Electronic Systems

An Electronic System is a physical interconnection of components, or parts, hat gathers

various amounts of information together

It does this with the aid of input devices such as sensors, that respond in some way to this
information and then uses electrical energy in the form of an output action to control a
physical process or perform some type of mathematical operation on the signal.
But electronic control systems can also be regarded as a process that transforms one signal
into another so as to give the desired system response. Then we can say that a simple
electronic system consists of an input, a process, and an output with the input variable to the
system and the output variable from the system both being signals.
There are many ways to represent a system, for example: mathematically, descriptively,
pictorially or schematically. Electronic systems are generally represented schematically as a
series of interconnected blocks and signals with each block having its own set of inputs and
outputs.
As a result, even the most complex of electronic control systems can be represented by a
combination of simple blocks, with each block containing or representing an individual
component or complete sub-system. The representing of an electronic system or process
control system as a number of interconnected blocks or boxes is known commonly as “block-
diagram representation”.

Block Diagram Representation of a Simple Electronic System

Electronic Systems have both Inputs and Outputs with the output or outputs being produced
by processing the inputs. Also, the input signal(s) may cause the process to change or may
itself cause the operation of the system to change. Therefore the input(s) to a system is the
“cause” of the change, while the resulting action that occurs on the systems output due to this
cause being present is called the “effect”, with the effect being a consequence of the cause.
In other words, an electronic system can be classed as “causal” in nature as there is a direct
relationship between its input and its output. Electronic systems analysis and process control
theory are generally based upon this Cause and Effect analysis.
So for example in an audio system, a microphone (input device) causes sound waves to be
converted into electrical signals for the amplifier to amplify (a process), and a loudspeaker
(output device) produces sound waves as an effect of being driven by the amplifiers electrical
signals.
But an electronic system need not be a simple or single operation. It can also be an
interconnection of several sub-systems all working together within the same overall system.
Our audio system could for example, involve the connection of a CD player, or a DVD
player, an MP3 player, or a radio receiver all being multiple inputs to the same amplifier
which in turn drives one or more sets of stereo or home theatre type surround loudspeakers.
But an electronic system can not just be a collection of inputs and outputs, it must “do
something”, even if it is just to monitor a switch or to turn “ON” a light. We know that
sensors are input devices that detect or turn real world measurements into electronic signals
which can then be processed. These electrical signals can be in the form of either voltages or
currents within a circuit. The opposite or output device is called an actuator, that converts the
processed signal into some operation or action, usually in the form of mechanical movement.

Types of Electronic System

Electronic systems operate on either continuous-time (CT) signals or discrete-time (DT)
signals. A continuous-time system is one in which the input signals are defined along a
continuum of time, such as an analogue signal which “continues” over time producing a
continuous-time signal.
But a continuous-time signal can also vary in magnitude or be periodic in nature with a time
period T. As a result, continuous-time electronic systems tend to be purely analogue systems
producing a linear operation with both their input and output signals referenced over a set
period of time.

For example, the temperature of a room can be classed as a continuous time signal which can
be measured between two values or set points, for example from cold to hot or from Monday
to Friday. We can represent a continuous-time signal by using the independent variable for
time t, and where x(t) represents the input signal and y(t) represents the output signal over a
period of time t.
Generally, most of the signals present in the physical world which we can use tend to be
continuous-time signals. For example, voltage, current, temperature, pressure, velocity, etc.
On the other hand, a discrete-time system is one in which the input signals are not continuous
but a sequence or a series of signal values defined in “discrete” points of time. This results in
a discrete-time output generally represented as a sequence of values or numbers.
Generally a discrete signal is specified only at discrete intervals, values or equally spaced
points in time. So for example, the temperature of a room measured at 1pm, at 2pm, at 3pm
and again at 4pm without regards for the actual room temperature in between these points at
say, 1:30pm or at 2:45pm.
However, a continuous-time signal, x(t) can be represented as a discrete set of signals only at
discrete intervals or “moments in time”. Discrete signals are not measured versus time, but
instead are plotted at discrete time intervals, where n is the sampling interval. As a result
discrete-time signals are usually denoted as x(n) representing the input and y(n) representing
the output.
Then we can represent the input and output signals of a system as x and y respectively with
the signal, or signals themselves being represented by the variable, t, which usually
represents time for a continuous system and the variable n, which represents an integervalue
for a discrete system as shown.

