2022

GUIDE
TRAFFIC STOP
TACTICS AND
TRAINING

Prioritizing officer and

community safety

Sponsored by

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 1

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TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 2

FROM THE EDITOR
Traffic stops and vehicle contacts put police EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
officers at a tactical disadvantage, with officer Nancy Perry
safety further compromised when faced with [email protected]
non-compliant drivers. To better understand SENIOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR
officers’ experiences, perceptions, training and Sarah Calams
tactics for non-compliance during traffic stops, [email protected]
Police1 surveyed more than 1,000 patrol officers.
EDITORIAL DIRECTOR
This eBook analyzes the results of the survey, Greg Friese
shares top tactics from Police1 readers to reduce [email protected]
risk, and reviews essential safety tactics for the
VP OF CONTENT
four primary phases of a traffic stop. Jon Hughes
[email protected]
I encourage you to read and share this eBook
with your members and consider implementing GRAPHIC DESIGNER
these essential tips and safety tactics to reduce Gail Parker
officer risk during traffic stops. [email protected]

Nancy Perry
Editor-in-Chief, Police1.com Sponsored by

CONTENTS
04
Police research: 1,000 cops
16
Using police observations
23
Essential safety tactics for
address non-compliance on traffic stops to inform the four primary phases of a
during traffic stops policy traffic stop
By Nancy Perry By Bob Harrison By Tyson Kilbey

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 3

 1,000 COPS ADDRESS
NON-COMPLIANCE
DURING
TRAFFIC STOPS
Read about cops’ concerns on the job and 10% had more than 30 years on
the job
regarding traffic stop safety, training
and tactics TRAFFIC STOP ACTIVITY
By Nancy Perry We asked respondents to rank the most common
reason for traffic stops in their jurisdiction.
Traffic stops and vehicle contacts put police
Not surprisingly, especially since COVID-19
officers at a tactical disadvantage, with officer
lockdowns, speeding was overwhelmingly listed
safety further compromised when faced with non-
as the number one reason for traffic stops at 43%
compliant drivers. To better understand officers’
followed by equipment violations at 24%. Only
experiences, perceptions, training and tactics
13% of respondents rated distracted driving as the
for non-compliance during traffic stops, Police1
number one reason for traffic stops, pretext stops
surveyed more than 1,000 patrol officers.
and hazardous driving were rated number one by
SURVEY METHODOLOGY AND only 9% and 7% of respondents respectively.
RESPONDENT DEMOGRAPHICS While 2020 saw a huge increase in speeding
violations nationwide, regarding non-speeding
Police1 developed a 29-question survey, open
traffic violations, 41% of respondents said they
from April 22, 2021, to May 4, 2021. A total of
had decreased in the past year and 17% had
1,036 responses were collected using a Microsoft
stayed the same. Forty-two percent said they had
Form.
increased.
Respondents were fairly evenly divided regarding
We wanted to know if officers had changed their
location and years served in law enforcement. Of
behavior regarding traffic stops since 2019 and
those surveyed, 24% serve a rural response area,
nearly two-thirds (59%) of those who responded
42% serve a suburban response area and 34%
said they were less likely to stop a vehicle in
serve an urban response area.
violation of traffic laws while on patrol than two
A third of respondents had 10-20 years of law years ago, while a third (36%) said there was
enforcement experience and a quarter had 21-30 no change. Only 2% were more likely to stop a
years of experience; a third had nine years or less vehicle.

RESPONDENTS PRIMARY RESPONSE AREA YEARS SERVED IN LAW ENFORCEMENT

10%
Less than 5 years
25%
13% 5-9 years
Rural
42% 34% 10-20 years
Suburban
21-30 years
Urban
18% More than 30
years

36%
24%

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 5

 36%

RANK THE MOST COMMON REASON FOR TRAFFIC STOPS IN YOUR JURISDICTION

43%

24%

13% 9% 7% 3%
.5%

Speeding Equipment Distracted Pretext Hazardous Impaired Failure

Violation Driving Stop Driving Driving to Wear
Seatbelt
36%

IN THE LAST YEAR HAVE NON-SPEEDING TRAFFIC COMPARED TO 2019, WHEN I SEE A VEHICLE IN
VIOLATIONS IN YOUR JURISDICTION: VIOLTION OF TRAFFIC LAWS WHILE I AM ON PATROL,
I AM:
2% 3%
17%

Less Likely to
stop the driver
Increased
About the same
Decreased 36%
41% 42% 42% 59% More likely
Stayed the
same Was not a
patrol officer
in 2019

COMPLIANCE BEHAVIORS distracted driving and just over 10% selected

failure to wear a seatbelt
We asked how compliance behaviors during
traffic stops had changed over the past year. The most common non-compliance behavior
While half of the respondents said it had stayed encountered was a failure to follow commands
the same, 49% said compliance had worsened. (42%) followed by a failure to answer questions
(24%). Around 10% of respondents said refusal to
We asked respondents to select the types show a driver’s license and other documents or
of traffic stops most likely to result in non- furtive movements.
compliance. Suspicion of criminal intent and
impaired driving were selected most often, with We asked respondents to list the actions they
76% and 66% of respondents selecting one did at every traffic stop, whether as a result
or both. Just over a third of respondents said of personal habits or policies. Nearly all the
hazardous driving, equipment violations and respondents indicated that they notify dispatch
speeding were likely to result in non-compliance. they are on a traffic stop and tell the driver the
Just over one in five respondents selected reason they were stopped. They also request

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 6

 IN YOUR EXPERIENCE, WHICH TYPES OF TRAFFIC STOPS ARE MOST LIKELY TO RESULT IN
NON-COMPLIANCE (Respondents could select multiple answers)

76%
66%

30% 30% 29%

23%
13%

Suspicion Impaired Hazardous Equipment Speeding Distracted Failure to

of criminal driving driving violation driving wear a
activity/intent seatbelt

the driver’s license, registration and proof of We asked respondents if there is a non-
insurance and scan the vehicle interior for compliance red flag – a specific action, behavior,
hazards. Two-thirds of the respondents activate or response – they want every police officer to
their body-worn camera during traffic stops be aware of. Respondents contributed more than
and 57% active the dash camera; 62% percent 500 red flag actions and behaviors. We compiled
conduct a license plate check before contact. the top responses and themes in the sidebar
Half of those surveyed touch the vehicle to leave “Officers identify red flags for non-compliance
their prints, while only 4% of the officers who during traffic stops.”
answered this survey call for backup.

