UPY22301J:Optics and Lasers

L: 4.0 T: 0.0 P: 4.0 Cr: 6.0

Polarization Diffraction

Unit I Unit III Unit V

Unit II Unit IV

Light and its properties Interference LASER

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@Dr. Subhojyoti Sinha

Unit-3: Interference, General conditions, Temporal and spatial coherence, Fresnel-
Arago laws, Young’s double slit experiment, Interference in dielectric films,
Michelson interferometer, Multiple beam interference, Irradiance of reflected and
transmitted beams, Coefficient of finesse, Airy function, Fabry-Perot interferometer,
Fabry-perot spectroscopy, Chromatic resolving power, Anti reflection coatings,
Elementary theory of Coherence, Complete mutual coherence and incoherence,
partial coherence, Fringe visibility, Coherence time and Coherence length
 Interference
The wave theory of light received the first experimental evidence in 1801
from the interference experiments conducted by Thomas Young. Using the
principle of superposition and Huygens’ wave concept, Young explained the
interference effects observed in various instances such as double slit
experiment, the striking colours observed on oil slicks exposed to sunlight and
Newton’s rings.
 Conditions for Interference

• If two beams are to interfere to produce a stable pattern, they must have very nearly the same
frequency.
A significant frequency difference would result in a rapidly varying, time-dependent phase difference,
which in turn would cause resultant intensity to average to zero during the detection interval Still, if the
sources both emit white light, the component reds will interfere with reds, and the blues with blues. A
great many fairly similar, slightly displaced, overlapping monochromatic patterns will produce one total
white-light pattern. It will not be as sharp or as extensive as a quasimonochromatic pattern, but white
light will produce observable interference.

• The clearest patterns exist when the interfering waves have equal or nearly equal amplitudes.
The central regions of the dark and light fringes then correspond to complete destructive and
constructive interference, respectively, yielding maximum contrast.
• For a fringe pattern to be observed, the two sources need not be in-phase with each other. A
somewhat shifted but otherwise identical interference pattern will occur if there is some initial
phase difference between the sources, as long as it remains constant. Such sources (which may
or may not be in step, but are always marching together) are coherent.
 What is light wave ?
A light wave is a harmonic electromagnetic wave consisting of periodically varying
electric and magnetic fields oscillating at right angles to each other and also to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
The electric field in the wave is defined by the
electric field strength vector E and the magnetic
field by the vector of magnetic induction B.
Vectors E and B are of equal importance to the
wave.

The electric field is known as optical field,

radiation field, wave field or light field.

The magnetic field is implied to be oscillating

in a plane normal to the plane of the electric
field oscillations and is not shown specifically
in the diagrams.
Light Vector: A light wave is often represented by the E wave
since many of the effects of light such as photoelectric effect,
photochemical and physiological actions are found to be mostly
due to the electric vector E. The vector E is often referred to as
the light vector or optical vector.

The light wave depicted in Fig. (b) is

mathematically represented by the
expression
Features of the light wave
2. A light wave travels slower in an optical medium than in air or
a vacuum. It travels with a velocity v, which is less than ‘c’. The
wavelength of light wave decreases in the medium, as shown in
Fig. while its frequency remains constant.
 Geometrical path length , Optical path and its importance
 Optical path length indicates the number of light waves that fit into that path.
 Thus, Δ = Nλ , where Δ is the optical path length and N is an integer or a mixed fraction.

Relation between optical path and geometrical path

 The distance traversed by light in a medium of refractive index μ in time t is given by

L = υ t where υ is the velocity of light in the medium.

 The distance travelled by light in a vacuum in the same time t, is Δ = c t = c ⋅ L/υ = μ L

The distance L is called the geometric path length (GPL).

Δ is the equivalent distance in a vacuum and is called optical path length (OPL).

Thus, O.P.L. = μ×G.P.L. or Δ = μ L

It means that more number of waveforms is accommodated along the optical path than in the corresponding
geometrical path.
Therefore, in the study of interference we always must calculate the optical paths travelled by light rays.
 In phase

 When coherent waves rise or fall together,

reaching the crest (or trough) at the same time,
they are said to be in phase, as shown in Fig. (a).

