removing contaminants
present in it.

[Link] Bio-oil

Bio-oil is the liquid condensate of the vapors of a pyrolysis reaction. It is a dark

brownish viscous liquid that bears some resemblance to fossil crude oil. It is at times
marketed as “liquid smoke”. However, bio-oil is a complex oxygenated compound
comprised of water, water soluble compounds, such as acids, esters, etc., and water-
insoluble compounds, usually called pyrolytic lignin because it comes from the lignin
fraction of the biomass.

a. Production of bio-oil

Pyrolysis of organic materials such as biomass at high temperature (greater than

428 ºC) decomposes the fuel source in to charcoal (carbon and ash) and volatile matter.
Pyrolysis by itself does not normally release excessive heat; rather it requires heat to
sustain it. The latter comprises condensable vapors called pyrolysis oil (also known as
bio-oil, biocrude, etc.) at room temperatures and non- condensable (permanent) gases
such as carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and light molecular weight
hydrocarbon gases such as methane, collectively called synthesis gas (syn gas or
producer gas). The characteristics of bio-oil are listed in table 8.2.

Table 8.2. Characteristics of Bio-oil

[Link] Properties Percentage

1 Moisture (%) 15-30
2 pH 2.8-4.0
3 specific gravity 1.1-1.2
Composition of Bio-oil
4 Carbon (%) 55-64

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5 Hydrogen (%) 5-8
6 Nitrogen (%) 0.05-1.0
7 Ash (%) 0.03-0.30
8 Heating Value (MJ/ kg) 16-26
9 Viscosity , cP 104 ºF and 25% water 25-100

b. Applications of Bio-oil

 Bio-oil can be a substitute for fossil fuels to generate heat, power or chemicals
 Boilers and furnaces (including power stations) can be fueled with bio-oil in the short
term; whereas, turbines and diesel engines may become available on the somewhat
longer term. Upgrading of the bio-oil to a transportation fuel is technically feasible
but needs further development.

8.1.3 Types of pyrolysis reactors

Pyrolysis can be classified under slow, intermediate or fast pyrolysis. Slow

pyrolysis is an old art, whose origins can be traced to when manmade fire. It maximizes
charcoal yield and has been used to produce charcoal for use as fuel in developing
countries. Although pyrolysis does not release heat, the slow pyrolysis reaction for
converting biomass mainly to charcoal can be slightly exothermic (release heat). So large
qualities of charcoal can be produced by burying the biomass underground and initiating
the reaction.

Currently, most of the interest in pyrolysis focuses on fast pyrolysis, which

maximizes liquid production rather than charcoal. It involves rapid heating rates and
higher temperatures than slow pyrolysis and is endothermic. The ideal conditions for fast
pyrolysis involve rapid heating rates (>240 ºC per second) and temperatures usually in
excess of 537 ºC.

Due to short residence time, the main products from the biomass fast pyrolysis are
ethylene rich gases that can be condensed to produced bio-oil and alcohols rather than
char and tar. Char or charcoal is produced from biomass that can store carbon. It is of
increasing interest because of concerns about global warming caused by emissions of
CO2 and other greenhouse gases. The different types of pyrolysis reactors for producing
bio-oil are circulating fluidized bed, bubbling type fuildized bed, rotating cone and rotary
pyrolysis reactors.

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[Link]. Bubbling fluidized bed pyrolyzer

In a fluidized bed pyrolyzer, a heated sand medium in a zero- oxygen

environment quickly heats the feedstock (biomass) from 4..-900 ºC, where it is
decomposed into solid char, gas, vapors and aerosols which exit the reactor by the
conveying fluidizing gas stream. After exiting the reactor zone, the charcoal can be
removed by a cyclone separator and stored. The scrubbed gases, vapors and aerosols
enter a direct quenching system where they are rapidly cooled (<51 ºC) directly with a
liquid immiscible in bio-oil or indirectly using chillers (heat exchanger). The condensed
bio-oil is collected and stored and the non-condensable gas (syngas) may be recycled or
used as a fuel to heat the reactor. High liquid yields (about 60% weight of biomass on a
dry basis) can be typically recovered.

Fig: Bubbling Fluidized bed reactor

[Link]. Circulating fluidized bed pyrolyzer

These reactors are similar to bubbling fluidized bed reactors but have shortes
residence times for chars and vapors. The short residence times encountered in the reactor
result in higher gas velocities, faster vapor and char escape and higher char content in the
bio-oil than bubbling fluidized beds. However, they have higher processing capacity,
better gas-solid contact and improved ability to handle solids that are more difficult to

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fluidize but are less commonly used. The heat supply typically comes from a secondary
char combustor.

Fig: Circulating Fluidized bed reactor

[Link]. Rotating plate pyrolysis reactor

The rotating plate pyrolysis reactors functiond while under pressure, heat
transferred from a hot surface can soften and vaporize the feedstock in contact with it-
allowing the prolysis reaction to move through the biomass in one direction. With this
arrangement, larger particles, including logs, can be pyrolyzed without pulverizing them.
The most important feature is that there is no requirement for an inert gas medium, therby
resulting in smaller processing surface area, so scaling can be an issue for the larger
facilities.

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 [Link]. Rotating cone pyrolysis reactor

During the pyrolysis process, biomass particles at room temperature and hot sand
are introduced near the bottom of a cone at the same time. They are mixed and
transported upwards by the rotation of the cone. The pressures of outgoing materials are
slightly above atmospheric levels. Rapid heating and short gas phase residence times can
be easily achieved in this reactor.

Fig: Rotating cone pyrolysis reactor

8.2. Benefits of pyrolysis process and its products.

Pyrolysis of agricultural residues can help in meeting renewable energy targets by

displacing fossil fuels and, thereby, deal with concerns about gloabal warming.

i. Pyrolysis offers more scope for recovering products from agricultural waste than
burning it.
ii. When agricultural residues are pyrolyzed first, bio-oil, gases and biochar can not only
be used as a fuel but can also be purified and used as feedstock for petrochemicals and
other applications. The use of the biochar for soil amendment and as carbon-
sequestering, climate- mitigating agent is gaining worldwide attention.
iii. Transportation fuels such as methanol and Fischer-Tropsch Liquids (synthetic diesel)
can be derived from bio-oil, using the bio-oil as a gasifier feedstock instead of bulky
biomass, and can save some transportation costs. Furthermore, there is a wide range
of chemicals that can be extracted or derived from the bio-oil.

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8.3 Comparison between slow, intermediate and fast pyrolysis

Table 8.3 represents the comparison between slow, intermediate and fast pyrolysis
in terms of product yield characteristics.

Table 8.3 Comparison between typical pyrolysis systems

Technology Temperature Residence Time Char Liquid Gas

(ºC) (%) (%) (%)
Slow pyrolysis ~400 ºC Hours to weeks 35 30 35
Intermediate pyrolysis ~500 ºC ~ 10-20 sec 20 50 30
Fast pyrolysis ~500 ºC ~1 sec 12 75 13

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 Lecture 10&11

Gasification – chemistry – types – updraft gasifier – working principles- operations

– application- Downdraft gasifier – working principles – operation and applications

10.1 Gasification

Gasification is a thermo-chemical process in which, biomass is thermally degraded

with restricted amount of air/oxygen to yield a mixture of combustible gases consisting of
carbon monoxide, hydrogen and traces of methane called producer gas. The reactor
where the gasification takes place is called as gasifier.

10.1.1. Importance of gasification

Generally, the biomass consists of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. When
complete combustion takes place, carbon present in the biomass to produce carbon
dioxide, hydrogen is converted into water vapour. But, when partial oxidation takes
place, the biomass is directly converted into mixture of gas such as carbon dioxide,
hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide and methane is called as producer gas. Hydrogen,
methane and carbon monoxide are the combustible gases. This producer gas can be
directly used in the generator to produce electricity. Otherwise, wood materials can be
used in the gasifier to produce methanol which has both engine and chemical
applications.

10.1.2. Principles of gasification process

Biomass gasifier is simple in design and vertically cylindrical in shape. It consists

of grate, air, supply system with blower and gas scrubbing unit. Based on the
temperature, the reactor consists of four zones. They are,

1. Drying zone (100-150 ºC)

2. Pyrolysis zone (150- 700 ºC)
3. Oxidation zone ( 700-1400 ºC)

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 4. Reduction zone (800-1100 ºC)

[Link]. Drying Zone

In this zone, biomass are fed with the moisture content ranged from 10-15%. At
temperature between 100 and 150 ºC, the water present in the biomass is converted into
steam.

[Link] Pyrolysis zone

It is the process wherein heat is used to breakdown biomass in the absence of air to
yield charcoal, wood- oils, tars and gases. In this zone, the solid material starts
disintegrating at 150-700 ºC to produce char as well as condensable and non-
condensable gases.

[Link]. Oxidation zone

In this zone, when carbon in the biomass is reacted with air/oxygen which is
converted into carbon dioxide, hydrogen with oxygen to form steam. Apart from heat
generation, all condensable and organic products of pyrolysis get converted and oxidized.
The process in this zone is exothermic and temperature will be about 1400 ºC.

[Link] Reduction zone

In this zone, carbon dioxide and steam is reacted with oxygen and reduced to
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. In this zone, sensible heat of gases and charcoal is
absorbed in endothermic reactions. The temperature at this zone is about 800-1100 ºC.

10.2 Types of gasifier

Based on the bed, gasifier is classified into fixed bed gasifier and fluidized bed
gasifier. And based on the flow and direction of air or fuel, fixed bed gasifier is classified
into updraft gasifier, downdraft gasifier and cross draft gasifier.

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10.2.1. Updraft gasifier

The updraft gasifier is characterized by a counter current flow of fuel and air or
gas in the reactor. The producer gas exists from the top of the gasifier. The biomass
enters the top of the reaction chamber while steam and air or oxygen enters from bottom
through grate. The fuel flows downward and up-flowing hot gases pyrolyze it. Some of
the resulting charcoal residue falls to the grate, where it burns, producing heat and giving
off carbon dioxide and water vapor. The CO2 and H2O react with other charcoal particles,
producing carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases. The gases exit from the top and ashes
fall through the grate. The updraft design is relatively simple and can handle biomass
fuels with high ash and moisture content. The gas contains 10-20% volatile oils making
the gas unsuitable for use in engines or gas turbines. These gasifiers are best suited for
thermal applications.

Fig: Schematic of updraft gasifier

10.2.2 Downdraft gasifier

The down draft gasifier is characterized by co-current flow of air or gas and the
fuel. Fuel and air or gas move in the same direction. Gasifier requires drying of biomass

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fuel to a moisture content of less than 20%. Fuel and air or oxygen enters the top of the
reation chamber. Down- flowing fuel particles ignite, burning intensely and leaving a
charcoal residue. The charcoal which is about 5 to 15% of the mass of original fuel then
reacts with the combustion gases, producing CO and H2 gases. These gases flow down
and exit from the chamber below a grate. The producer gas leaving the gasifier is at a
high temperature. Combustion ash falls through the grate. The advantage of the
downdraft design is the very low tar content of the producer gas and it can be used for
power production.