WHAT IS THE MOST COMMON NON-COMPLIANCE BEHAVIOR YOU ENCOUNTER?

42%

24%

12% 11%
8% 3%

Doesn’t follow Doesn’t Refuses to Furtive Unable Driver flees

commands answer show license, movement to comply on foot
questions registration due to
& proof of impairment
insurance

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 7

RED FLAGS
FOR NON-COMPLIANCE DURING TRAFFIC STOPS
As part of the survey, respondents identified more than 500 red flag actions and behaviors that
indicate the potential for non-compliance during a traffic stop.
We compiled the top responses and themes for handy review:
• After traffic stop initiation, the vehicle • Vehicle shaking as if occupants are moving
continues at a slow pace, failing to yield for a erratically from within.
short while, then yielding in an advantageous • Immediate hostility before knowing the reason
position for the vehicle occupants. This for the traffic stop.
behavior can be an indication of escape/
assault planning, concealment of contraband, • When a driver says, “I am just trying to go
coordination of alibis amongst occupants, etc. home” they have been in a position where
they knew they were about to be arrested
• Not completely pulling off the highway/ due to the gun, drugs and/or warrant that
roadway. they had. This is a psychological cue much
• Driver calls someone after the stop (almost like a security touch of a weapon that the
always an indicator of the driver being aware person knows that the officer is about to
of having a warrant and is calling someone to impede them from going home for quite
take possession of the vehicle or to let them some time and expresses that all they want
know they are getting arrested). is to prevent the impending arrest due to
• The driver watches your movements as you their misconduct and continue on home. So,
approach the vehicle. if someone expresses an over-eagerness to
“just get home” be on guard you may be on to
• The driver does not roll down the window. something.
• The driver attempts to move your attention • If they start to smoke, be cautious because
away from them, i.e., drops his license on the it generally means they either did something
ground so you have to pick it up. and believe they are being caught or they
• The subject repeats every question or asks have warrants and want to get a last smoke in
“What?” when asked or told a simple thing. before they go to jail.
• Inappropriate delays in compliance, which • The thousand-yard stare when the suspect’s
can indicate a subject is thinking up false flight or fight response is starting is the best
responses to questions or formulating a plan red flag I’ve experienced in my 25 years
to take action against the officer. of experience. They are weighing the risks
• When they are asked to exit the vehicle and vs. rewards in real-time. They can hear you,
they stall. but they are listening to their own internal
dialog on how to survive without going to
• Subjects separating themselves from the
prison.
vehicle without being asked to do so as they
are trying to separate themselves and you • Repeating your questions, especially
from illegal activity in the vehicle. when the subject is sober. This is a stalling
technique for them to formulate a plan.
• Scanning the area looking for a “way out.”
Using the phone instead of addressing you
• Immediate shifting of the body to abnormal is another one. They’re not just being rude;
areas of the vehicle (not glove box, middle they’re stalling, calling for backup, etc.
console, or visor) such as down below the
• Watch for false compliance. Someone who
driver’s seat or back seat.
is being too nice can lull you into thinking
• Whitening of fingers and hands as they grip everything is okay.
the steering wheel.
TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 8
 WHICH OF THESE DO YOU DO AT EVERY TRAFFIC STOP, EITHER BY PERSONAL HABIT OR DEPARTMENT
POLICY REQUIREMENT?

96% 96% 95% 93%

78%
66%

62%
57% 51%

4%
10%

Scan Tell the Request Notify Introduce Activate License Activate Touch the Other Call for
vehicle driver the license, dispatch I myself body-worn plate check dash vehicle backup
interior reason I registration am on a camera before camera to leave
for hazards stopped & proof of traffic contact my prints
them insurance stop

TRAFFIC STOP POLICIES • Chemical agents and pepper ball deployment

are now allowed for non-compliant drivers.
We asked respondents if their department had We are no longer allowed to pursue for traffic
made changes to their traffic stop policy in the violations.
last year. The majority (78%) said no, while a fifth
(19%) said yes. • Unless the violation is one in which the
violator has done something so unsafe that
For the 24% of respondents whose agencies had it places public safety in jeopardy, i.e., a very
implemented policy changes, many indicated dangerous or egregious act, we are not to
those changes were due to social distancing ignore it, but rather re-evaluate the risks in
requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic. A making the traffic stop and weigh assigned
summary of additional changes is listed here: primary responsibilities against the need to
• Mandatory camera and mandatory paperwork deal with a minor traffic law infringement.
to track driver race. • No more “performance standard” (20 stops a
• Only make stops if the violations are month).
hazardous to other drivers. Not allowed • No more custodial in most situations.
to stop for any type of license plate or
registration offenses. • No longer can give a verbal warning. You
must write a citation or written warning.
• Colorado House Bill requires a list of
information to be provided for every stop. • Reduced stops on minor infractions.
Agency policy mirrors this and requires
• Became policy to issue stop receipts to
that we provide the info we have prior to
motorists stopped.
the stop in addition to the info collected
while in contact with the driver, including • Changes made to what we do when in contact
the “perceived race” of the driver prior to with firearms during a traffic stop.
the stop. Officers, in general, are afraid of
• No pretext stops unless there is an
stopping violators of certain races for fear of
abundance of reasonable suspicion or
lawsuits or civil action.
probable cause.