 The phase difference will be 0 or 2π radians,

which remains constant as the waves propagate in
space.

 The path difference between the waves will then

be zero or an integral multiple of a wavelength, λ.

 Such waves move through space with a crest-to-

crest correspondence.
 Opposite Phase
When one wave reaches its crest
while the other falls to its trough,
then the phase difference between
the waves is π and the waves are said
to be in opposite phase.

The phase difference remains 180o

(see Fig. b). They are inverted with
respect to each other everywhere.

Then the path difference between The waves may have also any constant phase
difference other than zero or π radians.
the waves will be λ / 2 or an odd
integral multiple of λ / 2.
3. Phase difference and coherence: Coherent and Incoherent
 Suppose two waves are passing
Waves
through a point in space.
 If the frequencies of the two waves
are different, the phase difference
between the vibrations changes with
time.
 The waves will drift out of phase
because the crests of the higher
frequency wave will arrive ahead of
the crests of the lower frequency
wave (see Fig. c).
 Also, if one (or both) of the waves
undergoes changes in frequency
irregularly, the phase difference
changes irregularly.

Under these conditions the two waves are said to be incoherent. The light emitted
by most of the light sources is incoherent as the frequency of light changes abruptly
and irregularly, though we can think of an average frequency associated with the light
 Coherent and Incoherent
On the other hand,
Waves
 If we consider two waves of same
frequency, they may differ in the
amplitudes but they maintain a predictable
phase relationship (see Fig. a).
 The difference in their phases may have
any value from zero radians to a maximum
of 2π radians; but the phase difference
remains constant.

 Thus, two or more waves of the same

frequency can maintain the same phase or
constant phase difference over a distance
and time.
Such waves are said to be coherent waves.
 Temporal and Spatial Coherence

Temporal coherence :Remember that because of the granular nature of the emission process, conventional
quasimonochromatic sources produce light that is a mix of photon wavetrains. At each illuminated point in space there
is a net field that oscillates nicely (through roughly a million cycles) for less than 10 ns or so before it randomly
changes phase. This interval over which the lightwave resembles a sinusoid is a measure of its temporal coherence.

Coherence time: The average time interval during which the lightwave oscillates in a predictable way we have already
designated as the coherence time of the radiation. The longer the coherence time, the greater the temporal coherence of the
source.

Coherence length : As observed from a fixed point in space, the passing lightwave appears fairly sinusoidal for some
number of oscillations between abrupt changes of phase. The corresponding spatial extent over which the lightwave
oscillates in a regular, predictable way is the coherence length

Spatial coherence : If the disturbance at each of the laterally separated points is in-phase and stays in-phase.
Both waves therefore exhibit complete spatial coherence.
 Temporal and Spatial Coherence

Figure Temporal and spatial coherence. (a) Here the waves display both forms of coherence perfectly. (b) Here there
is complete spatial Coherence but only partial temporal coherence.
Bear in mind that temporal coherence is a manifestation of
spectral purity.. If the light were ideally monochromatic, the
wave would be a perfect sinusoid with an infinite coherence
length. All real sources fall short of this, and all actually emit
a range of frequencies, albeit sometimes quite narrow. For
instance, an ordinary laboratory discharge lamp has a
coherence length of several millimeters, whereas certain
kinds of lasers routinely provide coherence lengths of tens of
kilometers.
 Phase change
(a)Effect of Optical path:
 Optical path determines the phase of a light wave arriving at a point.

 We know that if a wave covers in air a distance of one wavelength, i.e. 1λ, its phase changes by
2π radians.

 Therefore, we compute that if a wave travels a distance L in air, its phase change is given by

Comparing these two equations we find that a light path of geometric

length L in a medium of refractive index μ produces the same phase change
as a light path of length μL in a vacuum.
(b) Effect of reflection:
 The process of reflection also affects the phase of a light wave.

 When light is incident on a surface, part of the light gets reflected while a major portion may be transmitted or
absorbed.

 The quantity characterizing the reflectivity of a surface is called the reflection coefficient, ρ.

 ρ depends on the nature of surface, the angle of incidence of light and many other factors.

 As per Fresnel equation for normal incidence it was shown that

 when μ2 < μ1, ρ is positive. It implies that the oscillations in

the incident and reflected waves occur in the same phase.

