Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative

impact on their uses.[1]: 6 It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies

include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results
when contaminants mix with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four
main sources. These are sewage discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and
urban runoff including stormwater.[2] Water pollution may affect either surface
water or groundwater. This form of pollution can lead to many problems. One is
the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Another is spreading water-borne diseases when people
use polluted water for drinking or irrigation.[3] Water pollution also reduces the ecosystem
services such as drinking water provided by the water resource.

Sources of water pollution are either point sources or non-point sources.[4] Point sources have
one identifiable cause, such as a storm drain, a wastewater treatment plant, or an oil spill. Non-
point sources are more diffuse. An example is agricultural runoff.[5] Pollution is the result of the
cumulative effect over time. Pollution may take many forms. One would is toxic substances such
as oil, metals, plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, and industrial waste products.
Another is stressful conditions such as changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased
temperatures, excessive turbidity, or changes of salinity). The introduction of pathogenic
organisms is another. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. A common
cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial
manufacturers.

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans as well as
legislation. Technology solutions can include improving sanitation, sewage treatment, industrial
wastewater treatment, agricultural wastewater treatment, erosion control, sediment
control and control of urban runoff (including stormwater management).

Definition

A practical definition of water pollution is: "Water pollution is the addition of substances or
energy forms that directly or indirectly alter the nature of the water body in such a manner that
negatively affects its legitimate uses."[1]: 6 Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is
impaired by anthropogenic contaminants. Due to these contaminants, it either no longer
supports a certain human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability
to support its biotic communities, such as fish.

Contaminants

Contaminants with an origin in sewage

Further information: Waterborne diseases § Diseases by type of pathogen, and Sewage

§ Pathogens
The following compounds can all reach water bodies via raw sewage or even treated sewage
discharges:

 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products.

 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water (whilst these

chemicals can be a pollutant in the water distribution network, they are fairly volatile
and therefore not usually found in environmental waters).[6]

 Hormones (from animal husbandry and residue from human hormonal

contraception methods) and synthetic materials such as phthalates that mimic
hormones in their action. These can have adverse impacts even at very low
concentrations on the natural biota and potentially on humans if the water is treated
and utilized for drinking water.[7][8][9]

 Insecticides and herbicides, often from agricultural runoff.

 Pathogens like Hepatovirus A (HAV may be present in treated wastewater outflows and
receiving water bodies but is largely removed during further treatment of drinking
water[10])

Inadequately treated wastewater can convey nutrients, pathogens, heterogenous suspended

solids and organic fecal matter.[1]: 6

Poster to teach people in South Asia about human

activities leading to the pollution of water sources

Pollutants and their effects*

Pollutant Main representative parameter Possible effect of the pollutant

 Aesthetic problems

Suspended  Sludge deposits

Total suspended solids
solids  Pollutants adsorption

 Protection of pathogens

 Oxygen consumption
Biodegradable
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)  Death of fish
organic matter
 Septic conditions

 Excessive algae growth

 Toxicity to fish (ammonia)

 Nitrogen
Nutrients  Illnesses in new-born infants
 Phosphorus (blue baby
syndrome from nitrate)

 Pollution of groundwater

 Coliforms, such as E. coli, may

not be pathogenic in and of
themselves, but are used
as an indicator of co-
Pathogens occurring pathogens that Waterborne diseases
should take slightly less time
to die or degrade[1]: 51

 Helminth eggs[1]: 55 [11]

Non-  Pesticides  Toxicity (various)

biodegradable
 Some detergents  Foam (detergents)
organic matter
 Others  Reduction of oxygen transfer
(detergents)

 Non-biodegradability
  Bad odors (e.g.: phenols)

 Excessive salinity – harm to

plantations (irrigation)

Inorganic  Total dissolved solids  Toxicity to plants (some

dissolved solids  Conductivity ions)

 Problems with soil

permeability (sodium)

* Sources of these pollutants are household and industrial wastewater, urban runoff and
stormwater drainage from agricultural areas[1]: 7