TECH TOOLS FOR MAJOR EVENTS 9

• Patrol vehicles now have video cameras. • Reduced pursuit of fleeing vehicles to violent
felonies only.
• We must now include the race of the vehicle
operator for all stops and have bodycams • Pit maneuver made a use of deadly force.
activated. We also have a new stricter pursuit
• We only request licenses from operators as
policy.
registration and insurance information can be
• Can’t make someone exit the vehicle unless obtained via DMV now.
you have PC.
• A demographic form required on any self-
• No vehicle (or pedestrian) contacts unless initiated stop that states race, gender, age, the
witnessing a violent crime. reason for stop and action taken.
• Force not to be used to get a person out of • Non-enforcement of suspended driving
the vehicle for the sole purpose of towing the violations.
vehicle.
• If the subject doesn’t pull over for the traffic
• The policy changed from a “should” activate stop and continues to drive on, but you don’t
body-worn cameras during traffic stops to a have an exigent circumstance to continue into
“shall” activate body-worn cameras when you a vehicle pursuit, then the officer must shut
know you are going to stop a vehicle. down his equipment and let the vehicle go.
• Some arrestable offenses such as driving on a • No longer able to ask if there are drugs or
suspended license are now prohibited in most weapons in the car unless that was the reason
cases. Policy requires us to consider the least we stop them.
intrusive or financially impactful course of
• Explain the reason for the stop prior to getting
action was also implemented. It basically says
ID.
to ticket drivers less or not at all.
• Equipment violations have become a
• The Sandra Bland Act tightens racial profile
secondary violation only by law, can no longer
reporting resulting in more data gathering and
arrest the driver for refusal to sign the traffic
reporting.
ticket. A requirement to issue warning cards
• Call in to dispatch with all traffic stops. where we previously just verbally warned the
driver.
• Beginning July 1, 2020, Virginia House Bill
1250, commonly known as the Community • Discourage officers from making stops
Policing Act, became law. It requires local purely for equipment and non-safety-related
law enforcement agencies to collect and violations believing this will reduce negative
report certain data pertaining to drivers to the contacts with violators.
Virginia State Police during a motor vehicle
• The list of primary offenses we can stop for
(traffic) stop.
has gotten considerably smaller. Required
• Can no longer tell someone to not make use of bodycams (new to department) and
phone calls during traffic stops. in-car video. More of an emphasis on issuing
warnings unless it’s for offenses that are “hot
• About a year or two ago, they started
button” like texting while driving or driving
requiring us to introduce ourselves by name
without a seatbelt.
and department and the reason for the stop at
the initial contact. • Addresses signing or not signing the citation,
and now involves a supervisor to decide if the
• Must attempt to deescalate and talk before
party can be booked for the charge.
using force, but there is no definition of how
long you need to talk and deescalate before Only 16% of respondents said their department’s
you can step up force. traffic stop policy specifically addresses driver

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 10

non-compliance; 68% said their policy does not respond and attempt to communicate to the
address non-compliance and 14% were unsure. recipient of the summons the requirement by
law.
If the department’s traffic stop policy specifically
addresses driver non-compliance, responders • If the driver fails to comply with any directives
were asked to explain how the policy addresses they are informed of the law authorizing
non-compliance. Reasons listed include: officers to use reasonable force to remove
them from the vehicle and they are given time
• Supervisors must respond to the scene before
to comply after they have been educated
a refusal to sign can be taken into custody.
on the law. If they continue to remain non-
• Call for a cover unit. compliant they are forcibly removed and
arrested.
• It encourages officers to consider the overall
circumstances and make a decision on We asked if department policy encourages that,
whether the non-compliance is a critical when conditions allow, traffic stop approaches
matter requiring immediate action such as an are made at specific locations, such as a well-
arrest or can be ignored or worked through lit convenience store or near a firehouse, even
to complete the task without undue hazard to if it means following a vehicle for a short while.
the officer or traffic offender. Nearly two-thirds of respondents (59%) said no,
just over a third (37%) said yes and 5% were
• Chemical agents can be used for drivers unsure.
refusing to exit the vehicle and we can now
use glass breaker rounds from a pepper ball REASSIGNING TRAFFIC
gun to break windows. ENFORCEMENT
• If you can issue the citation, issue it. Don’t While there has been a lot of discussion among
escalate the stop. legislators and community groups about reducing
• Request supervisor and additional unit. the role of police in enforcing traffic laws, only 7%
of survey respondents support such proposals.
• Immediately call for backup. Stall and attempt The majority (87%) do not support such proposals
to talk to the person and diffuse if possible and 6% were unsure.
or maintain status quo conversation until
backup arrives. Then escalate as needed to We asked respondents what traffic enforcement
identify and detain the driver to permit further tasks should be reassigned from law enforcement
investigation into the reason behind non- to another agency. Here is a sampling of some of
compliance. the responses we received:

• If someone refuses to identify themselves • We should not be stopping vehicles for a

and refuses to step out of the vehicle we broken windshield, distracted driving, broken
are to call a supervisor before we can break equipment, expired plates and seatbelt use.
a window out. If the driver takes off in the • Car crashes not involving death or DWI should
vehicle we are not allowed to pursue unless not be a police matter. Anything regarding
they have committed a violent felony. abandoned cars and parking complaints.
• We have a process of verbal cues we make Police should ONLY address specific
before going hands-on, the last being, “Is violations related to unsafe driving that
there anything I can do or say to get you to threatens public safety.
comply?” When that’s said, everyone knows • Speeding, registration.
hands-on is coming immediately.
• Stop sign violations.
• If the driver refuses to sign a summons our
policy requires a supervisor (or uninvolved • Parking.
officer if a supervisor is unavailable) to
TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 11
• All traffic with the exception of pretext and for traffic stops involving non-compliant drivers,
DUI. while a quarter strongly agrees or agree they had
received adequate training.
• Reckless driving when the complainant calls in
but not available to interview. Despite that lack of training, most respondents
(84%) indicated they are confident in their ability
• Red light camera violations along with speed
to handle a non-compliant driver during a traffic
enforcement cameras where citations are sent
stop.
to the offenders where no interaction from law
enforcement at all. We asked a series of questions regarding the
type of training respondents had received
• Registration compliance.
regarding responding to non-compliant drivers
IMPROVING OFFICER SAFETY, during traffic stops.
TRAINING Only a quarter (24%) had received hands-on
training in removing a non-compliance driver from
We wanted to know how much traffic-stop
their vehicle, 35% have completed simulator or
training was provided to respondents. The
hands-on training on using less lethal tools
majority (50%) receive yearly training, while 42%
(i.e., pepper spray or an ECW) with a non-
do not receive any training. Only 6% receive
compliant driver, and 37% have completed
monthly training.
simulation or range training on reacting
Respondents were asked to select the types to a driver or vehicle occupant who shoots
of training received for traffic stops with non- from the vehicle.
compliant drivers since 2019. Many respondents
We asked respondents for their
selected more than one method, with online
recommendations for other police
training, legal case reviews, roll call briefings and
officers to improve officer safety and reduce
classroom lectures are the most common type of
liability risks when stopping a non-compliant
training formats. Hands-on training and simulation
driver. We compiled the top responses and
are not as frequently encountered.
themes in the sidebar, “Improving officer safety
Nearly half of respondents believe they have not and reducing risk during non-compliant traffic
received adequate department-provided training stops.”

SINCE JANUARY 1, 2019, WHAT TYPE OF TRAINING METHOD HAVE YOU RECEIVED FOR TRAFFIC STOPS
WITH NON-COMPLIANT DRIVERS?

34% 33% 32%

30%

23%

17%

Online Legal Roll call Classroom Hands-on Simulation

training class briefing lecture training
video review

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 12

IMPROVING OFFICER SAFETY AND REDUCING RISK
DURING NON-COMPLIANT TRAFFIC STOPS
As part of the survey, we asked respondents for their recommendations to improve officer safety and
reduce risks when stopping a non-compliant driver.
We compiled the top responses and themes for handy review:
• Request backup: As soon as you become buddy system when we are kids to go to the
aware of non-compliance, request a secondary bathroom. There is no better application for it
backup unit to start heading your way. If you than law enforcement. The sheer command
can de-escalate and gain compliance great. If presence of two officers will deter many non-
things head south, then your backup is closer compliance issues and provide immediate
than they would’ve been. assistance for the ones it does not.
• Don’t get tunnel vision: If someone is getting • Consider your positioning: Always be in
heated with you and there are multiple control and request the driver to exit the
occupants in the car, don’t get tunnel vision vehicle and conduct an exterior pat-down.
regarding who you are having the conversation Place yourself between the driver and vehicle if
with. He may be distracting you so another the driver is the only occupant and do not allow
occupant in the car can ambush you. them to return to the vehicle until the stop is
• Call out the driver: I trained the department to complete.
stop walking up to vehicles on traffic stops. Call • Watch their shoulders: From the moment
out the drivers in most instances if possible. you activate your lights to when you begin
Conduct the stop at the front of the patrol your approach watch their shoulders to see
vehicle. This allows officers to view possible if it looks like they’re reaching for something
weapons, and to verify that the driver will or tucking something away. Always check the
initially comply. back seat and keep tabs on passengers who
• Disengage if necessary: Don't get too refuse to interact with you. When feasible have
aggressive where you may be injured. It's your backer set up on the opposite side of the
not worth it. Maintain control of yourself vehicle so that the two of you have a better
and your emotions. There is nothing wrong position to fire on the vehicle should one of the
with disengaging with a person if you can't subjects use or attempt to use a gun or other
maintain control of the situation without the deadly weapon. This also lets your backer
use of force when it may be perceived as keep an eye on the passenger’s hands and
excessive. Don›t be embarrassed if someone movements.
gets away from you. It happens to the best of • Let the driver leave: If you know who the
us. This isn›t a football game. As professional driver is (via NCIC or JNET, etc.) and have good
law enforcement officers, we are graded by vehicle and driver information let them leave
the public mainly when we hurt someone, and file the citations. No use getting into an
how much AND when we lose our tempers argument on the side of the road for no reason.
or composure. They don’t really care when • Sovereign citizen response: If there are any
people get away from us. signs that the driver is a sovereign citizen, call
• Give the driver time: Allow time for a non- for backup and give your specific location.
compliant driver to make his or her decision Broadcast a description of the driver, the
on how the encounter will end. I believe they vehicle color and make, tag number, and
will understand that once other officers arrive number of known occupants and their
on scene they may have to make different descriptions. You have to know where the hell
decisions. you are to get help.
• No single officer units: No departments
should have single officer units. We learn the
TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 13
• Stay vigilant: Approach each situation as a • Avoid use of force: Do not physically escalate
«felony stop» (stay vigilant) until determined attempts to detain non-compliant drivers for
otherwise. traffic offenses, non-violent crimes or non-
• Quickly remove the subject: Arrest if there is violent warrants. If the person resists and flees
a valid charge and quickly remove the subject on foot or by vehicle, file a summons for the
from the scene. Delayed transport of the appropriate charges and pursue only within the
subject increases the chance for failure. As parameters of your agency’s pursuit policy.
soon as the driver is deemed non-compliant, • Do not get dragged: Do not under any
request backup units and refrain from circumstances choose to continue the fight
approaching if possible until backup units are with a traffic offender to remove them from
on scene. Do not argue with the driver, as the a vehicle if it appears they are able to start
roadside is not a good location for a dispute the vehicle and attempt to drive away. Do not
over any infraction. It is better to maintain choose to place yourself in danger of being run
composure and not argue than to be writing a over or dragged or necessitate an escalation
use of force report and detailing why the driver of force or deadly force over a traffic issue. If
became non-compliant. they are going to drive off, you can choose to
• Ask, tell, make: For example, you ask a driver pursue or place them in custody later.
nicely to step out of the vehicle. If he does not • Train, train, train: Even if your department
comply you tell him to get out. If he does not doesn’t offer training constantly throughout
comply you make him using the least amount the year, take it upon yourself to utilize training
of force necessary. This can go from ask to modules through Police1 or other in-service
make quickly depending on the driver. If you training providers and request to be sent to
give the driver time to think about a plan or training. Practice certain approaches and
have time to call someone or reach for a gun, tactics with compliant drivers that won't come
you are always on the defense. off as aggressive policing to build a platform
• Consider the time: Be aware of the subject on how to approach a vehicle. Request
attempting to buy time through passive supervisors permit the use of older patrol
resistance. This gives the subject time to vehicles to run mock scenarios on off days and
formulate a plan. create a team bonding/pot luck situation to
raise morale in the unit/shift/watch.
• Always be professional: If they deserve a
ticket or talk themselves into one leave it • Record the stop: If no dashcam or bodycam
at that and know you ultimately still win the is available, at least use your cellphone for
situation. If they do not pay the ticket, then recording purposes. Know your case law and
catch them on their warrant at another time. your legal options.
It is a win-win for the police officer. Make sure • Think before you act: Make a decision based
you activate cameras and do not let your pride on ALL the circumstances placed in front of
get in the way. you and don’t just react to the first thing you
• Slow down: Do not feel rushed in getting see. De-escalate in every situation you can.
up to the driver to make contact. Watch all Most drivers are not the nightmare scenario
occupants for furtive movements and scan that the police academy taught you. If you
the vehicle. A non-compliant driver will give stay calm and composed, you (the officer) will
indicators before you make contact, such as always be in control of the stop and will be
looking for you as you approach or mouthing much safer than if you allow your emotions
anger to themselves or passengers about the or your ego to dictate your actions during
stop. Knowing they are non-compliant prior the stop. No matter what the driver does or
to making contact affords you time to change says, you (the officer) must stay calm and be
your approach and/or request assistance if professional.
needed.

