Tidal Power: Tides and waves as energy suppliers and their

mechanics; fundamental characteristics of tidal power, harnessing

tidal energy, advantages and limitations.

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, OTEC

power stations in the world, problems associated with OTEC.
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TIDAL POWER

Tides have a wave form, but differ from other waves because they are
caused by the interactions between the ocean, Sun and Moon.

• Crest of the wave form is high tide and trough is low tide.

• The vertical difference between high tide and low tide is the tidal
range.

• Tidal period is the time between consecutive high or low tides and
varies between 12 hrs 25 min to 24 hrs 50 min.

• There are three basic types of daily tides defined by their period
and regularity: Diurnal tides, Semidiurnal tides, and Mixed tides.

1
 Note:

1. Over a month the daily tidal ranges vary systematically with the
cycle of the Moon.

2. Tidal range is also altered by the shape of a basin and sea floor
configuration.

Following figure shows a tide gauging station

Tides result from gravitational attraction and centrifugal effect.

• Gravity varies directly with mass, but inversely with distance.

• Although much smaller, the Moon exerts twice the gravitational

attraction and tide-generating force as the Sun because the Moon
is closer.

• Gravitational attraction pulls the ocean towards the Moon and

Sun, creating two gravitational tidal bulges in the ocean (high
tides).

2
• Centrifugal effect is the push outward from the center of rotation.

Following figures show how the gravitational forces and centrifugal

forces create tides.

• Latitude of the tidal bulges is determined by the declination, the

angle between Earth‘s axis and the lunar and solar orbital plane.

• Spring tides occur when Earth, Moon and Sun are aligned in a
straight line and the tidal bulges display constructive interference,
producing very high, high tides and very low, low tides.

• Spring tides coincide with the new and full moon.

3
 • Neap tides occur when the Earth, Moon and Sun are aligned
forming a right angle and tidal bulges displaying destructive
interference, producing low high tides and high low tides.

• Neap tides coincide with the first and last quarter moon.

Earth on its axis and the Moon in its orbit both revolve eastward and
these causes the tides to occur 50 minutes later each day.

4
Tidal Power Stations

Single Basin Tidal

System:

• The simplest generating system for tidal plants, known as an ebb

generating system, involves a dam, known as a barrage across an
Basin.

• Sluice gates on the barrage allow the tidal basin to fill on the
incoming high tides and to exit through the turbine system on the
outgoing tide (known as the ebb tide).

• Alternatively, flood-generating systems, which generate power from

the incoming tide are possible, but are less favored than ebb
generating systems.

Double basin Tidal System: another form of energy barrage

configuration is that of the dual basin type. With two basins, one is filled
at high tide and the other is emptied at low tide. Turbines are placed
between the basins. Two-basin schemes offer advantages over normal

5
schemes in that generation time can be adjusted with high flexibility and
it is also possible to generate almost continuously. In normal estuarine

6
situations, however, two-basin schemes are very expensive to construct
due to the cost of the extra length of barrage. There are some favorable
geographies, however, which are well suited to this type of scheme.

Components of a tidal power station:

The main components of tidal power plant are

(i) Power House

(ii) The Dam or Barrage
(iii) Sluice ways from basin to sea and vice versa

DAM ( Barrage):

The barrages store water behind them. The barrages should provide
channels for the turbines, gates and locks. The tidal power barrages

7
should be of shorter length. The length should be less than resonant
length of tidal waves. The tidal barrages require sites where a
sufficiently high tidal range is available. The barrages require flat
bottom.

POWER HOUSE:

Large size turbines are needed to because of small head available. Hence
power house will also be large structure. The types of turbines used are

(i) Bulb type:

In systems with a bulb turbine, water flows around the turbine, making
access for maintenance difficult, as the water must be prevented from
flowing past the turbine.

(ii) Rim type:

Rim turbines reduce these problems as the generator is mounted in the

barrage, at right angles to the turbine blades. Unfortunately, it is difficult
to regulate the performance of these turbines and it is unsuitable for use
in pumping.

8
(iii) Tubular type:

Tubular turbines have been proposed for use some UK projects. In this
configuration, the blades are connected to a long shaft and orientated at
an angle so that the generator is sitting on top of the barrage.