Pathogens

Bacteria, viruses, protozoans and parasitic worms are examples of pathogens that can be found
in wastewater.[1]: 47 In practice, indicator organisms are used to investigate pathogenic pollution
of water because the detection of pathogenic organisms in water sample is difficult and costly,
because of their low concentrations. The indicators (bacterial indicator) of fecal contamination
of water samples most commonly used are total coliforms (TC) or fecal coliforms (FC), the latter
also referred to as thermotolerant coliforms, such as Escherichia coli.[1]: 52–53

Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts.[12] Some
microorganisms sometimes found in contaminated surface waters that have caused human
health problems include Burkholderia pseudomallei, Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia
lamblia, Salmonella, norovirus and other viruses, and parasitic worms including
the Schistosoma type.[13]

The source of high levels of pathogens in water bodies can be from human feces (due to open
defecation), sewage, blackwater, or manure that has found its way into the water body. The
cause for this can be lack of sanitation procedures or poorly functioning on-
site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit latrines), sewage treatment plants without disinfection
steps, sanitary sewer overflows and combined sewer overflows (CSOs)[14] during storm events
and intensive agriculture (poorly managed livestock operations).

Organic compounds

Organic substances that enter water bodies are often toxic.[15]: 229

 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and
lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from oil spills or storm
water runoff[16]
  Volatile organic compounds, such as improperly stored industrial solvents. Problematic
species are organochlorides such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)
and trichloroethylene, a common solvent.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent organic pollutants.[17][18]

Inorganic contaminants

Bauxite residue is an industrial waste that is dangerously

alkaline and can lead to water pollution if not managed appropriately (photo from Stade,

Germany). Muddy river polluted by sediment

Inorganic water pollutants include:

 Ammonia from food processing waste

 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff)[16][19] and acid mine
drainage

 Nitrates and phosphates, from sewage and agriculture (see nutrient pollution)

 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites or sewage, logging, slash and
burn practices land clearing sites

 Salt: Freshwater salinization is the process of salty runoff contaminating freshwater

ecosystems.[20] Human-induced salinization is termed as secondary salinization, with the
use of de-icing road salts as the most common form of runoff.[21][22]

Pharmaceutical pollutants
This section is an excerpt from Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care
products.[edit]

The environmental effect of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is being
investigated since at least the 1990s. PPCPs include substances used by individuals for personal
health or cosmetic reasons and the products used by agribusiness to boost growth or health of
livestock. More than twenty million tons of PPCPs are produced every year.[23] The European
Union has declared pharmaceutical residues with the potential of contamination of water and
soil to be "priority substances".[3]

PPCPs have been detected in water bodies throughout the world. More research is needed to
evaluate the risks of toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation, but the current state of
research shows that personal care products impact the environment and other species, such as
coral reefs[24][25][26] and fish.[27][28] PPCPs encompass environmental persistent pharmaceutical
pollutants (EPPPs) and are one type of persistent organic pollutants. They are not removed in
conventional sewage treatment plants but require a fourth treatment stage which not many
plants have.[23]

In 2022, the most comprehensive study of pharmaceutical pollution of the world's rivers found
that it threatens "environmental and/or human health in more than a quarter of the studied
locations". It investigated 1,052 sampling sites along 258 rivers in 104 countries, representing
the river pollution of 470 million people. It found that "the most contaminated sites were in
low- to middle-income countries and were associated with areas with poor wastewater and
waste management infrastructure and pharmaceutical manufacturing" and lists the most
frequently detected and concentrated pharmaceuticals.[29][30]

 Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants, which can include

various pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites (see also drug pollution), such
as antidepressant drugs, antibiotics or the contraceptive pill.

 Metabolites of illicit drugs (see also wastewater epidemiology), for

example methamphetamine and ecstasy.[31][32]

Solid waste and plastics

 Solid waste and plastics in the Lachine Canal, Canada

Further information: Sewage § Solid waste, Plastic pollution, and Marine plastic pollution

Solid waste can enter water bodies through untreated sewage, combined sewer overflows,
urban runoff, people discarding garbage into the environment, wind carrying municipal solid
waste from landfills and so forth. This results in macroscopic pollution– large visible items
polluting the water– but also microplastics pollution that is not directly visible. The
terms marine debris and marine plastic pollution are used in the context of pollution of oceans.