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 14

About the author
Nancy Perry is Editor-in-Chief of Police1 and Corrections1,
responsible for defining original editorial content, tracking
industry trends, managing expert contributors and leading
execution of special coverage efforts.

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 15

USING POLICE
OBSERVATIONS
ON TRAFFIC STOPS TO INFORM POLICY

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 16

Responses from a Police1 survey of These responses from more than 1,000 police
professionals are a critical element of the
more than 1,000 LEOs should be a dialog concerning traffic stops, and can inform
critical element of the national dialog policymakers as they answer this question:
concerning traffic stops Should the police continue to conduct traffic
stops?
By Bob Harrison
If 2020 was the great undoing for the police and THE CONTEXT
the people they serve, 2021 and beyond has Traffic stops are the most prevalent way the
been a time of examining and changing the role police have contact with the public. In 2018,
of the police. for example, the police contacted 61.5 million
persons ages 16 and older. Of that number, 25
There have been calls to disarm, defund,
million were drivers or passengers in a traffic stop
reimagine and repurpose the police. Some
(7.9 million more were contacted as a result of
advocacies suggest moving critical functions
traffic collisions). [1]
away from undertrained police employing force to
control those in a mental health crisis. Some favor Although the prevention of damage, death and
lessening the frequency of enforcement contacts injury that results from unlawful driving supports
in general. Others call for merely hitting “delete” the need for traffic enforcement, racial disparities
to end a variety of police practices and duties. in who the police stop make it a flashpoint for
One function in this “full stop” future is to end those who want to end the practice. As research
police traffic stops. continues to show widespread racial disparities
of those stopped, it is increasingly seen as a
Against this backdrop of change, Police1
practice that, if stopped, would serve the cause
conducted a survey of those who make these
of social justice. [2]
stops – officers themselves – to find out what
they thought. Are they making fewer contacts In response to these issues, boards and councils
with drivers? When they do, are drivers less have begun to remove certain duties and
cooperative? Do cops feel they are adequately responsibilities from the police, including limiting
trained to perform this duty and respond their ability to conduct routine traffic stops for
effectively if a traffic stop degrades into violence? equipment or registration
36% violations. [3] Although

RANK THE MOST COMMON REASON FOR TRAFFIC STOPS IN YOUR JURISDICTION

43%

24%

13% 9% 7% 3%
.5%

Speeding Equipment Distracted Pretext Hazardous Impaired Failure

Violation Driving Stop Driving Driving to Wear
Seatbelt

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 17

the police largely support moving mental health • Supporting the general data on speeding
and homeless services to professionals trained nationally, 42% reported that speeding had
in those services, [4] the practice of stopping increased in their communities.
those who violate traffic laws (or use traffic laws
• Almost 60% of officers (611) said they were
as a pretext to investigate suspected criminal
less likely to stop the vehicle than before the
behavior) does not yet enjoy such widespread
experiences of 2020.
support, as is seen in Police1’s survey. In addition
to that perspective, the survey addresses several • When they stop a vehicle, 57% activate the
important issues police leaders should consider. vehicle’s dash cam, and 66% activate their
body cam (no data on the agency requiring
THE SURVEY
activation was sought); 93% said they notified
From April 22, 2021, to May 4, 2021, a total of dispatch they were on a traffic stop at the time
1,036 police officers or deputies who work in it occurred.
patrol completed Police1’s online survey. Several
• Although 513 respondents noted that driver
key issues stand out:
cooperation had remained about the same,
• When asked about the most common reasons 504 said it had worsened. The highest levels
for a traffic stop, speeding was unsurprisingly of non-compliance were those suspected
the top choice at 43%. Interestingly, of drug or alcohol influence, and persons
equipment violations were second with 24% suspected of criminal conduct.
selecting it as their top reason for the stop.
• The most prevalent non-compliant driver
Suspicion of criminal activity, at 9%, was far
behavior was not following the officer’s
lower at number six of reasons provided.
commands (42%), followed by not responding
• Although suspicion of criminal activity was to the officer’s questions (24%).
low on the list of reasons traffic stops were
• Almost 80% said their agency had not altered
initiated, it was the most prevalent reason the
their traffic stop policies to address driver
officer encountered non-compliance, at 76%.
non-compliance. 36%