Estimation of tidal

power:

Single basin system:

9
We can write

𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑𝑚. 𝑔.𝑕

𝑑𝑚 = −𝜌𝐴 𝑑𝑕

𝑑𝑤 = −𝜌𝐴 𝑑𝑕 𝑔 𝑕

Where

W=work done by water in joules

g=gravitational constant

m=mass flowing through the turbine, Kg

h=head. m

ρ=water density,Kg/m3

A=basin surface area in m2

The total amount of work during a full emptying or filling is given by

0 0
𝑊 = 𝑑𝑤 = −𝑔𝜌𝐴 𝑕 𝑑𝑕
𝑅 𝑅

1
= 𝑔𝜌𝐴 𝑅2
2

The power is rate of doing work. The time taken for producing power
once is tidal period. Tidal wave has period equal to6h,12.5min
i.e,22350seconds.

Assuming an average water density as 1025Kg/m3, The average power

per unit basin area is given by,

10
Example problem:

A Tidal power plant of the simple single basin type has a basin area of
30X106 m2. The tide has a range of 12m. The turbine however stops
operating when the head falls below three meters. Calculate the energy
generated in one filling(or emptying) process, in KW hours if the
generator efficiency is 0.73.

11
12
Fundamental characteristics of tidal power

Because water is denser than air, tidal energy is more powerful than wind energy, producing
exponentially more power at the same turbine diameter and rotor speed. Tidal power is also more
predictable and consistent than wind or solar energy, both of which are intermittent and less
predictable. This makes tidal energy an intriguing renewable energy source to pursue. The challenge
is in making it commercially feasible to capture and convert the energy into usable power at scale, as
well as finding uses of tidal energy where costs are less sensitive than national grid electricity.

To fully harness tidal energy as a significant and ongoing source of clean energy, it is critical that
researchers explore ways to assist in developing technologies and methods that increase its viability
for broad commercial application. The industry is largely just emerging, with complex barriers to
overcome before it can sustainably grow and thrive.

Green: Tidal power is an environmentally friendly source of energy. It does not produce any harmful
gas. One of the major benefits of tidal energy is that it utilizes a very small space for energy
production. Predictable: Tidal currents or waves are highly predictable.

Benefits of tidal energy

Tidal energy is a clean, renewable, sustainable resource that is underutilized and represents
significant opportunity to meet growing global energy needs, both now and in the future. Water is
hundreds of times denser than air, which makes tidal energy more powerful than wind. It is more
efficient than wind or solar energy due to its relative density and produces no greenhouse gases or
other waste, making it an attractive renewable energy source to pursue.

Also beneficial is the relative predictability and reliability of continuous tides, especially compared to
other renewable energy sources like wind and solar, which are affected by the variability and
uncertainty of atmospheric forcing. Low tide and high tide cycles are easy to predict and rarely
experience unexpected changes.

To realize the benefits of tidal energy on a commercial scale, it will be important for researchers to
identify new technologies and methods that significantly lower installation and maintenance costs,
reduce environmental effects, and increase the suitability of more locations. There are a few tidal
projects in operation; however, the industry is growing slowly due to barriers to entry and lack of
supply chain.

Limitations of tidal energy

Tidal energy as an industry remains limited by a few significant barriers, cost being its most
challenging. Developing tidal arrays and connecting them to the power grid requires extensive and
costly engineering and manufacturing work. While there are numerous tidal technologies being tested
that may improve affordability, none have emerged as a market leader that could help establish
supply chains and begin reducing installation and maintenance costs.

Tidal energy technologies have been slow to develop, and some industry participants have exited the
market. Suitable locations for tidal energy facilities are inherently limited, given that not all coastal
bays and tidal channels experience the conditions required for effective power generation. And
among those limited locations, some are not near the grid, requiring further investment to install
lengthy undersea cables for transmitting generated electricity.
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In addition to cost and geographic limitations, there is also significant concern about environmental
effects. Constructing and operating tidal energy arrays based on massive underwater structures may
change the ambient flow field and water quality, as well as negatively affect sea life and their
habitats, potentially threatening collisions by marine animals and fish with rotating turbine blades and
affecting marine animal navigation and communication with underwater noise. This may cause some
sensitive species to shy away from electromagnetic fields from power cables or changes to their
habitats.

Achieving cost reductions, developing devices that can endure ocean forces, and minimizing
environmental effects to improve tidal energy’s commercial viability is and must be the primary
focus of research investments in this area.