Microplastics persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine
ecosystems, where they cause water pollution.[33] 35% of all ocean microplastics come from
textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing,
often during the washing process.[34]

Stormwater, untreated sewage and wind are the primary conduits for microplastics from land to
sea. Synthetic fabrics, tyres, and city dust are the most common sources of microplastics. These
three sources account for more than 80% of all microplastic contamination.[35][36]

Types of surface water pollution

Surface water pollution includes pollution of rivers, lakes and oceans. A subset of surface water
pollution is marine pollution which affects the oceans. Nutrient pollution refers to
contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients.

Globally, about 4.5 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation as of 2017, according
to an estimate by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation.[37] Lack of
access to sanitation is concerning and often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the practice
of open defecation: during rain events or floods, the human feces are moved from the ground
where they were deposited into surface waters. Simple pit latrines may also get flooded during
rain events.

As of 2022, Europe and Central Asia account for around 16% of global microplastics discharge
into the seas,[35][38] and although management of plastic waste and its recycling is improving
globally, the absolute amount of plastic pollution continues to increase unabated due to the
large amount of plastic that is being produced and disposed of.[39] Even if sea plastic pollution
were to stop entirely, microplastic contamination of the surface ocean would be projected to
continue to increase.[39]

Marine pollution

This section is an excerpt from Marine pollution.[edit]

Marine pollution occurs when substances used or spread by humans, such

as industrial, agricultural and residential waste, particles, noise, excess carbon
dioxide or invasive organisms enter the ocean and cause harmful effects there. The majority of
this waste (80%) comes from land-based activity, although marine transportation significantly
contributes as well.[40] It is a combination of chemicals and trash, most of which comes from
land sources and is washed or blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to the
environment, to the health of all organisms, and to economic structures worldwide.[41] Since
most inputs come from land, either via the rivers, sewage or the atmosphere, it means
that continental shelves are more vulnerable to pollution. Air pollution is also a contributing
factor by carrying off iron, carbonic acid, nitrogen, silicon, sulfur, pesticides or dust particles into
the ocean.[42] The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as agricultural runoff,
wind-blown debris, and dust. These nonpoint sources are largely due to runoff that enters the
ocean through rivers, but wind-blown debris and dust can also play a role, as these pollutants
can settle into waterways and oceans.[43] Pathways of pollution include direct discharge, land
runoff, ship pollution, bilge pollution, dredging (which can create dredge plumes), atmospheric
pollution and, potentially, deep sea mining.

Nutrient pollution

This section is an excerpt from Nutrient pollution.[edit]

 Nutrient pollution caused by Surface runoff of soil
and fertilizer during a rain stormNutrient pollution is a form of water pollution caused by too
many nutrients entering the water. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface
waters (lakes, rivers and coastal waters), in which excess nutrients,
usually nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algal growth.[44] Sources of nutrient pollution
include surface runoff from farms, waste from septic tanks and feedlots, and emissions from
burning fuels. Raw sewage, which is rich in nutrients, also contributes to the issue when
dumped in water bodies. Excess nitrogen causes environmental problems such as harmful algal
blooms, hypoxia, acid rain, nitrogen saturation in forests, and climate change.[45]

Thermal pollution

The Brayton Point Power Station in Massachusetts

discharged heated water to Mount Hope Bay until 2011.

This section is an excerpt from Thermal pollution.[edit]

Thermal pollution, sometimes called "thermal enrichment", is the degradation of water

quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature. Thermal pollution is the rise or
drop in the temperature of a natural body of water caused by human influence. Thermal
pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in the physical properties of water. A
common cause of thermal pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and
industrial manufacturers.[46] Urban runoff—stormwater discharged to surface waters from
rooftops, roads, and parking lots—and reservoirs can also be a source of thermal pollution.
[47]
Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of
reservoirs into warmer rivers.
Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels (due to lower levels of dissolved oxygen, as
gases are less soluble in warmer liquids), which can kill fish (which may then rot) and alter food
chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.
[48]: 179 [15]: 375