Fig: Schematic of downdraft gasifier

10.2.3. Cross draft gasifier

This gasifier can operate with wide variety of fuels compared to an up draft or a
down draft gasifier. It has higher gas velocity at he gas exit with higher temperature, poor
CO2 reduction are certain characteristics of this type of gasifier. This type of gasifier has
been used for gasification of coal.

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 Fig: Schematic of crossdraft gasifier

10.2.4 Fluidized bed gasifier

Fluidized bed gasifier has

a homogeneous reactor bed of
some inert sand material. The
fuel is introduced in the inert
bed material and air passed at
the bottom of the bed in the
reactor. This gasifier is
characterized by high gas exit
temperature, very high solid
particulate matter in the gas and
relatively low efficiency. The
gasifier can operate with low bulk density materials such as agro residues, leaves, etc. a
fluidization bed is a chamber with a perforated floor having pressurized air flowing
vertically where a particle medium usually sand is contained. The pressurized and
flowing air helps the medium allowing it to act as a fluid.

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 This type of reactor can be used for complete combustion applications which
would allow it to use liquid wastes such as used engine oil, non recyclable plastics and
old shoes, garbage foe generation of heat. It has greater potential to treat municipal waste
such as garbage. It is quicker in response with a shorter start time. The design of the
system is very complex design in nature.

10.2.5. Characteristics of producer gas

The composition of the producer gas is purely depends on the type of biomass
used and type of gasifiers. The producer gas consists of 22% carbon monoxide, 12%
hydrogen, 2% methane, 9% carbon dioxide and 55% nitrogen. The heating value of 1 m3
producer gas is about 1100-1200 kcal/m3. Generally from 1 kg of biomass, 2.5 m3 of
producer gas will be obtained. The factors such as moisture content, bulk density, ash
content, tar content, air supply affects the performance of the gasifier.

10.3. Factors influencing the performance of the gasifier.

There are many factors which are affecting the performance of the gasification
process. They are listed below.

Energy content
Size and shape of the fuel
Bulk weight or calorie value per volume
Tar content
Moisture content
Dust tendency
Ash and slag tendency
Reaction response
Equivalence ratio
Reactor pressure
Temperature

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10.4. Applications of gasifier

Gasifiers can be used to produce heat directly for process applications. It can be
coupled to internal combustion engines either to produced shaft power or electrical
energy using an alternator. Small-scale gasifiers find wide application in rural area for
energizing diesel engine pumps. Medium scale gasifiers can be used in rural area for
energizing diesel engine pumps. Medium scale gasifiers can be used in rural industries
for thermal and shaft power applications. These gasifiers can also be used to power
vehicles. Large scale gasifiers find application in industries as a source of electrification
and they are run with specific feed stocks like wood.

Gas produced from biomass can be used for production of heat and electricity. It
these cases the gasifying agent is usually air. The gas can be used also as a new syngas
for production of methanol, ammonia or substitute natural gas. This requires a gas free of
N2 and other inerts. Gasification with O2 is the usual method, but other techniques are
available too.

a. Direct heating
There is considerable scope and potential for the use of gas produced by gasification
in heat exchangers and boilers in the process industries. Some of its uses are to fire open
hearth furnaces, cement kilns, tunnel kilns for heavy clay industries, ceramic processes,
glass melting, agricultural and industrial driers. After removal of ash and char particles in
one or more cyclones, the producer gas can be fired in an oven, kiln or furnace for
production of steam or hot water or for calcining or roasting operations. Retrofitting
combustion equipment is possible and does not necessarily lead to derating. Potential
losses in radiation sections are often compensated by an increased heat transfer in
convective sections. The erection of a completely new 0.38 MW gasifier/boiler
combination was calculated to be less costly than a direct combustion system. Finally, the
producer gas can be used for drying purposes, for instance for drying of the wet biomass
to be gasified.

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 A further advantage is that producer gas can directly replace natural gas, town gas
or oil with simple modification of the boiler heat transfer areas and burner equipment (for
cooking etc.) The use of gas produced by gasification as a heat source can be applied in
both small and large scale systems provided power is available to draw gases through
them.
b. Power generation
Besides the steam boiler, steam engine or turbine power can be generated by
combustion of the gas in an international combustion engine or gas turbine. For this
purpose the gas must be cleaned thoroughly. For use in reciprocating engines the gas
should contain less than 20 mg Nm3 of dust and tar constituents. Particles, especially
those with dimensions over 3 mm have to be eliminated. Approximately 0.8 KWh of net
power is generated from one kilogram of air-dry biomass. It is possible to convert
standard spark ignition and diesel engines; changes are simple and usually are limited to
items such as the gas intake system, gas- air mixer, and spark plugs. The low heating
value of the gas/ air mixture results in 30-40% derating of engines normally fueled by
gasoline; this is overcome by supercharging. A diesel engine shows a much smaller
derating of 10% because of its high excess air ratio, but they always need a small quantity
of diesel oil for the ignition of the gas/air mixture. This quantity is approximately 15% of
its maximum energy input. If the gas cleaning system is well designed there will be no
extra wear or maintenance of engine parts.
Stationary units for electricity generation may be economically viable up to 1
MW, but much depends on the site-specific factors. Producer gas systems for traction are
used only in remote areas, where the time-consuming operation and maintenance are
balanced by the high fuel prices.
Although gas turbines, preferably in combination with pressurized producer gas
systems, seem to be very attractive for power generation, no breakthrough has taken
place until today. Since it is preferred to fire the hot gas directly into the combustion
chamber, an extremely effective hot gas cleaning is required. A turbine is not only

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sensitive to particles but also to attack of vapour phase components such as potassium
oxide, sulphides and chlorides.
c. Substitute natural gas
A CH4 rich gas is produced by methanation of the product gas during or after
gasification. The reaction equation is:
CO + 3H2 = CH4 +H2O
Usually catalysis and high pressure are used. If biomass gasification is combined
with natural gas reforming, a synthesis gas for methanol production can be produced
without the need for a shift reactor.

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 Lecture 12

Solar energy – characteristics of solar radiation - types of radiation – solar

constant

Solar energy is the electromagnetic energy transmitted from the sun (solar
radiation). The amount that reaches the earth is equal to one billionth of total solar energy
generated, or the equivalent of about 420 trillion kWh. This energy keeps the temperature
of the earth above that in colder space, causes current in the atmosphere and in ocean,
causes current in the atmosphere and in ocean, causes the water cycle and generates
photosynthesis in plants. The amount that reaches the earth is equal to one billionth of
total solar energy generated, or equivalent of about 420 trillion kWh. The energy radiated
by the sun on a bright sunny day is approximately 1 KWh/m2, attempts have been made
to make use of this energy in raising steam which may be used in driving the prime
movers for the purpose of generation of electrical energy. However on account of large
space required, uncertainty of availability of energy at constant rate, due to clouds, winds
haze etc., there is limited application of this source in the generation of electric power.

12.1 Characteristics of solar radiation

Energy is radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99% have wave
lengths in the range of 0.2 to 4.0 micrometers (1 micrometer = 10 -6 meter). Solar energy
reaching the top of the earth’s atmosphere consists of about 8% ultraviolet radiation
(short wave length, less than 0.39 micrometer), and 46% infrared radiation ( long wave
length more than 0.78 micrometer).

12.1.1 Solar constant

The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various
kinds of fusion reactions. Its diameter is 1.39 km. while that of the earth is 1.27 x 10 4 km.
the mean distance between the two is 1.50 x 108 km. Although the sun is large, it subtend
an angle of only 32 minutes at the earth’s surface. This is because it is also at a very large

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distance. Thus the beam radiation received from the sun on the earth is almost parallel.
The brightness of the sun varies. The rate at which solar energy arrives at the top of the
atmosphere is called the soalr constant Isc. This is the amount of energy received in unit
time on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth
from the sun. Because of the sun’s distance and activity vary throughout the year; the rate
of arrival of solar radiation varies accordingly. It is called solar constant in thus an
average from which the actual values vary upto 3 % in either direction. This variation is
not important however, for administration’s (NASA) standard value for the solar
constant, expressed in three common units, is as follows:

1.353 kW/m2 or 1353 w/m2 (or)

116.5 langleys (cal/cm2)/hr (or)

1165kcal/m2/hr (1 langley= 1cal/cm2) of solar radiation received in one day)

12.1.2 Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface

Solar radiation received at the surface of the earth is entirely different due to the
various reasons. The solar radiation that penetrates the earth’s atmosphere and aches the
surface differs in both amount and character from the radiation at the top of the
atmosphere. In the first place, part of the radiation is reflected back into the space,
especially by clouds. Furthermore, the radiation entering the atmosphere is partly
absorbed by molecules in the air. Oxygen and ozone (O3), formed from oxygen, absorb
nearly all the ultraviolet radiation, and water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb some of
the energy in the infrared range. In addition, part of the solar radiation is scattered (i.e.,
its direction has been changed) by droplets in clouds by atmospheric molecules, and by
dust particles.

12.1.3 Types of Solar Radiation

Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground directly
from the sun is called direct radiation or beam radiation. It is the radiation which

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produces a shadow when interrupted by an opaque object. Diffuse radiation is that solar
radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by reflection and
scattering by the atmosphere. Because of the solar radiation is scattered in all directions
in the atmosphere, diffuse radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the sky. The total
solar radiation received at any point on the earth’s surface is the sum of the direct and
diffuse radiation. The insolation is defined as the solar radiation energy received on a
horizontal surface of unit area (1m2) on the ground in unit time (1 day).

The insolation at a given location on the earth’s surface depends, among other
factors, on the altitude of the sun in the sky. (The altitude is the angle between sun’s
direction and the horizontal). Since the sun’s altitude changes with the date and time of
the day and with the geographic; altitude at which the observations are made, the rate of
arrival of solar radiation on the ground is a variable quantity even in the time. The air
mass (m) is the path length of radiation through the atmosphere, considering the vertical
path at sea level as unity.