Recent advances in tidal energy

Tidal power arrays of varying sizes are being developed or have been deployed recently around the
world, with much focus on energy generation from tidal streams or currents. A tidal stream array
located in the Pentland Firth in Scotland—the body of water between the Scottish mainland and the
northern islands—is the newest to begin operating and is the first of its kind. The MeyGen tidal
energy project began phased operations in 2018, and its first four turbines had generated and
delivered more than 35 gigawatt-hours of power to the grid by the end of 2020. At full deployment,
61 turbines submerged on the seabed will generate up to 400 MW of energy from high-speed currents
in the area.

There are multiple projects under way in Wales, an emerging hotspot for the industry. This
development will include a top center for marine engineering, which was approved by the United
Kingdom and Welsh governments in 2020 and will include among its assets a 90-kilometer
demonstration zone to enable the deployment of future tidal energy generation technologies.

There are other test sites and technology deployments at various stages in countries including
Scotland, France, Japan, Korea, China, Canada, and the United States as developers bring forward
new and improved tidal current technologies that show promise for clearing key hurdles to
commercial viability. The ability to assess the performance and environmental effects of new
technologies in real sea conditions is critical to sustainable industry advancement.

Engineers are working to improve tidal energy generation technologies to increase their energy
production efficiency, reduce biofouling, decrease their environmental effects, and find a path to
commercial profitability.

Uses of Tidal Energy

Tidal Energy is a renewable source of energy like Solar, Geothermal, and Wind energy. Here are some of
the uses of Tidal Energy.
1. Tidal Electricity
The most important use of tidal energy is the generation of Electricity, called Tidal Electricity. The
electric power generated from the tides is reliable as tides are predictable and uniform in nature.
2. Grain Mills

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Tidal Energy has been in use for hundreds of years. Just like the Wind Mills, Tidal Energy was used for
the mechanical crushing of grains in grain mills. To crush grains. Here, the movement of the turbines
powered by tidal energy was used.
3. Energy Storage
Tidal Energy is also used to store energy in hydroelectric dams, which act as large energy storage. Tidal
Barrages and reservoirs can be modified to store energy.
4. Provide Protection to Coast During High Storms
Tidal Barrages are capable to prevent damage to the coast during high storms. They also serve to create
easy transport between the two arms of an estuary or a bay.

Tidal Energy Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of Tidal Energy
1. Renewable: Tidal energy is a renewable source of energy. It is generated by the combined effects of
the gravitational force of the moon and the sun and the rotation of the earth.
The power generation in tidal energy is possible due to the difference in the potential energies of the
tides. Different kinds of power generators like stream generators, tidal barrages, and dynamic tidal power
(DTP) use this.
2. Green: Tidal power is an environmentally friendly source of energy. It does not produce any
harmful gas. One of the major benefits of tidal energy is that it utilizes a very small space for
energy production.
3. Predictable: Tidal currents or waves are highly predictable. High and low tide develops with the
ocean as per some renowned cycles. This makes it easier to develop a system with exact
dimensions to produce energy, as we already have knowledge of what kind of waves the
equipment will be exposed to.
This is the reason that the tidal stream generators are similar to that of wind turbines.
4. Effective at Low Speeds: It is possible to generate electric power at very low speeds because the
density of water is much more than that of air. Power can also be generated at a water speed of
about 1 m/s.
5. Tides are fluently predictable
6. Affordable to maintain
7. Reliable and renewable source of energy
8. High energy viscosity than other renewable energy forms
9. It produces no hothouse feasts or other waste
10. Vertical-axis turbines and coastal turbines are affordable to make and have a lower environmental
impact
11. Tidal turbines are 80% effective, which is more advanced than solar or wind energy creators.
12. Drumfires reduce the damage of high tidal surges on the land.
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Turbines inside the shower harness the power of tides the same way a swash levee harnesses the power of
a swash. The shower gates are open as the drift rises. At high drift, the shower gates are near, creating a
pool, or tidal lagoon. The water is also released through the shower’s turbines, creating energy at a rate
that can be controlled by masterminds.

In the United States, there are legal enterprises about aquatic land power and environmental impact.
Investors aren't enthusiastic about tidal energy because there's not a strong guarantee that it'll make
plutocrats or benefit consumers. Masterminds are working to ameliorate the technology of tidal energy
creators to increase the quantum of energy they produce, to drop their impact on the terrain, and to find a
way to earn a profit for energy companies.

Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

1. Environmental Challenges: Tidal energy has some adverse effects on marine life. The rotating blades
of the turbine are veritably dangerous. It can accidentally kill swimming ocean life, although systems like
the one in Strangford feature a security medium that turns off the turbine when marine creatures
approach.
2. Tidal Turbines: In tidal turbines, the primary concern regarding tidal energy harnesses is the blade
strike and trap of marine organisms. As high-speed water increases the threat of marine lives being
pushed near or through these biases.
3. Tidal Shower: Making a shower may change the oceanfront within the bay or creek, affecting a large
ecosystem that depends on tidal apartments. Inhibiting the inflow of water in and out of the bay may
beget fresh turbidity and lower saltwater. It can end in the death of fish that act as a vital food source to
catcalls and mammals.
4. Tidal Lagoon: Generally, the threat associated with tidal lagoon is blade strike on fish trying to enter
the lagoon, the aural affair from turbines, and changes in sedimentation processes.

Characteristics of Tidal Energy

[Link] power or tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into
useful forms of power, mainly electricity.
2. Although not yet widely used, tidal energy has potential for future electricity generation.
3. Tidal power is the only technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital characteristics of the
Earth–Moon system, and to a lesser extent in the Earth–Sun system.
4. Greater tidal variation and higher tidal current velocities can dramatically increase the potential of a
site for tidal electricity generation.
5. advantage- it is also a cheap energy source. After the initial investment is paid off, the cost of
generating electricity is very low. Tidal energy has a high energy density, meaning that the tides store a
larger amount of energy than most other forms of renewable energy, such as the wind.
6. The Disadvantages of Tidal Power. Tidal power is growing rapidly in interest as countries look for
ways to generate electricity without relying on fossil fuels. Tidal schemes have a number of advantages,
including their lack of greenhouse gas emissions and 100% renewable nature.
7. Tidal power is also relatively prosperous at low speeds, in contrast to wind power. Water has one
thousand times higher density than air and tidal turbines can generate electricity at speeds as low as 1m/s,
or 2.2mph.

16
8. There are also three main ways that tidal energy is harnessed: Tidal Barrages - A tidal barrage works
like a dam. When the tide goes high, the reservoir fills up. When the tide moves in or out, the turbines
spin and generate electricity.

Tidal energy is produced by the swelling of ocean waters during the rise and fall of tides. It may be a
renewable source of energy.

During the 20th century, masterminds developed ways to use tidal movement to induce electricity in areas
where there is a significant tidal range — the difference in area between high drift and low drift. All
styles use special creators to convert tidal energy into electricity.

Tidal energy products are still in their immaturity. The quantum of power produced so far has, thus, been
small. There are many marketable-sized tidal power shops operating in the world. The first was located in
La Rance, France. The largest installation is the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station in South Korea.

The United States has no tidal shops and only many spots where tidal energy could be produced at a
reasonable price. China, France, England, Canada, and Russia have far more implicit use of this sort of
energy.

Harnessing tidal energy

Barrages can be constructed across tidal rivers, bays, and estuaries. Turbines inside the barrage harness the
power of tides the same way a river dam harnesses the power of a river. The barrage gates are open as the tide
rises. At high tide, the barrage gates close, creating a pool, or tidal lagoon.
Tidal barrages are like dams built across tidal rivers, bays, and estuaries to form a tidal basin. Turbines inside
the barrage enable the basin to fill during incoming tides and release through the system during outgoing tides,
generating electricity in both directions.

One method for harnessing tidal energy is a barrage, or tidal barrier, which is very much like a dam. When the
water level is higher on one side of the barrage than the other, water is allowed to flow through the turbines to
generate electricity.

How a tidal barrage works

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During high tide the gates are closed and water is stored “upstream” of the tidal barrage. As the tide falls, the
water level on the downstream side of the dam drops. When it’s low enough, the valves are opened for water to
flow from the higher, upstream side—through turbines—to the lower, downstream side. The movement of the
water rotates the turbines to generate electricity.

Due to the design of the barrage, the reverse can also happen. When the tide reaches its low point and the water
level behind the dam is at the low tide level, the valves are again closed and the tide rises again. Water rises on
the “downstream” side and when the valves are opened, flows “upstream” where the water level is at low tide.

Thus, barrages can effectively generate power four main times during the day—during the two fall and the two
rising tides.

There are only a few operational tidal barrages in the world. The Rance River in France and the Bay of Fundy
in Canada have the only large-scale barrages in the world with generating capacities of 240 MW and 20 MW
respectively. There is a small scale plant in Kislaya Guba, Russia which generates 400 kW. A few countries
have plans for other future projects.