 On the other hand, when μ2 > μ1, ρ is negative signifying that

the oscillations in the incident and reflected waves are in
opposite phase.
 Effect of reflection on phase change
(i) A light wave travelling from a rarer
medium (μ1) to a denser medium (μ2)
undergoes a phase change of π radians
when it gets reflected at the boundary
of denser medium.
The wave loses a half-wave on reflection at the boundary of
rarer-to-denser medium.

(ii) A light wave travelling from a denser

medium (μ2) to a rarer medium (μ1) does
not undergo a change in phase on
reflection at the boundary of denser-to-
rarer medium.
Therefore, the change in path is zero.
 SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES

According to the principle of superposition—

when two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and at
any instant may be found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would
be produced at the point by the individual waves if each were present alone.

 It means that the resultant is simply the sum of the disturbances.

 The principle of superposition applies to electromagnetic waves also and is the
most important principle in wave optics.
 In case of electromagnetic waves, the term displacement refers to the amplitude
of the electric field vector.
Interference is an important consequence of superposition of
coherent waves.
 INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT WAVES
 If two or more light waves of
the same frequency overlap at a
point, the resultant effect
depends on the phases of the
waves as well as their
amplitudes.
 The resultant wave at any point
at any instant of time is
governed by the principle of
superposition.

The combined effect at each point of the region of

superposition is obtained by adding algebraically the
amplitudes of the individual waves.
 Thus, when two or more coherent waves of light are superposed, the resultant effect is brightness in certain regions
and darkness at other regions. The regions of brightness and darkness alternate and may take the form of
straight bands, or circular rings or any other complex shape.

Interferences : The phenomenon of

redistribution of light energy due to the
superposition of light waves from two or
more coherent sources is known as
interference.

Interference Fringes: The alternate bright

and dark bands are called interference
fringes.

Whether constructive or destructive interference occurs at a

point is solely determined by the difference in the optical paths
traversed by the waves that are superposing at that point.
 Constructive interference
Let us assume here that the component waves
are of the same amplitude.
• At certain points, the two waves may be in
phase. The amplitude of the resultant wave
will then be equal to the sum of the
amplitudes of the two waves, as shown in
Fig.(a). Thus, the amplitude of the resultant
wave
AR = A+A = 2A.
Hence, the intensity of the resultant wave is
IR ∝ AR2 = 22 A2 = 22 I.

It is obvious that the resultant intensity is greater than the sum of the intensities due to
individual waves. IR > I + I = 2I
Therefore, the interference produced at these points is known as constructive interference.
A stationary bright band of light is observed at points of constructive interference.
 Destructive interference
• At certain other points, the two waves may be in
opposite phase.
• The amplitude of the resultant wave will then be equal
to the sum of the amplitudes of the two waves, as
shown in Fig.(b).
• Thus, the amplitude of the resultant wave
AR = A −A = 0.
Hence, the intensity of the resultant wave is
IR ∝ 02 = 0.
It is obvious that the resultant intensity is less than the
sum of the intensities due to individual
waves.
IR < 2I

Therefore, the interference produced at these points is known as destructive

interference. A stationary dark band of light is observed at points of destructive
[Link], we see that a redistribution of energy took place in the region.
Let us consider two sources of light S1 and S2, as shown in Fig. . Let us assume that the sources are identical
and produce harmonic waves of same wavelength and that the waves are in the same phase at S1 and S2.
Light from these sources travel along different paths, S1P and S2P, and meet at a point P.

We now wish to know whether we get brightness or darkness at P due to the superposition of waves.

 If μ1 is the refractive index of the medium in which the ray S1P

travelled, the corresponding optical path length is μ1r1.

 Similarly, if μ2 is the refractive index of the medium in which the

ray S2P travelled, the corresponding optical path length is μ2 r2.

 The optical path difference between the waves at the point P is

(μ2 r2 − μ1 r1).