Continuous-time and Discrete-time System

Interconnection of Systems
One of the practical aspects of electronic systems and block-diagram representation is that
they can be combined together in either a series or parallel combinations to form much bigger
systems. Many larger real systems are built using the interconnection of several sub-systems
and by using block diagrams to represent each subsystem, we can build a graphical
representation of the whole system being analysed.
When subsystems are combined to form a series circuit, the overall output at y(t) will be
equivalent to the multiplication of the input signal x(t) as shown as the subsystems are
cascaded together.

Series Connected System

For a series connected continuous-time system, the output signal y(t) of the first
subsystem, “A” becomes the input signal of the second subsystem, “B” whose output
becomes the input of the third subsystem, “C” and so on through the series chain
giving A x B x C, etc.
Then the original input signal is cascaded through a series connected system, so for two series
connected subsystems, the equivalent single output will be equal to the multiplication of the
systems, ie, y(t) = G1(s) x G2(s). Where G represents the transfer function of the subsystem.
Note that the term “Transfer Function” of a system refers to and is defined as being the
mathematical relationship between the systems input and its output, or output/input and hence
describes the behaviour of the system.
Also, for a series connected system, the order in which a series operation is performed does
not matter with regards to the input and output signals as: G1(s) x G2(s) is the same
as G2(s) x G1(s). An example of a simple series connected circuit could be a single
microphone feeding an amplifier followed by a speaker.

Parallel Connected Electronic System

For a parallel connected continuous-time system, each subsystem receives the same input
signal, and their individual outputs are summed together to produce an overall output, y(t).
Then for two parallel connected subsystems, the equivalent single output will be the sum of
the two individual inputs, ie, y(t) = G1(s) + G2(s).
An example of a simple parallel connected circuit could be several microphones feeding into
a mixing desk which in turn feeds an amplifier and speaker system.

Control System
A control system manages, commands, directs, or regulates the behavior of other devices or
systems using control loops. It can range from a single home heating controller using a
thermostat controlling a domestic boiler to large industrial control systems which are used for
controlling processes or machines.

There are two types of control systems namely:

1. Open loop control systems (non-feedback control systems)

2. Closed loop control systems (feedback control systems)
Open Loop Control System

If in a physical system there is no automatic correction of the variation in its

output, it is called an open loop control system. That is, in this type of system,
sensing of the actual output and comparing of this output (through feedback) with
the desired input does not take place. The system on its own is not in a position to
give the desired output and it cannot take into account the disturbances. In these
systems, the changes in output can be corrected only by changing the input
manually.

These systems are simple in construction, stable and cost cheap. But these systems
are inaccurate and unreliable. Moreover these systems do not take account of
external disturbances that affect the output and they do not initiate corrective
actions automatically.

Examples of open loop control systems:

1. Automatic washing machine
2. traffic signal system
3. home heating system( without sensing, feedback and control)
Any non-feedback control system can be considered as a feedback control system
if it is under the supervision of someone. Although open loop control systems have
economical components and are simple in design, they largely depend on human
judgement.

As an example, let us consider a home furnace control system. This system must
control the temperature in a room, keeping it constant. An open loop system
usually has a timer which instructs the system to switch on the furnace for some
time and then switch it off. Accuracy cannot be achieved as the system does not
switch on/off based on the room temperature but it does as per the preset value of
time.
Closed Loop Control System

A closed loop control system is a system where the output has an effect upon the
input quantity in such a manner as to maintain the desired output value.

An open loop control system becomes a closed loop control system by including a
feedback. This feedback will automatically correct the change in output due to
disturbances. This is why a closed loop control system is called as an automatic
control system. The block diagram of a closed loop control system is shown in
figure.

In a closed loop control system, the controlled variable (output) of the system is
sensed at every instant of time, feedback and compared with the desired input
resulting in an error signal. This error signal directs the control elements in the
system to do the necessary corrective action such that the output of the system is
obtained as desired.