12.1.4 Solar Radiation Geometry

In solar radiation analysis, the following angles are useful and represented below,

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a. Latitude of the location (ϕL)

Latitude of the location is the angle made by the radial line joining the location
to the centre of the earth with the projection of the line on the equatorial plane. The
location may be either to the north or south of equator (north is positive, and south is
negative) – 90º < fL< 90º. It is the angular displacement of a location north or south of
equator. The equator is 0 º, the North Pole is 90 º North and the south pole is - 90 º
South.

b. Longitude

The longitude is the angle between prime meridian and the meridian of the place
varies from 0 to 180 º

c. Solar Declination (δ)

the solar declination is the angle between the equatorial plane and the ecliptic
plane. The solar declination angle varies with the season of the year, and ranges between
– 23.5 º and +23.5 º.

d. Zenith Angle

Angle between sun’s ray and a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane at P.
Zenith is the point in the sky directly overhead a particular location as the Zenith angle q z
increases, the sun approaches the horizon. It is the angle between the vertical and the line
to the sun. Air mass (sometimes called air mass ratio) is equal to the cosine of the zenith
angle. The zenith angle is that angle from directly overhead to a line intersecting the sun.
The air mass is an indication of the length of the path the solar radiation travels through
the atmosphere. An air mass of 1.0 means the sun is directly overhead and the radiation
travels through one atmosphere (thickness).

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e. Altitude angle

The altitude angle is the angle between the horizontal and the line to the sun. It is
the complement of zenith angle.

f. Azimuth angle (γ)

The solar azimuth angle is the angular displacement from the south of the
projection of the beam radiation on the horizontal surface. Displacements east of south
are negative and west of south are positive. The surface azimuth angle is the deviation of
the projection on the horizontal plane of the normal to the surface from the local
meridian, with zero due south, east negative, and west positive; -180 º< γ <+180 º.

g. Slope (β)

The slope is the angle between the plane of the surface in question with the
horizontal. i.e., 0< β < 180 º (β >90 º means that the surface is downward facing
component).

h. Hour angle (ù)

The hour angle is the angular displacement of the sun east or west of the local
meridian due to rotation of the earth on its axis at 15 º per hour, morning negative and
afternoon positive.

i. Angle of incidence

The angle of incidence is the angle between the beam radiation on the surface and
the normal to the surface.

j. Tilt angle

The tilt angle is the vertical angle between the horizontal and the array surface,

12.2 Pyranometer

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 The pyranometer is an instrument used for measuring global solar irradiance.

12.3. Pyrheliometer

The pyrheliometer is an instrument used for measuring direct beam solar

irradiance. It uses an aperture of 5.7 º to transcribe the solar disc.

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Lecture 13- Solar thermal devices – solar water heater – solar cooker – solar
pond – solar distillation – working principles and applications.

13.1 Solar Thermal Energy

Solar thermal device captures and transfers the heat energy available in solar radiation
which can be used for meeting the requirements of heat in different temperature ranges.

Three main temperature ranges used are

• Low temperature: Hot water (60oC to 80oC)

• Medium temperature: Drying (80oC to 140oC)
• High temperature: Cooking and power generation (>140oC)

Solar thermal systems have four main components:

• Solar collector
• Working fluid
• Storage tank
• Controller

The heat captured by an active system can be used to heat water or air, or to power a pump.
When solar collectors are exposed to solar radiation, a working fluid flowing in passages or tubes
in the panels is heated. The fluid is typically water, water and antifreeze or a refrigerant. A clear
cover the collector slows the escape of collected hest to the outside air. The working fluid is
circulated by a pump or fan. The controller turns the system on when the sun’s energy is
available and off during cloudy period sand at night. The controller can also automatically drain
water from the collector to prevent it from freezing and cracking the collector tubes.

13.2.1 Solar Energy Collectors

A solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and to transfer the energy to a
fluid passing in contact with it. Utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors. These are
general of two types:

i. Non concentrating or flat plate type solar collector

ii. Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector

The solar energy, with its associated absorber, is the essential component of any system
for the conversion of solar radiation energy into more usable form (e.g., heat or electricity). In
the non-concentration type, the collector area (i.e., the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is
the same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the radiation). On the other hand, in

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concentrating collectors, the area intercepting the solar radiation is greater, sometimes hundreds
of time greater than the absorber area. By means of concentrating collectors, much higher
temperatures can be obtained than with the non concentrating type. Concentrating collectors may
be used to generate medium pressure steam. They use many different arrangements of mirrors
and lenses to concentrate the sun’s rays on the boiler. This type shows better efficiency than the
flat plate type. For best efficiency, collectors should be mounted to face the sun as it moves
through the sky.

[Link] Flat plate type solar collectors

Where temperatures below about 90oC are adequate, as they are for space and service
water heating flat plate collectors, which are of the non concentrating type, are particularly
convenient. They are made in rectangular panels, from about 1.7 to 2.9 sq. m, in area, and are
relatively simple to construct and erect. Flat plates can collect and absorb both direct and diffuse
solar radiation; they are consequently partially effective even on cloudy days when there is no
direct radiation. Flat plate solar electors may be divided into two main classifications based on
the type of heat transfer fluid used. Liquid heating collectors are used for heating water and non-
freezing aqueous solutions and occasionally for non-aqueous heat transfer fluids. Air or gas
heating collectors are employed as solar air heaters. The principle difference between the two
types is the design of the passage for the heat for the transfer fluid.

The majority of the flat plate collectors have five main components as follows:

i. A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass or radiation transmitting
plastic film or sheet.
ii. Tubes, fins, passage or channels are integral with the collector absorber plate or
connected to it, which carry the water, air or other fluid.
iii. The absorber plate, normally metallic or with a black, surface, although a wide variety of
other materials can be used with air heaters.
iv. Insulation, which should be provided at the back and sides to minimize the heat losses.
Standard insulating materials such as fibre glass or styro-foam are used.
v. The casing or container which encloses the other components and protects them from the
weather.
a) Typical liquid collector

There are many flat plate collector designs, but most are based on the principle shown in fig
13.1. It is the plate and tube type collector. It basically consists of a flat surface with high
absorptivity for solar radiation, called the absorbing surface. Typically, metal plates, usually of
copper, steel or aluminium material with tubing of copper in thermal contact with the plates, are
the most commonly used materials. The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet 1 to 2
mm in thickness, while the tubes, which are also of metal, range in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm.

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They are soldered, brazed or clamped to the bottom (in some cases, to the top) of the absorber
plate corrugated galvanized sheet is a material widely available throughout the world.

Heat is transferred from the absorber plate to point of use by circulation of fluid (usually
water) across the solar heated surface. Thermal insulation of 5 to 10 cm thickness is usually
placed behind the absorber plate to prevent the heat losses from the rear surface. The insulation
material is generally mineral wool or glass or fiber glass as stated above.

The front covers are generally glass (may be one or more) that is transparent to incoming
solar radiation and opaque to the infra-red reradiation from the absorber. The glass covers act as
a convention shield to reduce losses from the absorber plate beneath. Glass is generally used for
the transparent covers but certain plastic films may be satisfactory. Glass is the most favorable
material. Thickness of 3 and 4 mm are commonly used. The usual practice is to have 1 or 2
covers with a specific ranging from 1.5 to 3 cm.

Fig 13.1. Flat plate collector

The advantage of second glass which is added above the first one are

1. Losses due to air convection are further reduced. This is important in windy areas.
2. Radiation losses in the infra red spectrum are reduced by a further 25%, because half of
the 50% which is emitted outwards from the first glass plate is back radiated. It is not
worthwhile to use more than two glass plates. This is due to the fact that each plate
reflects about 15% of the incoming sunlight.
b) Heat transport system
The heat generated in the absorber is removed by continuous flow of a heat transport or
heat transfer medium, either water or air. Water is a very effective heat transport medium, but it
suffers from certain drawbacks, one is the possibility of the freezing in the collector tubes in cold
climates during cold night. As stated earlier ethylene glycol is added to prevent freezing, but this
generally adds to the complexity of the heating system. Furthermore, the antifreeze solution is
less effective than water for heat removed from the absorber. In some cases, the water is drained

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from the collector tubes if freezing is expected, but difficulties have been experienced in refilling
all the tubes in the morning. Another problem arises from corrosion of the metal tubes by the
water; this aggravated if the water is drained at night thus allowing air to enter. The oxygen in air
increases the rate of corrosion of most metals. Corrosion can be minimized by using copper
tubing. Aluminium is a less expensive alternative, although periodic chemical treatment of water
is desirable.
Finally, leaks in a water (or anti-freeze) circulation system require immediate attention.
Fins attached to the plate increase the contact surface. The back side of the collector is heavily
insulated with mineral wool or some other material. The most favorable orientation, of a
collector, for heating only is facing due south at an inclination angle to the horizontal equal to the
latitude plus 150. Air has been used far to a lesser extent as the heat transport medium in solar
collectors, but it may have some advantages over water. To decrease the power required to pump
the necessary volume of air through tubes, wider flow channels are used. The solar air heaters,
which supply hot air that could be mainly used for heating buildings and greenhouses, drying
agricultural produce and lumber, air conditioning buildings utilizing desiccant beds or an
absorption refrigeration process and using air heaters as the heat sources for a heat engine such
as a Brayton or Strilling cycle.
Basically, air heaters are classified in the following two categories.
1. The first type has a non-porous absorber in which the air stream does not flow through the
absorber plate. Air may glow above and or behind the absorber plate.
2. The second type has a porous absorber that includes slit and explained metal, transpired
honey comb and over lapped glass plate absorber.

c) Advantages of flat plate type solar collectors

• Both beam and diffuse solar radiation is used

• Do not require orientation towards the sun
• Requires little maintenance
• Mechanically simpler than the concentrating reflectors, absorbing surface and orientation
devices of focusing collectors

[Link] Concentrating (focusing) type solar collector

Focusing collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar radiation
on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors generally use optical system in the form of
reflectors. A focusing collector is a special form of flat plate collector modified by introducing a
reflecting (or refracting) surface (concentrator) between the solar radiations and the absorber.

These types of collectors have radiation from low value of 1.5-2 to high values of the
order of 10,000. As a result of the energy concentrations fluids can be heated to temperatures of
5000C or more.