IN YOUR EXPERIENCE, WHICH TYPES OF TRAFFIC STOPS ARE MOST LIKELY TO RESULT IN
NON-COMPLIANCE (Respondents could select multiple answers)

76%
66%

30% 30% 29%

23%
13%

Suspicion Impaired Hazardous Equipment Speeding Distracted Failure to

of criminal driving driving violation driving wear a
activity/intent seatbelt

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 18

 WHICH OF THESE DO YOU DO AT EVERY TRAFFIC STOP, EITHER BY PERSONAL HABIT OR DEPARTMENT
POLICY REQUIREMENT?

96% 96% 95% 93%

78%
66%

62%
57% 51%

4%
10%

Scan Tell the Request Notify Introduce Activate License Activate Touch the Other Call for
vehicle driver the license, dispatch I myself body-worn plate check dash vehicle backup
interior reason I registration am on a camera before camera to leave
for hazards stopped & proof of traffic contact my prints
them insurance stop

• Eighty-seven percent said they do not support • Only 6% strongly agree that they have
proposals that reduce the role of the police to received adequate training for traffic stops
enforce traffic laws. involving non-compliant drivers; 46% disagree
or strongly disagree. At the same time, more
• About 42% said their department has never than 83% agree or strongly agree that they
provided traffic stop training; 50% more said are confident in their ability to handle such an
it occurs yearly. The remaining 8% noted they instance.
received weekly or more frequent training.
• Since January 2019, 75% report they have
not received any hands-on training about

WHAT IS THE MOST COMMON NON-COMPLIANCE BEHAVIOR YOU ENCOUNTER?

42%

24%

12% 11%
8% 3%

Doesn’t follow Doesn’t Refuses to Furtive Unable Driver flees

commands answer show license, movement to comply on foot
questions registration due to
& proof of impairment
insurance

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 19

 removing a non-compliant driver from a duties?) allowed drivers to go as fast as they
vehicle; 35% say they have received simulator might wish. [7] The COVID-19 pandemic does
or hands-on training on the use of less lethal provide a case study of driving in the absence of
tools with a non-compliant driver. the police. As can be seen, absent other factors,
deaths and injuries increase significantly. Beyond
For those considering change, the inferences one traffic enforcement, there are implications for the
can draw are that the police largely believe they larger system of traffic safety.
should retain the duty to enforce traffic laws, even
as the driving public becomes less compliant. The divergence between total collisions and
Even in the absence of appropriate training, most traffic deaths highlights a blind spot in traffic
also believe they can handle a non-compliant engineering, which historically depends on
driver should the occasion arise. lowering the instances of collisions to lower death
rates. In the period shortly after stay-at-home
Interestingly, a majority of officers reported they orders were issued in California, minor injury
were less likely to stop vehicles than in the past. crashes fell by 29%, while the rate of severe
That data is consistent with what some see as de- injury and fatal collisions increased by 14%.
policing as officers elect to refrain from contact [8] This leads to the conclusion that removing
even when a violation is present. The issue of enforcement from the “Engineering, Enforcement,
pretext stops is also significant. Although Whren Education” safety triad might also translate to the
v. United States (517 US 806 (1996)) affirmed the need for significant modifications of roadways
practice of using a vehicle code violation as a to make them safer. One aspect of engineering
pretext for a traffic stop, its use is increasingly has been the use of automated traffic violation
controversial, and has been linked by some to detection systems (red light cameras and similar
traffic stops for “driving while Black.” [5] technologies). Although those means have seen
IMPLICATIONS OF LIMITING POLICE some success in altering driver behaviors and
improving safety, the public, in general, doesn’t
TRAFFIC STOPS
like them, and systems have been removed in
Although limiting the frequency of contacts cities even though they resulted in significant
with drivers would statistically make those (not) declines in red-light violations. [9]
stopped and the officers (not) stopping them
safer, there are greater implications of ceasing One issue not yet in general discourse is the
general traffic enforcement. Even as the police emerging impact of autonomous vehicles (AV). As
contact fewer persons of color, thus lowering AV become ubiquitous, the controversies about
the frequency of instances of a contact based police traffic stops will largely be moot. Vehicles
on racial profiling, is the greater good served by not violating traffic laws won’t be stopped; those
removing traffic stops as a means for the police to not crashing into one another will also avoid
make contact with the public? police scrutiny. In an AV future, 19 million traffic
stops won’t occur, nor will almost all of the 7.9
Annual miles driven has increased throughout the million collisions. Forty fewer officers a year will
United States since 1970, topping out at the end die in collisions, and police staffing (and funding)
of 2019 at 3,269 million miles. By February 2021, can largely be redirected to other purposes.
the total had dropped 30% to 2,772 million miles. Pretext stops (about 4% of traffic stops [10]) may
Despite driving less, the 24% increase in the rate still happen, but likely at decreasing frequency.
of motor vehicle deaths in 2020 was the largest Looking at deaths at the hands of the police
since 1924 with 42,060 people dying in crashes. and racial justice issues, the police will also stop
[6] One theory is that with fewer cars on the road, killing more than a hundred people a year in
risky driving behaviors went up, with a noticeable traffic stops. [11]
increase in speeding as emptier roads (and fewer
cops free to perform routine patrol or traffic
TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 20
As much as the idea of abandoning traffic stops who want to lower the frequency of police-
might seem illogical to the police, an AV future involved shootings of Black and Latino men.
could cause that to happen sooner rather than One core issue to resolve in this work is to
later. As it stands, officer safety concerns and address the racial disparities found in the
serving the greater good might mean there’s no RIPA report and other national data, especially
need to wait for autonomous vehicles to end the in pretext stops and traffic stops for minor
practice – it could already be gone by the time violations. The police should consider how
they dominate the roadways. they want to participate in that dialog, and
whether ending some traffic stop practices is
CONSIDERATIONS something they want to support. [13]
Looking at the context of police traffic stops and 3. A final consideration is to address officer
the insights of officers in the survey may lead to proficiency in dealing with persons who
reform for the police and their stakeholders as are non-compliant. Although the survey
they work to create a mutually beneficial future specifically addresses traffic stops, it could
for traffic and community safety. Among these are also apply to almost any contact the police
three ways to alter police practice to eliminate have with the public. Officers feel they
unwarranted intrusion into the lives of their are ready to handle such a circumstance;
citizenry, and also practices that enhance the this presumption may be in error, and not
safety of officers on the streets: discovered until it is too late. Agencies
1. The first consideration is to capture the data could develop or enhance existing training
about traffic stops in your jurisdiction and to deal with opportunities to improve the
then act on that information. California’s ways officers manage a non-compliant driver,
Racial & Identity Profiling Act (RIPA) reporting especially if it progresses to a stage where
requirements will soon apply to every traffic the person will be taken into custody. Trained
stop in that state. [12] Other states and likely skills in voice command, arrest and control
federal action may create a similar mandate techniques that do not involve weapons
for all. As it does, policymakers can base and de-escalation skills could be taught and
subsequent legislation on data instead of tested until they can be employed without
supposition. Agencies could also seek to delay.
match the appearance and perceived identity Even with these recommendations in place, the
of persons stopped for suspected criminal question remains – should the police make traffic
conduct against the appearance of persons stops? Managed well, and administered without
the public reports as being responsible for
prejudice, the answer could be yes – mostly to
criminal conduct, another way to assess the
limit the carnage brought about by collisions
frequency of stops for that purpose against
and control of the speeds and erratic driving on
the actual crime data in that community.
American roadways. Could the police be much
2. A second consideration is to use the better trained so instances of profile stops and
outcomes of the Police1 survey to engage subsequent police-perpetrated violence also
officers and the public to discern levels decline? That answer may also be yes. Should
of local support for the continuance (or the police and their public also plan for a future
alteration) of police responsibilities for traffic that doesn’t include traffic stops? With increasing
enforcement. These conversations can numbers of vehicles that are near-autonomous
address both an officer’s reluctance to stop already on our roadways, that answer might also
vehicles as well as issues of racial profiling, be yes.
procedural justice and the concerns of many