The feedback control system takes into account the disturbances also and makes
the corrective action. These control systems are accurate, stable and less affected
by noise. But these control systems are sophisticated and hence costly. They are
also complicated to design for stability, give oscillatory response and feedback
brings down the overall gain of the control system.

Electronic Feedback Systems

Another important interconnection of systems which is used extensively in control systems, is
the “feedback configuration”. In feedback systems, a fraction of the output signal is “fed
back” and either added to or subtracted from the original input signal. The result is that the
output of the system is continually altering or updating its input with the purpose of
modifying the response of a system to improve stability. A feedback system is also
commonly referred to as a “Closed-loop System” as shown.
Closed-Loop Feedback System

Feedback systems are used a lot in most practical electronic system designs to help stabilise
the system and to increase its control. If the feedback loop reduces the value of the original
signal, the feedback loop is known as “negative feedback”. If the feedback loop adds to the
value of the original signal, the feedback loop is known as “positive feedback”.
An example of a simple feedback system could be a thermostatically controlled heating
system in the home. If the home is too hot, the feedback loop will switch “OFF” the heating
system to make it cooler. If the home is too cold, the feedback loop will switch “ON” the
heating system to make it warmer. In this instance, the system comprises of the heating
system, the air temperature and the thermostatically controlled feedback loop.

Transfer Function of Systems

Any subsystem can be represented as a simple block with an input and output as shown.
Generally, the input is designated as: θi and the output as: θo. The ratio of output over input
represents the gain, ( G ) of the subsystem and is therefore defined as: G = θo/θi
In this case, G represents the Transfer Function of the system or subsystem. When
discussing electronic systems in terms of their transfer function, the complex operator, s is
used, then the equation for the gain is rewritten as: G(s) = θo(s)/θi(s)

Electronic System Summary

We have seen that a simple Electronic System consists of an input, a process, an output and
possibly feedback. Electronic systems can be represented using interconnected block
diagrams where the lines between each block or subsystem represents both the flow and
direction of a signal through the system.
Block diagrams need not represent a simple single system but can represent very complex
systems made from many interconnected subsystems. These subsystems can be connected
together in series, parallel or combinations of both depending upon the flow of the signals.
We have also seen that electronic signals and systems can be of continuous-time or discrete-
time in nature and may be analogue, digital or both. Feedback loops can be used be used to
increase or reduce the performance of a particular system by providing better stability and
control. Control is the process of making a system variable adhere to a particular value, called
the reference value.
In the next tutorial about Electronic Systems, we will look at a types of electronic control
system called an Open-loop System which generates an output signal, y(t) based on its
present input values and as such does not monitor its output or make adjustments based on
the condition of its output.

Open-loop System

The open-loop configuration does not monitor or measure the condition of its output signal as
there is no feedback

In the previous tutorial about Electronic Systems, we saw that a system can be defined as a
collection of subsystems which direct or control an input signal to produce the desired output
condition.
The function of any electronic system is to automatically regulate the output and keep it
within the systems desired input value or “set point”. If the systems input changes for
whatever reason, the output of the system must respond accordingly and change itself to
reflect the new input value.
Likewise, if something happens to disturb the systems output without any change to the input
value, the output must respond by returning back to its previous set value. In the past,
electrical control systems were basically manual or what is called an Open-loop System with
very few automatic control or feedback features built in to regulate the process variable so as
to maintain the desired output level or value.
For example, an electric clothes dryer. Depending upon the amount of clothes or how wet
they are, a user or operator would set a timer (controller) to say 30 minutes and at the end of
the 30 minutes the drier will automatically stop and turn-off even if the clothes where still
wet or damp.
In this case, the control action is the manual operator assessing the wetness of the clothes and
setting the process (the drier) accordingly.
So in this example, the clothes dryer would be an open-loop system as it does not monitor or
measure the condition of the output signal, which is the dryness of the clothes. Then the
accuracy of the drying process, or success of drying the clothes will depend on the experience
of the user (operator).
However, the user may adjust or fine tune the drying process of the system at any time by
increasing or decreasing the timing controllers drying time, if they think that the original
drying process will not be met. For example, increasing the timing controller to 40 minutes to
extend the drying process. Consider the following open-loop block diagram.