Rance Tidal Power Station (France, 1966) Annapolis Royal Generating Station (Canada, 1984)

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)

18
What is OTEC?

 OTEC, or Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion, is an energy technology that

converts solar radiation to electric power.

 OTEC systems use the ocean's natural thermal gradient—the fact that the
ocean's layers of water have different temperatures—to drive a power-producing
cycle.

 As long as the temperature between the warm surface water and the cold deep
water differs by about 20°C (36°F), an OTEC system can produce a significant
amount of power with a maximum Carnot Efficiency of about 6.7%

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) is a renewable energy technology that

harnesses the temperature difference between the warm surface waters of the ocean
and the cold depths to run a heat engine to produce electricity. It is a unique form
of clean energy generation that has the potential to provide a consistent
and sustainable source of power. Although it has challenges to overcome, OTEC has
the potential to provide a consistent and sustainable source of clean energy,
particularly in tropical regions with access to deep ocean water.

Lambert’s Law

Solar Energy absorption by the water takes place according to Lambert‘s Law of
absorption, which states that each layer of equal thickness absorbs the same
fraction of light that passes through it.

Where Io and I(x) are intensities of radiation at the surface(x=0) and at a distance x
below the surface. K is the extinction coefficient and it has the value 0.05m-1 for
very clear fresh water, 0.27 for turbid fresh water and 0.5m-1 for very salty water.

Consequences of Lambert’s Law

 Intensity decreases exponetially with depth and depending upon K value almost all
the absorption takes place very close to the surface water. Maximum temperature
occur just below the top surface of water.

 Deep water remains cool

 There will not be thermal convection currents between the warmer, lighter surface
water and cool heavier water at the depth
19
 In the tropics, the ocean surface temperature often exceeds 25 0 C while 1Km
below temperature is not higher than 100C

 A heat engine can be made to work between these two temperatures and power can
be obtained

OTEC POWER PLANTS

How many OTEC plants are there?

OTEC plants can be either land-based, shelf-based, or floating, and they come in three
main types: closed-cycle, open-cycle, and hybrid. OTEC has several potential benefits,
including zero emissions, and is a scalable, versatile, and stable energy source.
Open-Cycle (Claude Cycle):

Open-cycle OTEC uses the tropical oceans' warm surface water to make
electricity. When warm seawater is placed in a low-pressure container, it boils.
The expanding steam drives a low-pressure turbine attached to an electrical
generator. The steam, which has left its salt behind in the low- pressure container,
is almost pure fresh water. It is condensed back into a liquid by exposure to cold
temperatures from deep-ocean water.

20
Open cycle thermodynamic analysis:

In this scheme, warm surface water at around 27 °C (81 °F) enters an evaporator
at pressure slightly below the saturation pressure causing it to vaporize.

Where Hf is enthalpy of liquid water at the inlet temperature, T1.

This water undergoes volume boiling as opposed to pool boiling in conventional

boilers where the heating surface is in contact. Thus the water partially flashes to
steam with two-phase equilibrium prevailing. Suppose that the pressure inside the
evaporator is maintained at the saturation pressure, T2.

Here, x2 is the fraction of water by mass that vaporizes. The warm water mass
flow rate per unit turbine mass flow rate is 1/x2.

The low pressure in the evaporator is maintained by a vacuum pump that also
removes the dissolved non-condensable gases from the evaporator. The
evaporator now contains a mixture of water and steam of very low vapor quality
(steam content). The steam is separated from the water as saturated vapor. The
remaining water is saturated and is discharged to the ocean in the open cycle. The
steam is a low pressure/high specific volume working fluid. It expands in a
special low pressure turbine

Here, Hg corresponds to T2.

For an ideal isentropic (reversible adiabatic) turbine,

The above equation corresponds to the temperature at the exhaust of the turbine,
T5. x5,s is the mass fraction of vapor at state 5.

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The enthalpy at T5 is,

This enthalpy is lower. The adiabatic reversible turbine work = H3-H5,s . Actual

turbine work WT = (H3-H5,s) x polytropic efficiency

The condenser temperature and pressure are lower. Since the turbine exhaust is to
be discharged back into the ocean, a direct contact condenser is used to mix the
exhaust with cold water, which results in a near-saturated water. That water is
now discharged back to the ocean.