Biological pollution

The introduction of aquatic invasive organisms is a form of water pollution as well. It

causes biological pollution.[49]

Groundwater pollution

This section is an excerpt from Groundwater pollution.[edit]

Groundwater pollution (also called groundwater contamination) occurs when pollutants are
released to the ground and make their way into groundwater. This type of water pollution can
also occur naturally due to the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent, contaminant, or
impurity in the groundwater, in which case it is more likely referred to as contamination rather
than pollution. Groundwater pollution can occur from on-
site sanitation systems, landfill leachate, effluent from wastewater treatment plants, leaking
sewers, petrol filling stations, hydraulic fracturing (fracking) or from over application
of fertilizers in agriculture. Pollution (or contamination) can also occur from naturally occurring
contaminants, such as arsenic or fluoride.[50] Using polluted groundwater causes hazards
to public health through poisoning or the spread of disease (water-borne diseases).

In many areas of the world, groundwater pollution poses a hazard to the wellbeing of people
and ecosystems. One-quarter of the world's population depends on groundwater for drinking,
yet concentrated recharging is known to carry short-lived contaminants into carbonate aquifers
and jeopardize the purity of those waters.[51]

Pollution from point sources

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single,
identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include
discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.

The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement purposes
(see United States regulation of point source water pollution).[52] The CWA definition of point
source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial
storm water, such as from construction sites.[53]

Sewage
Sewage typically consists of 99.9% water and 0.1% solids.[54] Sewage contributes many classes of
nutrients that lead to Eutrophication. It is a major source of phosphate for example.[55] Sewage is
often contaminated with diverse compounds found in
personal hygiene, cosmetics, pharmaceutical drugs (see also drug pollution), and their
metabolites[31][32] Water pollution due to environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants
can have wide-ranging consequences. When sewers overflow during storm events this can lead
to water pollution from untreated sewage. Such events are called sanitary sewer
overflows or combined sewer overflows.

A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey

Industrial wastewater

Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) is a

global pollutant that has been found in drinking water. It appears not to biodegrade.[56]

Further information: Industrial wastewater treatment

Industrial processes that use water also produce wastewater. This is called industrial
wastewater. Using the US as an example, the main industrial consumers of water (using over
60% of the total consumption) are power plants, petroleum refineries, iron and steel mills, pulp
and paper mills, and food processing industries.[2] Some industries discharge chemical wastes,
including solvents and heavy metals (which are toxic) and other harmful pollutants.

Industrial wastewater could add the following pollutants to receiving water bodies if the
wastewater is not treated and managed properly:

 Heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and chromium

  Organic matter and nutrients such as food waste: Certain industries (e.g. food
processing, slaughterhouse waste, paper fibers, plant material, etc.) discharge high
concentrations of BOD, ammonia nitrogen and oil and grease.[57]: 180 [15]

 Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, rubber residues from
tires, ceramics, etc.;

 Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.

 Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, hormones, perfluorinated

compounds, siloxanes, drugs of abuse and other hazardous substances[58][59][60]

 Microplastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, polyester and polyamide[61]

 Thermal pollution from power stations and industrial manufacturers

 Radionuclides from uranium mining, processing nuclear fuel, operating nuclear reactors,
or disposal of radioactive waste.

 Some industrial discharges include persistent organic pollutants such as per- and
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).[17][18]

Oil spills

This section is an excerpt from Oil spill.[edit]

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially
the marine ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually
given to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may
also occur on land. Oil spills can result from the release of crude oil from tankers, offshore
platforms, drilling rigs, and wells. They may also involve spills of refined petroleum products,
such as gasoline and diesel fuel, as well as their by-products. Additionally, heavier fuels used by
large ships, such as bunker fuel, or spills of any oily refuse or waste oil, contribute to such
incidents. These spills can have severe environmental and economic consequences.