Open-loop Drying System

Then an Open-loop system, also referred to as non-feedback system, is a type of continuous
control system in which the output has no influence or effect on the control action of the
input signal. In other words, in an open-loop control system the output is neither measured
nor “fed back” for comparison with the input. Therefore, an open-loop system is expected to
faithfully follow its input command or set point regardless of the final result.
Also, an open-loop system has no knowledge of the output condition so cannot self-correct
any errors it could make when the preset value drifts, even if this results in large deviations
from the preset value.
Another disadvantage of open-loop systems is that they are poorly equipped to handle
disturbances or changes in the conditions which may reduce its ability to complete the desired
task. For example, the dryer door opens and heat is lost. The timing controller continues
regardless for the full 30 minutes but the clothes are not heated or dried at the end of the
drying process. This is because there is no information fed back to maintain a constant
temperature.

Then we can see that open-loop system errors can disturb the drying process and therefore
requires extra supervisory attention of a user (operator). The problem with this anticipatory
control approach is that the user would need to look at the process temperature frequently and
take any corrective control action whenever the drying process deviated from its desired
value of drying the clothes. This type of manual open-loop control which reacts before an
error actually occurs is called Feed forward Control
The objective of feed forward control, also known as predictive control, is to measure or
predict any potential open-loop disturbances and compensate for them manually before the
controlled variable deviates too far from the original set point. So for our simple example
above, if the dryers door was open it would be detected and closed allowing the drying
process to continue.
 If applied correctly, the deviation from wet clothes to dry clothes at the end of the 30 minutes
would be minimal if the user responded to the error situation (door open) very quickly.
However, this feed forward approach may not be completely accurate if the system changes,
for example the drop in drying temperature was not noticed during the 30 minute process.
Then we can define the main characteristics of an “Open-loop system” as being:
 There is no comparison between actual and desired values.
 An open-loop system has no self-regulation or control action over the output value.
 Each input setting determines a fixed operating position for the controller.
 Changes or disturbances in external conditions does not result in a direct output
change (unless the controller setting is altered manually).
Any open-loop system can be represented as multiple cascaded blocks in series or a single
block diagram with an input and output. The block diagram of an open-loop system shows
that the signal path from input to output represents a linear path with no feedback loop and
for any type of control system the input is given the designation θi and the output θo.
Generally, we do not have to manipulate the open-loop block diagram to calculate its actual
transfer function. We can just write down the proper relationships or equations from each
block diagram, and then calculate the final transfer function from these equations as shown.

Open-loop System

The Transfer Function of each block is therefore:

The overall transfer function is given as:

Then the Open-loop Gain is given simply as:

When G represents the Transfer Function of the system or subsystem, it can be rewritten
as: G(s) = θo(s)/θi(s)
Open-loop control systems are often used with processes that require the sequencing of
events with the aid of “ON-OFF” signals. For example a washing machines which requires
the water to be switched “ON” and then when full is switched “OFF” followed by the heater
element being switched “ON” to heat the water and then at a suitable temperature is switched
“OFF”, and so on.
This type of “ON-OFF” open-loop control is suitable for systems where the changes in load
occur slowly and the process is very slow acting, necessitating infrequent changes to the
control action by an operator.

Open-loop Control Systems Summary

We have seen that a controller can manipulate its inputs to obtain the desired effect on the
output of a system. One type of control system in which the output has no influence or effect
on the control action of the input signal is called an Open-loop system.
An “open-loop system” is defined by the fact that the output signal or condition is neither
measured nor “fed back” for comparison with the input signal or system set point. Therefore
open-loop systems are commonly referred to as “Non-feedback systems”.
Also, as an open-loop system does not use feedback to determine if its required output was
achieved, it “assumes” that the desired goal of the input was successful because it cannot
correct any errors it could make, and so cannot compensate for any external disturbances to
the system.

Open-loop Motor Control

So for example, assume the DC motor controller as shown. The speed of rotation of the motor
will depend upon the voltage supplied to the amplifier (the controller) by the potentiometer.
The value of the input voltage could be proportional to the position of the potentiometer.