H6=Hf, at T5. T7 is the temperature of the exhaust mixed with cold sea water, as the
vapour content now is negligible

The temperature differences between stages include that between warm surface
water and working steam, that between exhaust steam and cooling water, and that
between cooling water reaching the condenser and deep water. These represent
external irreversibility that reduce the overall temperature difference.

The cold water flow rate per unit turbine mass flow rate,

Turbine mass flow rate,

Warm water mass flow rate,

Cold water mass flow rate

Closed-Cycle (Rankine)

22
Closed-cycle systems use fluid with a low-boiling point, such as ammonia, to rotate a
turbine to generate electricity. Here's how it works. Warm surface seawater is pumped
through a heat exchanger where the low-boiling-point fluid is vaporized. The
expanding vapor turns the turbo-generator. Then, cold, deep seawater—pumped through
a second heat exchanger—condenses the vapor back into a liquid, which is then
recycled through the system.
Thermodynamic analysis

In this cycle, QH is the heat transferred in the evaporator from the warm sea water
to the working fluid. The working fluid exits the evaporator as a gas near its dew
point.

The high-pressure, high-temperature gas then is expanded in the turbine to yield

turbine work, WT. The working fluid is slightly superheated at the turbine exit and the
turbine typically has an efficiency of 90% based on reversible, adiabatic expansion.

From the turbine exit, the working fluid enters the condenser where it rejects heat, -
QC, to the cold sea water. The condensate is then compressed to the highest pressure
in the cycle, requiring condensate pump work, WC. Thus, the Anderson closed cycle
is a Rankine-type cycle similar to the conventional power plant steam cycle except
23
that in the Anderson cycle the working fluid is never superheated more than a few
degrees Celsius. Owing to viscous effects, working fluid pressure drops in both the
evaporator and the condenser. This pressure drop, which depends on the types of
heat exchangers used, must be considered in final design calculations but is ignored
here to simplify the analysis. Thus, the parasitic condensate pump work, WC,
computed here will be lower than if the heat exchanger pressure drop was included.
The major additional parasitic energy requirements in the OTEC plant are the cold
water pump work, WCT, and the warm water pump work, WHT. Denoting
all other parasitic energy requirements by WA, the net work from the
OTEC plant, WNP is

The thermodynamic cycle undergone by the working fluid can be analyzed

without detailed consideration of the parasitic energy requirements. From the first
law of thermodynamics, the energy balance for the working fluid as the system is

where WN = WT + WC is the net work for the thermodynamic cycle.

24
For the idealized case in which there is no working fluid pressure drop in the heat
exchangers, and so that the net thermodynamic cycle work becomes,

and

so that the net thermodynamic cycle work becomes

Sub cooled liquid enters the evaporator. Due to the heat exchange with warm sea
water, evaporation takes place and usually superheated vapor leaves the evaporator.
This vapor drives the turbine and the 2-phase mixture enters the condenser. Usually,
the subcooled liquid leaves the condenser and finally, this liquid is pumped to the
evaporator completing a cycle

Hybrid System:

Hybrid systems combine the features of both the closed-cycle and open- cycle
systems. In a hybrid system, warm seawater enters a vacuum chamber where it is
flash-evaporated into steam, similar to the open- cycle evaporation process. The
steam vaporizes a low-boiling-point fluid (in a closed-cycle loop) that drives a
turbine to produces electricity.

25
Advantages:

 Low Environmental Impact

The distinctive feature of OTEC energy systems is that the end products include not
only energy in the form of electricity, but several other synergistic products.

 Fresh Water
The first by-product is fresh water. A small 1 MW OTEC is capable of producing
some 4,500 cubic meters of fresh water per day, enough to supply a population of
20,000 with fresh water.

 Food
A further by-product is nutrient rich cold water from the deep ocean. The cold
"waste" water from the OTEC is utilised in two ways. Primarily the cold water is
discharged into large contained ponds, near shore or on land, where the water can be
used for multi-species mariculture (shellfish and shrimp) producing harvest yields
which far surpass naturally occurring cold water upwelling zones, just like agriculture
on land.

 Minerals

OTEC may one day provide a means to mine ocean water for 57 trace elements. Most
economic analyses have suggested that mining the ocean for dissolved substances
would be unprofitable because so much energy is required to pump the large volume
of water needed and because of the expense involved in separating the minerals from
seawater. But with OTEC plants already pumping the water, the only remaining
economic challenge is to reduce the cost of the extraction process.