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 21

REFERENCES 9. Rejecting red light cameras in L.A. (staff). Los Angeles
Times, June 9, 2011.
1. Harrell E, Davis E. Contacts between police and the
public, 2018 – Statistical Tables. US Department of 10. Zagorsky J. Cops may feel the biggest impact from the
Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. NCJ 255730, driverless car revolution. The Ohio State University, Jay
December 2020. Zagorsky’s Research & Blog, March 16, 2015.

2. Doyle L, Nembhard S. Police traffic stops have little to 11. Evelyn K, Jang I. Police killed 121 people in traffic stops
do with public safety. Urban Wire: Crime and Justice. last year. Advocates call to ban them in fight for racial
The blog of the Urban Institute, April 26, 2021. justice. Insider, April 30, 2021.

3. Vaughan J. Berkeley City Council passes sweeping 12. Racial and Identity Profiling Advisory (RIPA) Board. RIPA
reforms to limit police traffic stops. The Appeal, Annual Report, 2021.
February 23, 2021. 13. Mercer M. Police “pretext” traffic stops need to end,
4. Vermeer M, Woods D, Jackson BA. Would law some lawmakers say. Pew Trust, September 3, 2020.
enforcement leaders support defunding the police?
Probably – if communities ask police to solve fewer About the author
problems. RAND Corporation Perspective, August
Bob Harrison is a retired police chief who is an adjunct
2020.
researcher with the non-profit, non-partisan RAND
5. Harris DA. “Driving while Black” and all other traffic Corporation. He is also a course manager for the CA POST
offenses: The Supreme Court and pretextual traffic Command College. Bob consults with police agencies
stops. The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 1997, in California and beyond on strategy, leadership and
87:2. innovation. He holds a Postgraduate Degree in Business
Strategy & Innovation from the University of Oxford, and
6. Hurd B. US traffic deaths rose in 2020 despite master’s degrees from two U.S. universities.
significant decline in road travel. MSN.com autoblog,
March 4, 2021.

7. Domonoske C. Tragic: driving was down in 2020, but

fatality rates surged. NPR.org, March 5, 2021.

8. Bliss L. The emptier roads of 2020 were more lethal.

Bloomberg CityLab, March 9, 2021.