If the potentiometer is moved to the top of the resistance the maximum positive voltage will
be supplied to the amplifier representing full speed. Likewise, if the potentiometer wiper is
moved to the bottom of the resistance, zero voltage will be supplied representing a very slow
speed or stop.
Then the position of the potentiometers slider represents the input, θi which is amplified by
the amplifier (controller) to drive the DC motor (process) at a set speed N representing the
output, θo of the system. The motor will continue to rotate at a fixed speed determined by the
position of the potentiometer.
As the signal path from the input to the output is a direct path not forming part of any loop,
the overall gain of the system will the cascaded values of the individual gains from the
potentiometer, amplifier, motor and load. It is clearly desirable that the output speed of the
motor should be identical to the position of the potentiometer, giving the overall gain of the
system as unity.
However, the individual gains of the potentiometer, amplifier and motor may vary over time
with changes in supply voltage or temperature, or the motors load may increase representing
external disturbances to the open-loop motor control system.
But the user will eventually become aware of the change in the systems performance (change
in motor speed) and may correct it by increasing or decreasing the potentiometers input signal
accordingly to maintain the original or desired speed.
The advantages of this type of “open-loop motor control” is that it is potentially cheap and
simple to implement making it ideal for use in well-defined systems were the relationship
between input and output is direct and not influenced by any outside disturbances.
Unfortunately this type of open-loop system is inadequate as variations or disturbances in the
system affect the speed of the motor. Then another form of control is required.
In the next tutorial about Electronics Systems, we will look at the effect of feeding back
some of the output signal to the input so that the systems control is based on the difference
between actual and desired values. This type of electronics control system is called Closed-
loop Control.

Closed-loop Systems

Closed-loop Systems use feedback where a portion of the output signal is fed back to the
input to reduce errors and improve stability

Systems in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input to the control process are
called open-loop control systems, and that open-loop systems are just that, open ended non-
feedback systems.
But the goal of any electrical or electronic control system is to measure, monitor, and control
a process and one way in which we can accurately control the process is by monitoring its
output and “feeding” some of it back to compare the actual output with the desired output so
as to reduce the error and if disturbed, bring the output of the system back to the original or
desired response.
The quantity of the output being measured is called the “feedback signal”, and the type of
control system which uses feedback signals to both control and adjust itself is called a Close-
loop System.
A Closed-loop Control System, also known as a feedback control system is a control system
which uses the concept of an open loop system as its forward path but has one or more
feedback loops (hence its name) or paths between its output and its input. The reference to
“feedback”, simply means that some portion of the output is returned “back” to the input to
form part of the systems excitation.
Closed-loop systems are designed to automatically achieve and maintain the desired output
condition by comparing it with the actual condition. It does this by generating an error signal
which is the difference between the output and the reference input. In other words, a “closed-
loop system” is a fully automatic control system in which its control action being dependent
on the output in some way.
So for example, consider our electric clothes dryer from the previous Open-loop tutorial.
Suppose we used a sensor or transducer (input device) to continually monitor the temperature
or dryness of the clothes and feed a signal relating to the dryness back to the controller as
shown below.