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a) Line focusing collectors (Trough reflector)

The principle of the parabolic trough collector, which is often used in concentration
collectors, is shown by the cross- section in Fig. solar radiation coming
from the particular direction is collected over the area of the reflecting
surface and is concentrated at the focus of the parabola, if the reflector
is in the form of a trough with parabolic cross-section, the solar radiation
is focused alone a line. Mostly cylindrical parabolic concentrators are used, in
which absorber is placed along focus axis. The collector pipe, preferably
with a selective absorber coating is used as an absorber.

b) Point focusing collector (Paraboloidal type)

A paraboloidal dish collector brings solar radiation to a focus

at a point actually a small central volume. A dish 6.6 m in
diameter has been made from about 200 curved mirror segments
forming a paraboloidal surface and cross section of a paraboloidal
type is shown in the Fig. The absorber, located at the focus, is a
cavity made of zirconium- copper alloy with a black chrome
selective coating. The heat transport fluid flows into and out of
the absorber cavity through pipes bonded to the interior. The dish
can be turned automatically about two axes (up-down and left-right) so that the sun is always
kept in a line with the focus and the base (vertex) of the paraboloidal dish. Thus, the sun can be
fully tracked at essentially all times.

c) Advantages of concentrating type solar collector

1. Reflecting surfaces required less material and are structurally simpler than flat plate
collectors
2. The absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than that of flat plate system for same
solar energy collection and therefore the insolation intensity is grater
3. Because of the area from which heat is lost to the surroundings per unit of the solar energy
collecting area is less than that for flat plate collector.
4. Owing to the small area of absorber per unit of solar energy collecting area, selective surface
treatment/ vacuum insulation to reduce heat losses and improve collector efficiency are
economically feasible.
5. Focusing or concentrating systems can be used for electric power generation when not used
for heating or cooling.
6. Because the temperature attainable with concentrating collector system is higher, the amount
of heat which can be stored per unit volume is large and consequently the heat storage costs
are less for concentrator systems than for flat plate collectors.
7. Little or no anti- freeze is required to protect the absorber in a concentrator system

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 [Link]. Applications of solar thermal systems

a. Solar cookers

Two different types of solar cookers i.e. indirect and direct focusing type have been
developed in the country. Such solar cookers are being marketed on commercial scale in most of
the states through State Energy Development Corporations or other nodal agencies of the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India, New Delhi.

i. Box type solar cooker

The important parts of a solar cooker include the outer

box with thermal insulator, inner cooking box or tray, the
double glass lid, mirror and cooking containers as shown in
the Fig. The inner cooking box or tray is made from
aluminium sheet and coated with black paint to absorb solar
radiation and to transfer the heat to the cooking pots. The
cooking tray is covered with a double glass lid in which the
two glass sheets are spaced at about 20 mm to entrap air which acts an insulator and prevents
escape of heat from the inside. The space between the outer box and inner tray including bottom
of the tray is packed with insulating material such as glass wool pads to reduce heat losses from
the cooker. The cooking containers (with cover) are generally made of aluminum and painted
black on the surface so that they also absorb solar radiation directly. The time taken to cook will
depend upon the type of food, time of the day and solar intensity.

ii. Solar concentrating cookers

In this type of cookers, the light is concentrated into the cooking vessel through reflectors.
The concentration of solar radiation is about 20 to 50 times higher than box type cookers.
Therefore, high temperature is obtained for cooking and enables faster cooking.

This can be classified into various types as

• Dish type cookers

• Scheffler cookers
• Parabolic concentrating cookers
1. Dish type cookers

Dish type cooker is a concentrating type parabolic

dish cooker with aperture of 1.4 m diameter and focal
length 0.28 m. The reflecting material used is anodized
aluminium sheet with a reflectivity of over 75%. The
parabolic dish is made of reflecting sheets supported
on suitable rings for holding them in fixed position.

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 The sheets are joined together in a such a way as to form a parabolic shape. The structure and
frame of the bowl should be strong so that the reflectors do not get deformed while turning in
various directions. The reflector stand is made of mild steel with powder coating. Manual
tracking arrangement is provided and adjustments may be made once in 15 to 20 minutes at the
time of cooking. The stand is designed in such a way that the reflector could rotate 3600 around
horizontal axis passing through the focus and center of gravity. It will also rotate around the
vertical axis so as to turn the reflector in the direction of the sun.

2. Scheffler cookers

Scheffler cookers are having concentration ratio, which is more

than that of dish type cookers. In this type of cookers heat can be
generated at one place and can be transferred to convenient place
(like inside a kitchen). In this way, this type of cookers overcome
the inconvenience of cooking under sun. this system can attain the
temperature upto 4500 C. the 8 sq.m large reflector standing outside
the kitchen reflects solar rays into the kitchen through an opening in
its north wall, while the secondary reflector further concentrates the rays to the bottom of the pot/
frying pan which is painted black, to absorb heat faster and better.

3. Parabolic concentrating cookers

The solar parabolic cooker works on the principle of solar energy

concentration using a reflecting parabolic solar concentrator. A high
temperature is obtained since the sun’s rays are concentrated on a pot.
The general handling is easy and simple. The system uses automatic
tracking solar dish concentrators which convert water into high
pressure steam and consists of shell type receiver made of mild steel,
35 cm in diameter, connected to two concentrators on either side, which focus sunlight on both
sides of the receiver.

iii. Solar water heaters

Solar water heating system (SWHS) is a device which supplies hot water at 600C to 800 C
using only solar thermal energy without any other fuel. It has three main components, namely,
solar collector, insulated hot water storage tank and cold water tank with required insulated hot
water pipelines and accessories.

In the case of smaller systems (100-2000 liters/day), the hot water reaches the user end,
by natural (thermo-siphon) circulation for which the storage tank is located above the collectors.
In higher capacity systems, a pump may be used for forced circulation of water. The two types of
water heating system are flat plate solar water heaters and evacuated tube solar water heaters.

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• Flat plate solar water heaters

A flat plate solar water heating system is used for

domestic and industrial applications foe heating water
upto 60 to 700 C. A flat plate collector is simple in
design and consists of flat collector or absorber, glass
cover, insulation, pipes and storage tanks.

• Evacuated tube solar water heater

It is made of double layer borosilicate glass tubes

evacuated for providing insulation. The outer wall of the
inner tube is coated with selective absorbing material.
This helps absorption of solar radiation and transfers the
heat to the water which flows through the inner tube. Due
to vacuum in the evacuated tube collector, there is no
medium which take the heat away from the absorber
plate. Therefore, there are less heat losses. Thus, in
evacuated tube collectors, the water temperature close to
1000C can be obtained.

13.3. Solar pond

In order to reduce the cost of the large

solar thermal installations, it is necessary to devise
more economical ways to collecting and storing
solar energy. In this context, attention has been
focused on the possibility of using large expanses
of water of small depth for absorbing and storing
solar radiation instead of using flat plate collectors
and water storage tanks. One would obtain a
significant rise in the water temperature only if the convection could be prevented. An artificially
constructed pond in which significant temperature rises are caused to occur in the lower regions
by preventing convection is called a solar pond. The usual method adopted to prevent the
convection is to dissolve a salt in the water and to maintain a concentration gradient. For such
ponds, the more specific term salt gradient solar pond is used.

It appears that the least expensive type of solar collector is a large solar pond. However,
they have been considered primarily for large industrial applications because their cost decreases
considerably with increases in size. There are two basic type of solar ponds: the shallow pond
and the salt- gradient pond. Both are equivalent to horizontal flat plate collectors, since they are

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non- concentrating, accept both direct and diffuse solar energy, and are limited to low
temperature applications. One square meter of pond surface area can supply 0.5 to 2 GJ of
thermal energy per year at temperature from 40 to 800C.

13.3.1. salient features of a solar pond

• Body of water that collects and stores solar energy

• Warmed water rises as it becomes less dense
• Water loses its heat to the air through convection or evaporates taking heat with it
• Cold water moves down to a natural convective circulation that mixes the water and
dissipates the heat
• Reduces either convection or evaporation in order to store the heat collected by the pond.
They can operate in almost any climate.

13.3.2 Classification of solar ponds

The solar ponds are mainly classified into two types, namely convecting and non convecting
type.

• Convecting solar ponds (shallow ponds)

A shallow solar pond consists of a group of collectors made of black plastic liners lying on
top of insulation that has been laid on flat graded ground. Above the water bag is at least one
translucent cover sheet, supported by side curbs. When there is adequate sunshine, water is
pumped into the collectors from an underground storage tank. The water inside the collectors is
heated by solar radiation absorbed by the pond liner and can attain temperatures of up to 600 C.
once heated, the water in the collectors may be pumped to an industrial demand or a hot storage
tank for later use. At night or during periods of low solar irradiance, the water in the collectors
may be drained back into the underground tank, thereby conserving the heat collected.

• Convecting solar ponds (Deep ponds)

➢ Saltless pond
➢ Differs from shallow solar ponds only in that the water need not be pumped in and out of
storage
➢ Double- glazing covers deep saltless ponds
➢ When solar energy is not available, placing insulation on top of the glazing reduces heat loss
• Non convecting solar pond (Membrane ponds)
➢ Inhibits convection by physically separating the layers with thin transparent membranes
➢ As with salt gradient ponds, heat is removed from the bottom layer

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• Non convecting solar pond (Salt gradient ponds)

When an open body of water absorbs solar energy, convection currents are created. As the
sunrays that pass through the surface layer are absorbed in lower layers, this water is heated and
rises to the surface, where heat is transferred away by convection to ambient air. Once the water
cools, the density increases and the surface water moves downward. This movement of water
equalizes the temperature throughout the body of water. A salt- gradient solar pond employs a
salt concentration gradient to suppress natural convection. Heated water holds more dissolved
salt than cooler water. The salty, heated water is also heavier and thus remains at the bottom of
solar pond. Sunlight penetrating through the top layers of the pond is absorbed at the bottom and
trapped by the non- convecting gradient layer, which acts as an effective thermal insulator
against convection.

[Link]. Application of solar ponds

➢ Salt production
➢ Aquaculture, using saline or fresh water
➢ Dairy industry
➢ Fruit and vegetable canning industry
➢ Fruit and vegetable drying
➢ Grain industry
➢ Water supply

13.2.3. Solar distillation

The solar heat is used to convert

oceanic water into vapors and pours down
as precipitation an earth in the form of
fresh water. Due to rapid expansion of
population, accelerated industrial growth
and enhanced agricultural production,
there is ever increasing demand for fresh
water. Demand of fresh water has
increased from 15-20 liters/person/day to
75-100 liters/person/day. The ocean
covers 71% of the earth’s surface, 140
million square miles with a volume of 330
million cubic miles and has an average
salt content of 35,000 ppm. Brackish water is strictly defined as the water with less dissolved
salts than sea water but more than 500 ppm. Artificial solar distillation is adopted to meet the
demand of fresh water.

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 The solar still is a means of forcing moisture condensation out of the ground and
vegetation. The solar still works during the day. As the sun heats up the vegetation inside, the
leaves sweat of moisture. This condenses on plastic and then trickles down into the cup. A solar
still can also be used as a dew pit overnight.

[Link]. Main problems of solar still

➢ Low distillate output per unit area

➢ Leakage of vapour through joints
➢ High maintenance
➢ Productivity decreases with time for a variety of reasons
➢ Cost per unit output is very high

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 Lecture 14- Solar PV systems – principle – solar lantern - water
pumping applications.

14.1 Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems

PV are arrays of cells containing a solar photovoltaic material (semiconductor
device) that converts solar radiation directly into electricity. A material or device that is
capable of converting the energy contained in photons of light into an electrical voltage
and current is said to be photovoltaic. A solar cell made of silicon materials, when
exposed to sunlight generates voltage and current at its output terminal. Solar cells
are connected in series and parallel combinations to form modules that provide
required power. The amount of electricity generated depends on the amount of
sunlight available to it. The higher the intensity of sunlight, more the electricity
generated from it. Photovoltaic systems sometimes have two additional components
to complement the solar modules an inverter and a storage device. Since solar cells
produce direct current (DC) and most conventional equipment operates on alternating
current (AC), an inverter is used to change the DC current to AC current.