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 22

ESSENTIAL
SAFETY PRIMARY
FOR THE FOUR

TACTICS TRAFFIC STOP

PHASES OF A
Practicing and mentally rehearsing the officer more time to run the license plate and
determine a location that offers a more significant
strategies to enhance safety is tactical advantage. These advantages include
one of an officer’s most essential increased lighting, broader shoulders on the
responsibilities side of the road and closer proximity to major
roadways, allowing for a quicker response time
By Tyson Kilbey from backup officers.
Virtually every law enforcement agency faces Finally, during the vehicle in motion phase, the
the challenge of teaching their officers tactics officer should try to observe things such as
and strategies to keep themselves safe during how long it takes the driver to respond to lights
the performance of traffic stops. Every officer and sirens, and whether they activate or leave
who has completed a police academy has been on their blinker. In addition, the officer should
shown the outcomes from traffic stops that look for excessive movement in the vehicle
resulted in tragedy. Unfortunately, because of the and determine how many occupants are in the
volume of traffic contacts that many officers make car. None of these things by itself constitute
throughout their careers, it can be easy to fall an imminent threat to the officer, but as two or
victim to complacent tendencies that jeopardize more of these potential risk factors begin to
the officer’s safety and the safety of the subject accumulate, so should the officer’s awareness of
being stopped and their occupants. the risks.
This article breaks down essential safety tactics What we know: 95% of respondents to Police1’s
for the four primary phases of a traffic stop. traffic stop safety survey request the driver’s
These phases are sometimes recognized as the license, registration and proof of registration.
vehicle in motion, the initial contact, roadside
investigation and the disposition of the encounter. PHASE 2: THE INITIAL CONTACT
Each of the four phases encompasses tactical
Phase two of a traffic stop is the initial contact.
opportunities to reduce risk and save lives with
solid tactics and principles. Assuming the encounter is not a felony car stop
in which the occupants are ordered to exit the
PHASE 1: VEHICLE IN MOTION vehicle one at a time at gunpoint, the following
The first phase of most traffic stops is frequently primary tactical consideration is the approach to
referred to as the vehicle in motion – precisely, the car.
the officer’s observations of a car before initiating Many officers choose a driver-side approach,
the traffic stop. while others frequently use a passenger-side
There are a few tactics that can dramatically approach. I believe a strategic combination of
increase officer safety during this phase. both styles is an effective strategy.

First, if possible, the officer should run the license If most officers chose to use only one method,
plate through dispatch and get a return before the effectiveness of that approach would decline.
advancing to the initial contact. A stolen vehicle The fact that officers can use both options allows
or return of a wanted person is vital information for some uncertainty on the part of a suspect in a
that could change the approach altogether and vehicle who may have the intention to attack the
almost certainly warrant the call for a backing officer on approach.
officer to respond. When approaching the passenger side, there
Choosing the location of the stop is another tactic is a greater chance of surprising the vehicle’s
that should be considered in this phase. There is occupants with your presence. It generally
no requirement to stop the vehicle at the exact provides enhanced safety to the officer from
spot where the violation occurred. However, roadway traffic.
following the car to a safer stop location gives

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 24

Approaching from the driver’s side allows for a standard field sobriety tests or a probable cause
more direct route, and with proper positioning or consent search of the vehicle.
behind the B pillar between the front and rear
There are many safety tactics to employ during
door, the officer can gain a visual vantage point
this phase, but the most important include calling
into the car. This also makes it more difficult
for backup when needed and recognizing when
for the driver to engage the officer with a
running subjects from outside the vehicle is
weapon without substantially turning their body.
more advantageous than sitting in the patrol car.
Furthermore, this will require the driver to hand
It is also critical to pay attention to the driver or
important documents outside the vehicle rather
occupants’ verbal and non-verbal body language
than causing the officer to reach into the car.
clues.
On a final note, the officer should make it a
What we know: Non-compliance is most likely
consistent practice to leave their dominant hand
and most dangerous during the investigation.
free of extraneous items so that they can draw
Not following commands is the most common
their handgun quicker in the case of a deadly
non-compliance behavior and is a red flag for
force threat.
danger.
What we know: 51% of officers told Police1 they
touch the vehicle as they approach to leave PHASE 4: THE DISPOSITION
their prints. Phase four of a traffic stop is the disposition. This
could mean anything from a warning, a citation,
PHASE 3: THE ROADSIDE
or an arrest of the driver or passenger.
INVESTIGATION
In the case of an arrest, the officer’s awareness
Phase three of a traffic stop is the roadside level should be the most elevated. If possible, a
investigation. backing officer should be present.
For many stops, this phase can be as brief as a Second, it is wise not to tell the driver of a
license and registration check, along with writing vehicle they are under arrest while still in their
a citation or warning. In others, this could include car and risk them driving off rapidly. Instead, ask

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 25

the driver to step out and speak with you at a About the author
safer location. This could generally be on the Tyson Kilbey has more than 25 years of experience in law
passenger side of the vehicle. Doing this will enforcement, consisting of three years as a hotel security
keep everyone on the scene safer from traffic supervisor and 22 years as a deputy sheriff for the Johnson
while not affording the driver a direct route back County Kansas Sheriff’s Office. He has worked in the
into their car if they decide to flee the scene. detention, patrol and training divisions, SWAT and accident
investigation units. He is currently a captain for the Sheriff’s
There are many other tactics and strategies Office. Tyson owns Top Firearms Instruction, LLC, and
officers have effectively employed over the years. authored “Personal Defense Mastery,” a follow-up to his
first book “Fundamental Handgun Mastery.”
Each stop brings inherent risks and practicing
and mentally rehearsing strategies to enhance
safety is one of an officer’s most essential
responsibilities. Train hard and be safe!
What we know: Regular training is critical for
high-frequency activities like traffic stops. Forty-
two percent of survey respondents don’t receive
annual training from their department.

TRAFFIC STOP TACTICS AND TRAINING 26

MORE POLICE1 RESOURCES

TECHNIQUES FOR DEALING WITH THE TRAFFIC STOP EXTENDED, BUT

DIFFICULT TRAFFIC OFFENDER DETENTION WAS LAWFUL
To avoid being ticketed, the difficult driver The court determines if law enforcement
will engage in a disjointed combination of completed a lawful detention though the traffic
negotiations, rebuttals, compliments and insults. stop was extended.

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