Pollution from nonpoint sources

This section is an excerpt from Nonpoint source pollution.[edit]

Nonpoint source (NPS) pollution refers to diffuse contamination (or pollution) of water or air
that does not originate from a single discrete source. This type of pollution is often the
cumulative effect of small amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. It is in contrast
to point source pollution which results from a single source. Nonpoint source pollution
generally results from land runoff, precipitation, atmospheric deposition, drainage, seepage, or
hydrological modification (rainfall and snowmelt) where tracing pollution back to a single source
is difficult.[62] Nonpoint source water pollution affects a water body from sources such as
polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to
sea. Nonpoint source air pollution affects air quality, from sources such as smokestacks or
car tailpipes. Although these pollutants have originated from a point source, the long-range
transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a nonpoint source of pollution; if
the discharges were to occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location, the
pollution would be single-point.

Agriculture

Agriculture is a major contributor to water pollution from nonpoint sources. The use of
fertilizers as well as surface runoff from farm fields, pastures and feedlots leads to nutrient
pollution.[63] In addition to plant-focused agriculture, fish-farming is also a source of pollution.
Additionally, agricultural runoff often contains high levels of pesticides.[2]

Atmospheric contributions (air pollution)

Air deposition is a process whereby air pollutants from industrial or natural sources settle into
water bodies. The deposition may lead to polluted water near the source, or at distances up to a
few thousand miles away. The most frequently observed water pollutants resulting from
industrial air deposition are sulfur compounds, nitrogen compounds, mercury compounds,
other heavy metals, and some pesticides and industrial by-products. Natural sources of air
deposition include forest fires and microbial activity.[64]

Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water
molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.[65] Some governments have made efforts since
the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere. The
main source of sulfur and nitrogen compounds that result in acid rain are anthropogenic, but
nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulphur dioxide is
produced by volcanic eruptions.[66] Acid rain can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic
ecosystems and infrastructure.[67][68]

Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere have increased since the 1850s due
anthropogenic influences (emissions of greenhouse gases).[69] This leads to ocean
acidification and is another form of water pollution from atmospheric contributions.[70]

Sampling, measurements, analysis

 Environmental scientists preparing water autosamplers

Further information: Water quality § Sampling and measurement, Environmental

monitoring, Analysis of water chemistry, Water sampling station, and Regulation and
monitoring of pollution § Water pollution

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical,
chemical and biological. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as
temperature. Others involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests in the
laboratory. Standardized, validated analytical test methods, for water and wastewater samples
have been published.[71]

Common physical tests of water include temperature, Specific conductance or electrical

conductance (EC) or conductivity, solids concentrations (e.g., total suspended solids (TSS))
and turbidity. Water samples may be examined using analytical chemistry methods. Many
published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently
used parameters that are quantified are pH, BOD,[72]: 102 chemical oxygen demand (COD),[72]:
104
dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus compounds,
e.g. nitrate and orthophosphates), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury),
oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), surfactants and pesticides.

The use of a biomonitor or bioindicator is described as biological monitoring. This refers to the
measurement of specific properties of an organism to obtain information on the surrounding
physical and chemical environment.[73] Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal or
microbial indicators to monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. They are any biological
species or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal what degree of
ecosystem or environmental integrity is present.[74] One example of a group of bio-indicators are
the copepods and other small water crustaceans that are present in many water bodies. Such
organisms can be monitored for changes (biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may
indicate a problem within their ecosystem.

This section is an excerpt from Water quality § Sample collection.[edit]

The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of
water quality indicators. Some measurements of water quality are most accurately made on-
site, because water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made
on-site and in direct contact with the water source in question
include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, oxygen reduction potential
(ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.

Impacts

Oxygen depletion, resulting from nitrogen

pollution and eutrophication, is a common cause of fish kills.

Ecosystems

Water pollution is a major global environmental problem because it can result in the
degradation of all aquatic ecosystems – fresh, coastal, and ocean waters.[75] The specific
contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum of chemicals, pathogens,
and physical changes such as elevated temperature. While many of the chemicals and
substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese,
etc.) the concentration usually determines what is a natural component of water and what is a
contaminant. High concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts
on aquatic flora and fauna. Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant
matter (e.g. leaves and grass) as well as human-made chemicals. Other natural and
anthropogenic substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant
growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.[76]