Battery

Charge Controller
DC Applications DC Applications
Inverter

DC Applications

Fig 14.1. Components of solar PV system

Solar PV module produce power output proportional to their size. Normally solar
PV modules are available in the size of 5 to 300 W. Since typical silicon solar cells
produce only about 0.5 V, many cells are connected together to give higher and useful
voltages. Usually 30-36 cells are connected together in a circuit to give a final voltage
of about 15 to 17 V, which is sufficient to charge a 12 V battery. If the voltage or current
from one module is not enough to power the load, then modules can also connected
together, just as the cells. These modules can be combined together in parallel or
series to get required output. Typical solar cells are 3-6 inches in diameter and are
available in various shapes such as circular, square etc.

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14.1.1. Working principle of solar cell
Sunlight can be converted to electricity due to the photovoltaic effect discovered
in 1839 by Edmund Becquerel, a French scientist. Sunlight is composed of photons,
or packets of energy. When photons strike a solar cell (technically a semiconductor p-
n junction device), they get absorbed in solar cell resulting in generation of voltage
across the solar cell which can deliver current and thus power to run an electric load
(i.e. the generation of an emf as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation). In a
crystal, the bonds (between silicon atoms) are made of electrons that are shared
between all of the atoms of the crystal. That light gets absorbed, and one of the
electrons that’s in one of the bonds gets excited up to a higher energy level and can
then move around the crystal freely, and we can get a current.

Fig.14.2. Working principle of solar cell

Table 14.1 Types of a solar cell and its efficiency

Cell type Efficiency of cell Land per MW
Mono crystalline silicon 18-24% 3-4 acres
Poly/Multi crystalline 14-18% 4-5 acres
silicon
Thin film 6-10%
• Amorphous silicon 10-11% 7.5-9 acres
• Cadmium telluride 12-14%
• Copper Indium Gallium
Diselenide

Fig. 14.3. Types of solar PV cell

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 14.1.2. Applications of solar PV system
a) Solar PV home lighting system
Stand alone system itself supplies all the energy requirement of the building (for
which the system is designed) and does not interact with grid. It is also possible to
design a solar PV system that fulfills a part of total energy requirement using solar PV
modules and remaining part from the grid. The typical PV system consists of a solar
PV module, battery, inverter, charge controller and DC and AC load. This is a fixed
indoor lighting system and consists of solar PV, module, battery and balance of
systems.

b) Solar pump
A solar powered pump is a normal pump with
an electric motor. Electricity for the motor is
generated on-site through a solar panel which
converts solar energy to DC electricity. Because
the nature of the electrical output from a solar
panel is DC, a solar- powered pump requires a
DC motor if it is t operate without additional
electrical components. If a pump has an AC
motor, an inverter would be required to convert
the DC electricity produced by the solar panels to AC electricity. Due to the increased
complexity and cost, and the reduced efficiency of an AC system, most solar powered
pumps have DC motors.

The components of the solar powered pump is illustrated in the fig. The
components comprising a solar-powered pump depend on whether the pumping
system is a direct-drive system or a battery operated system. Solar powered pumping
system can be configured to meet a wide variety of demands. The amount of water a
solar powered pump can deliver is a function of how far the water has to be lifted, the
distance it has to travel through a delivery pipe (and size of pipe), the efficiency of the
pump being used, and how much power is available to the system. Power can be
increased by adding more solar panels. For example, an hp pump supplied by three
50 Watt panels can deliver water at a rate of about one and a half gpm to a location
30 m higher than the source. As a comparison, a 3 hp low-lift irrigation pump powered
by an array of 60 panels could deliver water at a rate of about 1000 gpm.
i. Direct drive system
A direct drive system where the solar panels collect the suns energy and provides
the power directly to the pumps to pump water.
ii. Battery drive system
A battery drive operated system where the solar panels collect the suns energy
and provides the power to the batteries. The batteries then store the power for use by
the pumps at a later date. For the direct drive systems, it is important to match the

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 power output of the solar array with the power requirements of the pump to maximize
efficiency.
iii. Advantages
• SPV water pumping systems can be installed at a site completely eliminating
loss of energy in transmission.
• Can be installed to the required load of pumps upto 3000W
• SPV modules need only minimum maintenance and no battery is required
• Panels can be cleaned with plain water and a soft cloth. The frequency of
inspection should match the amount of storage available.

c) Solar street light

The solar street light consists of two photovoltaic
modules of 36 Watts each mounted on a 6 metre
lamppost for charging. At the base of the pole a box
is provided which houses the charging system, a
storage battery and inverter unit. The unit is also
provided with a light sensitive switch so that the street
lamp gets lighted after sunset. The panel captures
sunlight during daytime and sores in the battery by
using a charge controller.

d) Solar lantern
SPV lantern is a portable lamp. It consists of SPV
module of 10 Wp capacity, rechargeable battery,
Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) of 5 or 7 W and
electronics (i.e., inverter and charge controller).
Whenever light is required, the DC is inverted and fed
to a compact florescent lamp.

e) Solar PV power plant

Grid interactive solar power plants can also be
installed for voltage support in rural areas of the
grid, peak shaving in urban centers and diesel
saving in islands or remote locations. SPV power
plant may also be grid connected and power
generated could be exported to the grid. PCU
senses the grid voltage frequency and modifies the
PV array output voltage and frequency so as to
synchronize with the grid and feeds the AC power
generated from PV array to the grid.

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f) Solar fencing
Solar PV fencing is used as a fence to avoid animals entering into the farming field
and houses in rural areas. The electricity produced from PV cell is stored in batteries
and through inverters electricity is supplied to the fences. Once the animal or human
being touches the fence an alarm will ring and lose the memory for fraction of a minute
and so trees is avoided to safe guard the farm field from animals. It costs about Rs. 1
lakh per km or Rs 20,000 per acre.

g) Other applications
• Solar traps/pest catchers- It costs about Rs. 3,500/each.
• Solar traffic signals
• Police wireless system in remote areas
• Telecommunication network
• Solar TV and other devices

14.1.3 Advantages of photovoltaic solar energy conversion.

• Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity through a simple solid
state device
• Absence of moving parts
• Ability to function unattended for long periods as evidence in space programme
• Modular nature in which desired current, voltages and power levels can be
achieved by mere integration
• Maintenance cost is low as they are easy to operate
• Do not create pollution
• Long effective life and highly reliable
• They consume no fuel to operate as the sun’s energy is free
• Rapid response in output to input radiation changes; no long time constant is
involved, as on thermal systems, before steady state is reached
• Wide power handling capabilities from microwatts to kilowatts or even
megawatts when modules are combination with power conditioning circuitry to
feed power into utility grid
• Easy to fabricate, being one of the simplest of semi conductor devices
• Used with or without sun tracking, making possible a wide range of application
possibilities

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 Lecture 15- Solar driers – natural and forced convection types – solar
tunnel drier – working principles and operation.

15.1 solar dryer

A solar dryer is an enclosed unit, to keep the food safe from damage, birds, insects and
unexpected rainfall. The justification of solar dryers is that they may be more effective than
sun drying, but have lower operating costs than mechanical dryers. Solar dryers utilize the
available amount of solar to cover the heat requirements of small dryers during day time
(sunshine hours) operation. The solar dryers are generally classified into basic categories as
natural and forced convection dryers.

a) Natural convection dryers

The natural convection dryers are based on the principle of temperature difference and
consequently the difference in the density of the air inside and outside the drying chamber.
This difference provides the necessary driving force for the air to flow through the drying
chamber. Natural convection dryers do not require any mechanical or electrical power to run a
fan. In general, the construction is simple, easy to maintain and inexpensive. On the other hand,
the working mechanism is strongly dependent on the temperature difference and pressure drop,
which occurs when air is forced through the product. Therefore, the successful use of natural
convection dryers is restricted to the drying of small batch loads in areas with high insolation.

Fig: Natural convection solar dryer

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b) Forced convection dryer

To ensure continuous ventilation, forced convection solar dryers have been introduced.
Forced convection solar dryers generally show several advantages and as high reliability. They
require a blower to force air through or over the [Link] contrast to natural convection
dryers, these dryers are more expensive, complex in construction and are dependent on electric
power. Hence the electricity costs have to be compensated with reduction in drying time, higher
drying capacity, reduction of mass losses and better quality of the product.

Fig: Forced convection solar dryer

c) Solar tunnel dryer

The solar tunnel dryer is commercially used dryer

for drying agro food products. The solar tunnel dryer
mainly consists of a semi cylindrical pipe structures
covered with U.V. stabilized polyethylene sheet. The
solar radiation is transmitted through the UV sheet,
which has the property of transferring short-wave
radiation transmitted through the UV sheet, it gets converted to long-wave radiation inside the
solar tunnel dryer. Therefore, the radiation is trapped inside the dryer and increases the
temperature of the dryer. For small scale applications natural convection method is preferred
and for large scale application the solar tunnel dryer can be combined with blowers to supply
hot air in the night time as forced convection dryer.

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 Fig: Solar tunnel dryer

d) Advantages of solar dryers

• Solar dryers are more economical compared to dryers that run on convectional fuel/
electricity.
• The drying process is completed in the most hygienic and eco-friendly way.
• Solar drying systems have low operation and maintenance costs.
• Solar dryers last longer. A typical dryer can last 15-20 years with minimum
maintenance.

e) Disadvantages of solar dryer

• Drying can be performed only during sunny days, unless the system is integrated with
a conventional energy-based system
• Due to limitations is solar energy collection, the solar drying process is slow in
comparison with dryers that use conventional fuels
• Normally, solar dryers can be utilized only for drying at 40-500C

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 Lecture 16- Wind mills – types – horizontal and vertical axis –
components – working principles – applications.

Winds are air masses in motion and the primary energy source behind this
movement is the sun. the earth receives short wave radiation from the sun and the
amount of energy so received is higher at the equator and lower latitudes than at poles
and higher latitudes. At the same time the earth losses its heat through long wave
radiation more from higher latitudes than from lower latitudes. Consequently, there is
a net gain in heat south of 380N. this is in the northern hemisphere. The atmosphere
tries to restore thermal equilibrium by transporting heat from tropics towards the poles.
This is the basis for large scale calculation.
7.1 Wind controlling forces
There are three main parameters which affect the wind are, pressure difference,
Coriolis force and friction.
7.1.1. Pressure difference
The temperature difference results in pressure difference, which is the main
driving force for winds. When the equator region on the earth surface is heated up, the
air present above the equator gets heated up and it reduces its density and it tends to
move upward. To equate the pressure, cold air from north and south poles will move
towards the equator region. This causes the wind to flow.
7.1.2. Coriolis force
Coriolis forces resulting from the rotation of the earth, the moving air is deflected
to its right side in the northern hemisphere.
7.1.3. Friction
Friction has an important effect on wind within the first few kilometres of earth’s
surface. Friction acts to slow the movement of air. By slowing air movement, friction
also reduces the Coriolis force, which is proportional to wind speed.
7.2. Types of wind
Three different air circulation systems are primary, secondary and tertiary.
1. The primary winds: Trade winds, westerlies and polar winds
2. The secondary winds: Monsson, cyclones and anticyclones
3. Tertiary winds: Local winds
7.2.1. Primary winds
These winds constitute large scale motion of atmosphere under the influence
of pressure gradients, Coriolis effect, and frictional force. It is related to general

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circulatory pattern of winds on a rotating earth’s surface. It ignores seasonal heating
and land water contrast on the earth’s surface.