OTEC power stations in the world

While Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) power plants are still largely in the development and
demonstration phase, there are a few notable operational and planned projects worldwide, including
in Hawaii, Japan, and India, with potential for further expansion in island nations.

Operational and Planned OTEC Projects:

Hawaii:
 Makai Ocean Engineering's 100 kW OTEC power plant in Hawaii is a key demonstration facility,
supplying electricity to the local grid.
 The Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority (NELHA) is a leading test facility for OTEC
technology.
 Lockheed Martin and Makai Ocean Engineering have collaborated on developing a 10 MW closed-
cycle OTEC pilot system for Hawaii.

26
Japan:
 Okinawa Prefecture houses the only continuously operating OTEC system in Japan, a 100 kW closed-
cycle demonstration plant.

India:
 The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) is establishing an OTEC plant in Kavaratti,
Lakshadweep, with a capacity of 65 kW to power a low-temperature thermal desalination plant.

Other Notable Projects:

 Global OTEC is developing a 1.5 MW floating platform for ocean thermal energy conversion in São
Tomé and Príncipe, expected to be installed in 2025.
 Ocean Thermal Energy Corporation (OTEC) has plans to install two 10 MW OTEC plants in the US
Virgin Islands and a 5–10 MW OTEC facility in The Bahamas.
 Lockheed Martin contracted with the Reignwood Group to build a 10 MW plant off the coast of
southern China to provide power for a planned resort on Hainan island.
 The US Navy Facilities Engineering Command awarded Lockheed Martin $12.5 million to develop
critical OTEC system components and advance the design for an OTEC pilot plant.

Potential for Future Development:

 Several island nations and territories are showing interest in OTEC projects, including Puerto Rico,
Barbados, Jamaica, and Grenada.
 OTEC has a theoretical potential of 180,000 MW in India, subject to technological advancements.
 The US has been involved in OTEC research since 1974 and has a 250 kW demonstration OTEC
plant that supplies electricity to the local electricity grid.

Problems associated with OTEC

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) faces several challenges, including high capital costs, low
energy conversion efficiency due to small temperature differences, and potential environmental impacts
like marine life disruption and oil spills.
Here's a more detailed breakdown of the problems associated with OTEC:

Technological Challenges:
 High Capital Costs:
OTEC systems require large components and operate in harsh offshore environments, leading to high
initial costs for construction and maintenance.
 Low Energy Conversion Efficiency:
The small temperature difference between warm surface water and cold deep water limits the efficiency
of OTEC systems.
 Large Water Flow Rates:
OTEC systems require large volumes of cold seawater to operate efficiently, which presents
technological and logistical challenges.
 Corrosion and Fouling:

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The seawater environment can cause corrosion and biofouling, requiring robust materials and
maintenance strategies.
 Cold Water Pipe Challenges:
Land-based OTEC plants require long, large-diameter pipes to reach deep cold water, which can be
expensive to build and maintain, especially in energetic coastal areas.
 Working Fluid Considerations:
The choice of working fluid (e.g., ammonia) can also present challenges, such as potential leaks and
environmental impacts.

Environmental Concerns:
 Marine Life Impacts:
The intake and discharge of large volumes of water can disrupt marine ecosystems, potentially
entraining or harming plankton and other organisms.
 Disruption of Thermal Gradient:
Discharging cold water from deep ocean depths can disrupt the ocean's natural thermal gradient,
potentially impacting global climate patterns.
 Potential for Oil Spills:
OTEC plants that use oil as a working fluid could release oil into the environment in the event of a
spill.
 Nutrient Disruption:
The discharge of nutrient-rich cold water can alter the nutrient balance in the surrounding waters,
potentially leading to algal blooms or other ecological changes.
 Noise Pollution:
The operation of OTEC facilities can generate noise that could impact marine mammals.
 Habitat Destruction:
The installation of OTEC infrastructure, such as mooring systems and cables, can destroy or damage
marine habitats.

Economic and Societal Challenges:

 Low Financial Viability:
The high costs and relatively low efficiency of OTEC systems can make them economically
uncompetitive with other energy sources.
 Socioeconomic Impacts:
The construction and operation of OTEC facilities can have socioeconomic impacts on coastal
communities, potentially displacing residents or disrupting traditional livelihoods.
 Public Perception and Acceptance:
There can be public resistance to OTEC projects due to concerns about environmental impacts or
perceived risks.

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