It means that though the waves started with the same phase, they
may arrive at P with different phases because they travelled
along different optical path lengths.
If the optical path difference Δ = (μ2 r2 − μ1 r1) is equal to zero or an integral multiple of wavelength λ, then the
waves arrive in phase at P and superpose with crest-to-crest correspondence.
That is, if

where m is an integer and takes values, m = 0,1,2,3,4,5,……,then the waves are in phase (see Fig.) and
their overlapping at P produces constructive interference or brightness.

On the other hand, if the optical path difference Δ = (μ2r2 −μ1r1) is equal to an odd integral multiple of half-wavelength,
λ/2 , then the waves arrive out of phase at P and superpose with crest to-trough correspondence. That is, if

where m is an integer and takes values, m = 0,1,2,3,4,5,…….,then the waves are inverted with respect to each other and
their overlapping at P produces destructive interference or darkness.
 Superposition of Waves (Path and Phase Difference)
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟎𝟏 sin 𝒌. 𝒓 − 𝜔𝑡 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑬𝟎𝟏 sin 𝒌. 𝒓 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
𝜙
The intensity of the superposed wave is: 𝐼 = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2
2
Here 𝜙 is the phase difference between the two EM waves. Now, lets consider
the two waves doesn’t have any phase difference, but they have a path
difference. The two waves can be written like this:

𝑬𝟏 = 𝑬𝟎𝟏 sin 𝒌. 𝒓𝟏 − 𝜔𝑡 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑬𝟎𝟏 sin 𝒌. 𝒓𝟐 − 𝜔𝑡

𝛿
Now, the intensity of the superposed wave is: 𝐼 = 4𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ; 𝛿 = 𝒌. (𝒓𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 )
2

(𝒓𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 ) is the path difference between the two waves.

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 Constructive & Destructive Interference
𝛿 𝒌.(𝒓𝟏 −𝒓𝟐 )
For constructive interference: = = 𝑚𝜋; 𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, . .
2 2
2𝜋
Taking only the amplitude: 𝒓𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 = 𝑚𝜋; 𝒓𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 = 𝑚𝜆
𝜆×2

𝛿 𝒌.(𝒓𝟏 −𝒓𝟐 ) 𝜋
For destructive interference: = = 2𝑚 + 1 ;𝑚 = 0, ±1, ±2, . .
2 2 2
2𝜋 𝜋
Taking only the amplitude: 𝒓𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 = 2𝑚 +1 ; 𝒓𝟏 − 𝒓𝟐 = 𝑚 + 1/2 𝜆
𝜆×2 2

m is called the order of

the interference.

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 THEORY OF INTERFERENCE May also proceed in this simple way

Let us assume that the electric field components of the two waves arriving at any point P vary
with time as

where δ is the phase difference between them. According to Young’s principle of superposition, the resultant
electric field at the point P due to the simultaneous action of the two waves is given by

This equation shows that the superposition of two sinusoidal waves having the same frequency but with a phase
difference produces a sinusoidal wave with the same frequency but with a different amplitude E.
where E is the amplitude of the resultant wave and φ is the new initial phase angle. In order to solve
for E and φ, we now square these equ. and add them.

Thus, it is seen that the square of the amplitude of the resultant wave is not a
simple sum of the squares of the amplitudes of the superposing waves, there is
an additional term which is known as the interference term.
The intensity of a light wave is given by the square of its amplitude.

Using this relation, we get

Constructive
interference

Destructive
interference
This equation
Fig
 SUPERPOSITION OF MANY COHERENT WAVES

The result may be written as

 SUPERPOSITION OF INCOHERENT WAVES

Incoherent waves are the waves that do not maintain a constant phase difference.
Then the phase of the waves fluctuate irregularly with time and independently of each other. In case of light waves
the phase fluctuates randomly at a rate of about 108 per second. Light detectors such as human eye, photographic
film etc cannot respond to such rapid changes. The detected intensity is always the average intensity, averaged
over a time interval which is very much larger than the time of fluctuation. Thus,
Lets look at the superposition principal from the E vector point of view…..

Follow the chapter interference section 9.1 and

9.2.2 in the book Optics by E. Hecht
the irradiance at P is given by
 The Fresnel–Arago Laws

Fresnel and Arago made an extensive study of the

conditions under which the interference of polarized light
occurs, and their conclusions summarize some of the
above considerations.
The Fresnel–Arago Laws are as follows:

Interference of polarized light.