Fig 7.1. Type of wind

7.2.2. Secondary winds
The winds that change their direction periodically with the change in season are
called secondary or periodic winds. It depends on monsoon, air masses and fronts,
cyclones and anticyclones.
7.2.3. Tertiary winds
Tertiary winds are generated by immediate influence of the surrounding terrain.
They are of environmental importance in various ways and exert powerful stress on
animals and plants when winds are dry and extremely hot. The land and sea breezes,
as well as mountain and valley breezes are also one class of local winds. These winds
respond to local pressure gradients set up by heating or cooling of the lower
atmosphere.
7.3. Power law
Wind speed increases with height. The variation of wind speed in the
atmospheric boundary layer from a zero-value close to the ground to a value
approaching the speed of free-flowing winds in higher layer can be expressed by a
law called ‘power law’. The power law states that,
V1/V2= (h1/h2)a
Where,
V1 = Wind speed at height h1
V2 = Wind speed at height h2
A = power law coefficient

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7.3.1. Theory of wind power
This theory states that the wind power produced is proportional to the cube of
the wind speed. It is also proportional to the square of the diameter of the rotor system
(or) wind energy converter. The power in the wind can be computed by using the
concept of kinetics. The windmill works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of
the wind to mechanical energy. Let ρ be the density of air and m the mass of air
passing in unit time through an area A. Then
m = ρAV
Then, kinetic energy or available wind power Pa is,
Pa = ½ mV2
= ½ (ρAV) V2
= ½ ρAV3
Therefore, wind power Pa is proportional to

• Density of air
• Intercepted area
• Cube of velocity
Also, if D is the diameter of the horizontal wind energy converter, then
A = (π/4) D2
Therefore, Pa = ½ ρ(π /4) D2V3
= (1/8) ρ π D2V3
Therefore, the maximum available wind power is directly proportional to

• The square of the diameter of the motor

• The cube of the wind velocity
7.3.2. Betz coefficient
Betz (1919) showed that the maximum fraction of the kinetic energy that can
be extracted from the wind is 16/27 or 0.593. it is also known as Betz coefficient.
Theoretical maximum power output = 0.593 (½ (ρAV3) = 0.297 ρAV3
The process of energy conversion leads to power reduction which varies with
the type of wind turbine and aero generator. It is roughly 1/3 of the theoretical
maximum power output.
Available power output = 2/3 (0.297 ρAV3)
= 0.198 ρAV3
= 0.2 ρAV3

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7.3.3. Power coefficient (Cp)
It is the fraction of the free flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor. In
other words, it is the ratio of the power output of wind rotor to the maximum power
available in the wind.
Power coefficient (Cp) = (power output of wind rotor)/ (power available in the wind)
Maximum power output of wind rotor = 0.593 (½ (ρAV3)
Maximum power available in the wind = ½ ρAV3
Maximum value of power coefficient (Cpmax) = 0.593 (½ (ρAV3) = 0.593
½ ρAV3

7.3.4. Overall Power Coefficient (COP)

It is the ratio of the power output at generator or pump to the available power in
the wind.
COP = Power output at generator or pump = 0.2 ρAV3 = 0.4
Available power in the wind ½ ρAV3
7.3.5. Characteristics of a suitable wind power site

• A site should have a high annual wind speed

• There should be no tall obstruction for a kilometre or two in the upwind side
• The top of a smooth well rounded hill with gentle slopes lying on a flat plain or
located on an Island in a lake or sea
• An open plain or an open shoreline
• A mountain gap that produces wind tunnelling
7.4. Types of wind turbines and its principles
Wind turbines are classified into two general types: horizontal axis and vertical axis,
a horizontal axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis parallel to the ground. A
vertical axis machine has its blades rotating on an axis perpendicular to the ground.
There are a number of available designs for both and each type has certain
advantages and disadvantages. However, compared with the horizontal axis type,
very few vertical axis machines are available commercially.
1. Vertical axis wind turbines, in which the axis of rotation is vertical with respect to
the ground (and perpendicular to the wind stream)
2. Horizontal axis turbines, in which the axis of rotation is horizontal with respect to
the ground (and parallel to the wind stream)
Fig 7.2. illustrates the two types of wind turbines and typical subsystems for an
electricity generation application. The subsystems include a blade or rotor, which

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converts the energy in the wind to rotational shaft energy; a drive train usually with a
gear box and a generator; a tower that supports the rotor and drive train; and other
equipment including controls, electrical cables, ground support equipment, and
interconnection equipment.

Fig. 7.2. Types of wind turbines

7.4.1. Horizontal axis
This is the most common wind turbine design. In addition to being parallel to
the ground, the axis of blade rotation is parallel to the wind flow. Some machines are
designed to operate in an upwind mode, with the blades upwind of the tower. In this
case, a tail vane is usually used to keep the blades facing into the wind. Other designs
operate in a downward mode so that the wind passes the tower before striking the
blades. Without a tail vane, the machine rotor naturally tracks the wind in a downward
mode. Some very large wind turbines use a motor- driven mechanism that turns the
machine in response to a wind direction sensor mounted on the tower.
7.4.2. Vertical axis
Although vertical axis wind turbines have existed for centuries, they are not as
common as their horizontal counterparts. The main reason for this is that they do not
take advantage of the higher wind speeds at higher elevations above the ground as
well as horizontal axis turbines. The basic vertical ais designs are the Darrieus, which
has curved blades, the Giromill, which has straight blades, and the Savonius, which
uses scoops to catch the wind.
A vertical axis machine need not be oriented with respect to wind direction.
Because the shaft is vertical, the transmission and generator can be mounted at
ground level allowing easier servicing and a lighter weight, lower cost tower. Although
vertical axis wind turbines have these advantages, their designs are not as efficient at
collecting energy from the wind as are the horizontal machine designs.

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7.5. Wind energy conversion system
Wind energy conversion system (WECS) consists of three major aspects;
aerodynamic, mechanical and electrical aspects. The electrical aspect of WECS can
be further be divided into three main components, which are wind turbine generators
(WTGs), power electronic converters (PECs) and the utility grid as shown in Fig.7.3.
Wind Windmill Gear box Wind turbine generator
Utility grid
Pitch control Speed Controlling
Yaw control sensors

Controller

Fig.7.3. Wind energy conversion system

7.5.1. Classification of WEC systems

1) There are two broad classifications
a) Horizontal axis machines: The axis of rotation is horizontal and the aero turbine
plane is vertical facing the wind.
b) Vertical axis machines: The axis of rotation is vertical. The sail or blades may
also be vertical, as on the ancient Persian wind mills, or nearly so, as on the
modern Darrieus rotor machine
2) Then, they be classified according to size as determined by their useful electrical
power output.
a) Small scale (upto 2 kW): These might be used on farms, remote applications, and
other places requiring relatively low power.
b) Medium size machines (2-100 kW): These wind turbines may be used to supply
less than 100 kW rated capacity, to several residences or local use.
c) Large scale or large size machines (100 kW): Large wind turbines are those of
100 kW rated capacity or greater. They are used to generate power for distribution
in central power grids. There are two sub classes
i. Single generator at a single site
ii. Multiple generators sited ats several places over an area
3) As per the type of output power, wind aero generators are classified as
a) DC output
i. DC generator
ii. Alternator rectifier
b) AC output
i. Variable frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
ii. Constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
4) As per the rotational speed of the aero turbines, these are classified as
i. Constant speed with variable pitch blades: This mode implies an
synchronous generator with its constant frequency output

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 ii. Nearly constant speed with fixed pitch blades: This mode implies an
induction generator
iii. Variable speed with fixed pitch blades: This mode could imply, for constant
frequency output
a. Field modulation system
b. AC-DC-AC link
c. Double output induction generator
d. AC commutator generators
e. Other variable speed constant frequency generating systems
5) Wind turbines are also classified as per how the utilization of output is made of
i. Battery Storage
ii. Direct connection to an electromagnetic energy converter
iii. Other forms (thermal, potential etc.) of storage
iv. Interconnection with conventional electric utility grids
The system engineer seeking to integrate WECS will, naturally be most
interested in the latter case but should be aware of the WECS offer other
options as well.
7.6. Analysis of aerodynamic forces acting on blades
The Fig. illustrates the basic aerodynamic operating principles of horizontal axis wind
turbine.
The wind passes over both surfaces of the airfoil shaped blade. It passes more
rapidly over the longer (upper) side of the airfoil, creating a lower-pressure area above
the airfoil. The pressure differential between top and bottom surfaces results in a force
called aerodynamic lift. In an aircraft wing, this force causes the airfoil to “rise,” lifting
the aircraft off the ground. Since the blades of a wind turbine are constrained to move
in a plane with the hub as its centre, the lift force causes rotation about the hub. In
addition to lift force, a “drag” force perpendicular to the lift force impeded rotor rotation.
A prime objective in wind turbine design is for the blade to have a relatively high lift-
to-drag ratio. This ratio can be varied long the length of the blade to optimize the
turbine’s energy output at various wind speeds.
7.7 Advantages of WECS

• It is a renewable source of energy

• Like all forms of solar energy, wind power systems are non-polluting, so it has no
adverse influence on the environment
• Wind energy systems avoid fuel provision and transport
• On a small scale, up to a few kilowatt system is lesser costly. On a large-scale,
costs can be competitive with conventional electricity and lower costs could be
achieved by mass production
7.8 Disadvantages of WECS

• Wind energy availability is dilute and fluctuating in nature

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• Unlike water energy, wind energy needs storage capacity because of its irregularity
• Wind energy systems are noisy in operation; a large unit can be heard many
kilometres away
• Large areas are needed, typically, propellers 1 to 3 m in diameter, deliver power in
the range of 30 to 300 W
• Present systems are neither maintenance free nor practically reliable. However,
the fact that highly reliable propeller engines are built for aircraft suggests that the
present troubles could be overcome by industrial development work

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 Lecture 17- Energy from ocean, waves, tides. Geothermal energy
sources – principles and operation

17.1. Geothermal energy

The geothermal originates from the Greek root’s geo, meaning earth, and
thermos, meaning heat. Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored
in the earth. Thermal energy is energy that determines the temperature of matter.
Earth’s geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet, from
radioactive decay of minerals (uranium U238, U235), thorium (Th232) and potassium K40,
from volcanic activity and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. The geothermal
gradient, which is the difference in the temperature between the core of the planet and
its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form heat from the
core to the surface. The amount of heat within 1000meters of earth surface is 50000
times more energy than the oil and natural gases resources in the world.
17.1.1. Geothermal resources
At any place on the, planet, there is a normal temperature gradient of less 300 0C
per KM dug into the earth. Therefore, if one digs 20000feet the temperature will be
about 19000C above the surface temperature. This difference is the normal
geothermal gradient. It will be enough to produce electricity. The various geothermal
resources are as follows
1. Hydrothermal (Geothermal fields)
2. Brine-methane reservoirs (Geo-pressurized reservoirs)
3. Petro-thermal (Hot dry rock)
4. Exploiting the magma
17.1.2. Hydrothermal geothermal fields
Geothermal fields are formed when water from rain or snow is able to seep
through faults and cracks within rock, for several kilometres, to reach hot rock beneath
the surface. As the water is heated it rises naturally back towards the surface by a
process of convection and may appear there in the form of hot springs, geysers,
fumaroles or hot mud holes as shown in Fig 17.1.

Hot spring Geysers Fumarol

(yellow stone, USA) (California, USA) (Hverir, Iceland)

Fig.17.1. Geothermal reservoirs

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 Most of the geothermal fields that are known today have been identified by the
presence of hot springs. Deep geothermal reservoirs may be 2 km or more below the
surface, it can produce water with a temperature of 120-3500C. high temperature
reservoirs are the best for power generation. Shallower reservoirs may be as little as
100m below the surface. These are cheaper and easier to access but the water the
produce is cooler, often less than 1500C. this can still be used to generate electricity
but is more often used for for heating. In California, Italy, New Zealand and other
countries the presence of these springs led to prospecting usage of boreholes drilled
deep into the earth to locate the underground reservoirs of hot water and steam. The
geysers in California are the min fields of this type in use today though others exist in
Mexico, Indonesia and Japan. More often the field will produce either a mixture of
steam and hot water or hot water alone, often under high pressure.
17.1.3. Brine-methane reservoirs (geo-pressurized reservoirs)
Geo-pressurized systems are sources of water or brine that has been heated
in an manner similar to hydrothermal water, except that tis water is trapped in much
deep underground aquifers (2400 to 9100 m deep) at relatively low temperature (~
1600C) and very high pressure (> 1000 bar) with high salinity and I often referred as
brine. In some rare cases underwater reservoirs of hot brine are found are found to be
saturated with methane. These reservoirs will normally occur in a region rich in fossil
fuel. As reservoir is found it is possible to exploit both the heat in the brine and the
dissolved methane gas to generate electricity. The only major reservoirs of this type
known today are in the Gulf of Mexico.
17.1.4 Petro thermal (hot dry rock)
Petro-thermal uses dry hot rocks requiring water injections to make steam. In
Petro-thermal systems, magma lying close to the earth’s heat overlying rock and when
no underground water exists, there I simply hot dry rock. The temperatures of hot dry
rock vary between 150 to 2900C. this energy called Petro thermal energy represents
by far the largest source of geothermal energy. If water is pumped under high
pressure, it will use the rock to fracture, creating faults and cracks through which it can
move. If a second borehole is drilled adjacent to the first, then water which has become
heated as it has percolated through the rock can be extracted and used to generate
electricity.
17.1.5. Exploiting the magma
Extracting energy from accessible magma plumes that have formed within
Earth’s outer crus is the ost difficult way of obtaining geothermal energy, but it is also
the most exciting because of the enormous quantities of heat available. a single plume
can contain between t100,000 MW centuries and 300,000 MW centuries of energy.
The easiest geothermal resources to exploit are those that can provide water or steam
with a temperature above 2000C.

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17.2. Geothermal energy conversion technology
17.2.1. Direct steam geothermal power plant
It occurs where a geothermal reservoir produces high temperature dry steam
alone. Under these circumstances it is possible to use a direct-steam power plant
which is analogous to the power trin of a steam turbine power station but with the boiler
replaced by the geothermal steam source.

Fig.17.2. Direct steam geothermal power plant

17.2.2. Flash steam geothermal power plant

Most high temperature geothermal fields produce not dry steam but a mixture
of steam and hot water. This is most effectively exploited using a flash-steam
geothermal plant. The flash process converts part of the hot, high-pressure liquid to
steam and this steam, together with any extracted fluid directly from the bore hole, is
used to drive a steam turbine.

Fig.17.3. Flash steam geothermal power plant

17.2.3. Binary geothermal power plant

Where the geothermal resource is of a relatively low temperature a third system
called a binary plant is more appropriate. This uses the lower temperature geothermal
fluid to vaporise a second low boiling point fluid contained in a separate, closed
system. The vapour then drives a turbine which turns a generator to produce
electricity.

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 Fig. 17.4. Binary geothermal power plant

17.2.4. Hybrid geothermal power plant

Some geothermal fields produce boiling water as well as steam, which are also
used in power generation. In this system of power generation, the flashed and binary
systems are combined to make use of both steam and hot water. Efficiency of hybrid
power plants is however less than that of the dry steam plants.
17.2.5. Enhanced geothermal system
The term enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) also know as engineered
geothermal systems (formerly hot dry rock geothermal), refers to a variety of
engineering techniques used to artificially create hydrothermal resources
(underground steam and hot water) that ca be used to generate electricity. Traditional
geothermal plants exploit naturally occurring hydrothermal reservoirs and are limited
by the size and location of such natural reservoirs. EGS reduces these constraints by
allowing for the creation of hydrothermal reservoirs in deep, hot but naturally dry
geological formations.
10.3. Advantages of geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is used for heating homes and for generating electricity
without producing any harmful emissions. The first advantage of using geothermal
heat as a source of energy is that, unlike most power stations, a geothermal power
plant does not create any pollution and geothermal energy can be used to produce
electricity 24 hours a day. Thus, geothermal energy is an excellent source of clean,
inexpensive and renewable energy. If the geothermal energy is harnessed correctly;
it leads to no harmful by-products. Geothermal power plants are generally small and
have little effect on the natural landscape, or the nearby environment. As no fuel is
used to generate the power from the geothermal heat, running costs for geothermal
power plants are very low. Moreover, the cost of the land to build a geothermal power
plant is usually less as compared to the cost of constructing an oil, gas, coal or nuclear
power plant.

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10.4. Limitations of geothermal energy
If harnessed incorrectly, geothermal energy can sometimes produce pollutants.
Improper drilling into earth can release hazardous minerals and gases from deep down
inside the earth, which can be contained quite easily. It is also feared that the
geothermal power plant sites may run of steam in the long run.
17.5. Wave energy
Waves are created by the gravitational action of the sun and the moon as also
by the force of winds. Oceans are efficient collectors of wind energy; indeed, waves
are the source of energy steadies than the wind, because once wind generators a
wave, the latter conveys the energy it had derived from the wind over immense
distance with only moderate dissipation. Wave energy fluxes in the open sea or
against wastes may vary from a few watts to kilowatts per meter.
They are smallest in summer and greatest in winter, mainly in the zones of the
prevailing waster lies and the trade winds, wave motion consists of both vertical and
horizontal movement of water. Individual particles of water undergo almost a circular
motion, moving up as the crest approaches, forward at the crest, down as it recedes,
and backward in the trough.
17.5.1. Wave energy generation
The wave energy is generated in two ways. i.e., Potential energy and kinetic
energy. The potential energy arises from the elevation of water above mean level. The
equation of wave is given by
Y = sin(kx-cot)
Where,
K – Wave number (2π/λ), m-1
w – Phase rate, second-1
y – Height above its mean level in m
t – Time in seconds
λ – Period in seconds
The potential energy per unit area (PE/A) is given as
PE/A = (¼)gea2
Where,
g = gravitational constant, 9.8 m/s2
e = water density, kg/m2

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 The kinetic energy of the wave is the energy of the water between two vertical
planes perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation in x-direction which are one
wavelength apart. From hydrodynamic theory, this can be expressed as
KE= (1/4)egpa2IL
Total energy and power density can be written as
E/A = (1/2) gea2
Power = Energy x Frequency
P/A= (1/2) gea2f
17.5.2. Types of wave energy conversion devices
Wave energy devices can be classified in several ways. However, they are
mainly classified in two ways: on the basis of location in sea and on the basis of
actuating motion used in capturing wave energy. On the basis of location, these
devices can be offshore or deep-water devices (depth more than 40m) and shoreline
devices. On the basis of actuating motion, these devices can be (i) heaving float type,
(ii) pitching type and (iii) heaving and pitching float type.
I. Heaving float type

These devices have a float placed on the surface of water which heaves or
moves up and down with wave due to rise and fall of water level. The up and down
motion of the float is used to operate the piston of an air pump. The air pump can be
anchored to sea bed. Several floats operated air pumps can be used to store wave
energy in the compressed air form which can used to generate electricity with the help
of an air turbine coupled to a generator.

17.5. float type wave energy conversion device (air pump)

The motion of float can also be used to run a hydraulic pump so that water can
be pumped into an onshore reservoir. The water having higher potential energy can
be used to run a turbine. A generator coupled with turbine can generate electric power.

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 Fig.17.6. Float with hydraulic pump to convert wave energy

II. Pitching type

In pitching type wave energy conversion

devices, floating pieces (called nodding ducks) are
used to be deflected in the direction of wave motion.
These floating pieces or ducks are hinged to a
common flexible linkage so that the deflection of these
pieces can be converted into rotary motion of a shaft,
which is removed by the flexible linkage with a ratchet and wheel mechanism. The
floating pieces change direction depending upon the passing peak or tough of the
wave over them. The flexible linkage oscillates with nodding ducks, thereby moving
the rotary shaft with ratchet and wheel mechanism. Power collected by the rotary shaft
from nodding ducks through flexible linkage helps in driving a generator.

Fig. 17.7. Dolphin wave converter using motion of connecting rod and motion of float

III. Heaving and pitching float type

In these types of wave energy conversion devices heaving and pitching motion
of a float is used to extract energy from waves. A specially shaped float known as

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dolphin rides the wave. The devices use both heaving of connecting rod and pitching
motion of the float when waves pass through it. The two motions are converted into
unidirectional motion with the help of the rachet and wheel arrangement. The motion
is used to operate floating and stationary generators.
17.5.3. Advantages of wave energy
The advantages are as follows

• It is a free and renewable energy source.

• It is pollution free.

• It is highly suitable to develop power in remote islands, on drilling platforms and on

ship where other alternatives are impossible.

• Wave energy conversion devices help in reducing the erosion of coastal region.

• Waves are continuously formed and power can be extracted continuously. No

storage of power is required.

• Wave power devices do not use up large land masses like solar or wind.

17.5.4. Disadvantages of wave energy

• Sea water us corrosive and life of equipment used in conversion devices is limited.

• Marine growth such as algae severely affects the working of wave energy
conversion devices.

• Wave energy conversion devices obstruct shipping traffic.

• String waves during storms can damage the wave energy conversion devices.

• Installation of conversion device is costly.

• Repair, replacement and maintenance are difficult to perform.

• Peal power is available in open sea, where it is difficult to construct, operate and
maintain conversion devices as well as transmit power to shore.

• The slow and irregular motion of wave creates problem to run electrical generator
which requires high and constant speed motion.

• It may cause disturbance to marine life.

• There is relative scarcity of accessible sites of large wave activity.

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17.6. Tidal energy
Tidal power stations take advantage of the tidal rise and fall to generate
electricity. In the simplest type of tidal development, a barrage is built across the
estuary of a river. When the tide rises, water flows from the sea into the estuary,
passing through sluice gates in the barrage. At high tide the sluice gates are closed
and when the tide ebbs, the water behind the barrage is allowed to flow back to the
sea through hydraulic turbines, generating power in the process. Exploitation of tidal
motion has a long history but its use for power generation is extremely limited with
only a handful of operating plants in existence in the world. Tidal electricity generation
is only possible in locations where the tidal span (the distance between high and low
tide) is significant.
17.6.1. Tidal motion
The motion of the tides is caused primarily by the gravitational pull of the moon
and the sun. This motion varies according to a number of cycles. The main cycle is
the twice daily rise and fall of the tide as the earth rotates within the gravitational field
of the moon. Tidal amplitude in the open ocean is around 1m. This increases nearer
land. Amplitude can be substantially enhanced by the coastal land mass and by the
shape of river estuaries. The energy that can be extracted from tidal motion waxes
and wanes with the tide itself. Power output is generally not continuous. It is, however,
extremely predictable. Unlike most other forms of renewable energy, it is not subject
to vagaries of weather. This means that the future output of a tidal power station can
be determined with great accuracy.

Fig. 17.8. Electricity generation from tidal waves

17.6.2. Category of generation

There are several categories of generation for a tidal power plant as given
below.
1. Ebb generation

The basin is filled through the sluices and freewheeling turbines until high tide. Then
the sluice gates and turbine gates are closed. They are kept closed until the sea level
falls to create sufficient head across the barrage and the turbines generate until the
head is again low. Then the sluices are opened, turbines disconnected and the basin

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is filled again. The cycle repeats itself. Ebb generation (also known as outflow
generation) takes its name because generation occurs as the tide ebbs.

Fig. 17.9. Ebb generation system

2. Flood generation

The basin is empties through the sluices and turbines generate at tide flood. This is
generally much less efficient than Ebb generation, because the volume contained in
the upper half of the basin (which is where Ebb generation operates) is greater than
the volume of the lower half (the domain of Flood generation).

Fig. 17.10. Flood generation system

3. Two-way generation

Generation occurs both as the tide ebbs and floods. This mode is only comparable
to Ebb generation at spring tides, and in general is less efficient, turbines designed to
operate in both directions are less efficient.
17.6.3. Advantages of tidal power energy
▪ Renewable resource. It needs no fuel to maintain, and free of charge.
▪ Totally no pollution, unlike fossil fuels, it produces no green house gases or other
waste.
▪ Predictable source of energy (compared with wind and solar), it is independent of
weather and climate change and follows the predictable relationship of the lunar
orbit.
▪ More efficient than wind because of the density of water.

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▪ It will protect a large stretch of coastline against damage from high storm, tides.

17.6.4. Disadvantages of tidal power energy

▪ Presently costly, very expensive to build and maintain
▪ Barrage has environmental affects
i) Fish and plant migration
ii) Silt and mud deposits
iii) Waste and sewage blocks
▪ Technology is not fully developed.
▪ Only provides power for around power for around 10 hours each day, when the
tide is actually moving in or out.

17.7. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)

It relies on the fact that tropical and sub-tropical seas absorb considerable
quantities of energy from the sun, energy which elevate the surface water temperature.
Deep water does not receive any solar radiation and so remains much cooler. This
temperature difference can be used to drive a heat engine. A temperature difference
of at least 200C is normally required to make OTEC effective. This can usually be
achieved provided there is a depth of water greater than 1000 m available. OTEC
power generation makes use of temperature differences between upper surface layer
and deeper layers (800-1000 m) of the sea, generally operating with temperature
differences of around 200C or more.
This small temperature difference is converted into usable electrical power
through heat exchangers and turbines. First, through a heat exchanger or a flash
evaporator (in the case of an open cycle turbine) warm seawater is used to crate
vapour pressure as a working fluid. The vapour subsequently drives a turbine
generator producing electricity. At the outlet of the turbine, the working fluid vapour is
cooled and condensed back into liquid by colder ocean water brought up from depth
or the sea bed. A heat exchanger is also used for this process. The temperature
difference, before and after the turbine, is needed to create a difference in vapour
pressure in the turbine. The cold seawater used for condensation cooling is pumped
up from and can also be used for air-conditioning purposes or to produce fresh drinking
water (through condensation). The auxiliary power required for the pumps is provided
by the gross power output of the OTEC power generating system.
The advantages of OTEC include being able to provide electricity on a
continuous (non-intermittent) basis, while also providing cooling without electricity
consumption. The capacity factor of OTEC plants is around 90-95%, one of the highest
for all power generation technologies. The energy losses due to pumping are around
20-30%. The technological challenge is that the small temperature difference requires
very large volumes of water at minimum pressure losses. This requires large seawater
pumps, large piping systems, and large cold water popes operating almost
continuously in a hostile and corrosive environment. The cold seawater used in the

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OTEC process is also rich in nutrients and it can be used to culture both marine
organisms and plant life near the shore or on land.
17.7.1. OTEC Process
Warm water is collected on the surface of the tropical ocean and pumped by a
warm water pump. The water is pumped through the boiler, where some of the water
is used to heat the working fluid, usually propane or some similar material. If it is cooler
you can use a material with a lower boiling point like ammonia. The propane vapour
expands trough a turbine which is coupled to a generator that generates electric
power. Cold water from the bottom is pumped through the condensers, where the
vapour returns to the liquid state. The fluid is pumped back into the boiler. Some small
fraction of the power from the turbine is used to pump the water through the system
and to power other internal operations, but most of it is available as net power.
17.7.2. Types of OTEC system
1. Open cycle OTEC or Claude cycle system

Open-cycle OTEC uses the tropical oceans warm surface water to make electricity.
When warm seawater is placed in a low-pressure container, it boils. The expanding
steam drives a low-pressure turbine attached to an electrical generator. The steam,
which has left its salt behind in the low-pressure container, is almost pure fresh water.
It is condensed back into a liquid by exposure to cold temperature from deep-ocean
water.

Fig. 17.11. Open cycle OTEC system

Additionally, the cold seawater pumped up from below, after being used to facilitate
condensation, can be introduced in an air-conditioning system. As such, systems can
produce power, fresh water and air-conditioning. Furthermore, the cold water can
potentially be used for aquaculture purposes, as the seawater from the deeper regions
close to the seabed contains various nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphates. Water is
the working fluid and desalinated water can be produced.

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2. Closed cycle OTEC or Anderson cycle system

Closed-cycle systems use fluid with a low-boiling point, such as ammonia, to rotate
a turbine to generate electricity. Warm surface seawater is pumped through a heat
exchanger where the low-boiling-point fluid is vaporized. The expanding vapour turns
the turbo-generator. Then, cold, deep seawater pumped through a second heat
exchanger condensed the vapour back into a liquid, which is then recycled through
the system. The major difference between open and closed cycle systems is the much
smaller duct size and smaller turbines diameters for closed cycle, as well as the
surface area required by heat exchangers for effective heat transfer. Closed
conversion cycles offer a more efficient use of the thermal resource. Ammonia can be
used as a working fluid.

Fig.17.12. Close cycle OTEC system

3. Kalina cycle OTEC system

The Kalina cycle is a variation of a closed cycle OTEC, whereby instead of pure
ammonia, a mixture of water and ammonia is used as the working fluid. More of the
provided heat is taken into the working fluid during evaporation and therefore, more
heat can be converted and efficiencies are enhanced.
4. Hybrid system

Hybrid systems combine both the open and closed cycles where the steam,
generated by flash evaporation is then used as heat to drive a closed cycle. First,
electricity is generated in a closed cycle system as described above. Subsequently,
the warm seawater discharges from the closed-cycle OTEC system, and cooled with
the cold-water discharge. This produces fresh water. Ammonia is the working fluid.
Warm sea water flashed and is then used to vaporize ammonia.
17.7.3. Different kinds of OTEC power plants
There are two different kinds of OTEC power plants
1. Land based OTEC power plant
2. Floating OTEC power plant

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1. Land based OTEC power plant (Onshore plant)

The land-based pilot plant will consist of a building. This building will contain the
heat exchangers, turbines, generators and controls. It will be connected the ocean via
several popes, and an enormous fish farm by other pipes. Warm water is collected
through a screened enclosure close to the shore. A long pipe laid on the slope collects
cold water. Power and fresh water are generated in the building by the equipment.
Used water is first circulated into the marine culture pond (fish farm) and then
discharges by the third pipe into the ocean, downstream from the warm water inlet.
This is done so that the outflow does not re-enter the plant, since re-use of warm water
would lower the available temperature difference.
2. Floating OTEC power plant

The floating power plant works in the same way as the land based the apparent
difference is that the floating plant is floating.
17.7.4. Advantages of OTEC Power plants

• OTEC uses clean, renewable, natural resources. Warm surface seawater and cold
water from the ocean depths replace fossil fuels to produce electricity.
• Suitably designed OTEC plants will produce little or no carbon dioxide or other
polluting chemicals
• OTEC systems can produce fresh water as well as electricity. This is a significant
advantage in island areas where fresh water is limited.
• There is enough solar energy received and stored in the warm tropical ocean
surface layer to provide most, if not all, of present human energy needs.
• The use of OTEC as a source of electricity will help reduce the state’s almost
complete dependence on imported fossil fuels.

17.7.5. Disadvantages of OTEC Power plants

• OTEC produced electricity at present would cost more than electricity generated
from fossil fuels at their current costs.
• OTEC plants must be located where a difference of about 200C occurs yea round.
Ocean depths must be available fairly close to shore-based facilities for economic
operation. Floating plant ships could provide more flexibility.
• No energy company will put money in this project because it only had been tested
in a very small scale.
• Construction of OTEC plants and lying of pipes in coastal waters may cause
localized damage to reefs and near-shore marine ecosystems.

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