Closed-loop Control

This sensor would monitor the actual dryness of the clothes and compare it with (or subtract
it from) the input reference. The error signal (error = required dryness – actual dryness) is
amplified by the controller, and the controller output makes the necessary correction to the
heating system to reduce any error. For example if the clothes are too wet the controller may
increase the temperature or drying time. Likewise, if the clothes are nearly dry it may reduce
the temperature or stop the process so as not to overheat or burn the clothes, etc.
Then the closed-loop configuration is characterised by the feedback signal, derived from the
sensor in our clothes drying system. The magnitude and polarity of the resulting error signal,
would be directly related to the difference between the required dryness and actual dryness of
the clothes.
Also, because a closed-loop system has some knowledge of the output condition, (via the
sensor) it is better equipped to handle any system disturbances or changes in the conditions
which may reduce its ability to complete the desired task.
For example, as before, the dryer door opens and heat is lost. This time the deviation in
temperature is detected by the feedback sensor and the controller self-corrects the error to
maintain a constant temperature within the limits of the preset value. Or possibly stops the
process and activates an alarm to inform the operator.
As we can see, in a closed-loop control system the error signal, which is the difference
between the input signal and the feedback signal (which may be the output signal itself or a
function of the output signal), is fed to the controller so as to reduce the systems error and
bring the output of the system back to a desired value. In our case the dryness of the clothes.
Clearly, when the error is zero the clothes are dry.
The term Closed-loop control always implies the use of a feedback control action in order to
reduce any errors within the system, and its “feedback” which distinguishes the main
differences between an open-loop and a closed-loop [Link] accuracy of the output thus
 depends on the feedback path, which in general can be made very accurate and within
electronic control systems and circuits, feedback control is more commonly used than open-
loop or feed forward control.
Closed-loop systems have many advantages over open-loop systems. The primary advantage
of a closed-loop feedback control system is its ability to reduce a system’s sensitivity to
external disturbances, for example opening of the dryer door, giving the system a more robust
control as any changes in the feedback signal will result in compensation by the controller.
Then we can define the main characteristics of Closed-loop Control as being:
 To reduce errors by automatically adjusting the systems input.
 To improve stability of an unstable system.
 To increase or reduce the systems sensitivity.
 To enhance robustness against external disturbances to the process.
 To produce a reliable and repeatable performance.
Whilst a good closed-loop system can have many advantages over an open-loop control
system, its main disadvantage is that in order to provide the required amount of control, a
closed-loop system must be more complex by having one or more feedback paths. Also, if the
gain of the controller is too sensitive to changes in its input commands or signals it can
become unstable and start to oscillate as the controller tries to over-correct itself, and
eventually something would break. So we need to “tell” the system how we want it to behave
within some pre-defined limits.

Closed-loop Summing Points

For a closed-loop feedback system to regulate any control signal, it must first determine the
error between the actual output and the desired output. This is achieved using a summing
point, also referred to as a comparison element, between the feedback loop and the systems
input. These summing points compare a systems set point to the actual value and produce a
positive or negative error signal which the controller responds too. where: Error = Set
point – Actual

The symbol used to represent a summing point in closed-loop systems block-diagram is that
of a circle with two crossed lines as shown. The summing point can either add signals
together in which a Plus ( + ) symbol is used showing the device to be a “summer” (used for
positive feedback), or it can subtract signals from each other in which case a Minus ( − )
symbol is used showing that the device is a “comparator” (used for negative feedback) as
shown.

Summing Point Types

Note that summing points can have more than one signal as inputs either adding or
subtracting but only one output which is the algebraic sum of the inputs. Also the arrows
indicate the direction of the signals. Summing points can be cascaded together to allow for
more input variables to be summed at a given point.

Closed-loop System Transfer Function

The Transfer Function of any electrical or electronic control system is the mathematical
relationship between the systems input and its output, and hence describes the behaviour of
the system. Note also that the ratio of the output of a particular device to its input represents
its gain. Then we can correctly say that the output is always the transfer function of the
system times the input. Consider the closed-loop system below.

Typical Closed-loop System Representation

Where: block G represents the open-loop gains of the controller or system and is the forward
path, and block H represents the gain of the sensor, transducer or measurement system in the
feedback path.
To find the transfer function of the closed-loop system above, we must first calculate the
output signal θo in terms of the input signal θi. To do so, we can easily write the equations of
the given block-diagram as follows.
The output from the system is equal to: Output = G x Error
Note that the error signal, θe is also the input to the feed-forward block: G
The output from the summing point is equal to: Error = Input - H x Output
If H = 1 (unity feedback) then:
The output from the summing point will be: Error (θe) = Input - Output
Eliminating the error term, then:
The output is equal to: Output = G x (Input - H x Output)
Therefore: G x Input = Output + G x H x Output
Rearranging the above gives us the closed-loop transfer function of:
The above equation for the transfer function of a closed-loop system shows a Plus ( + ) sign
in the denominator representing negative feedback. With a positive feedback system, the
denominator will have a Minus ( − ) sign and the equation becomes: 1 - GH.
We can see that when H = 1 (unity feedback) and G is very large, the transfer function
approaches unity as:

Also, as the systems steady state gain G decreases, the expression of: G/(1 + G) decreases
much more slowly. In other words, the system is fairly insensitive to variations in the systems
gain represented by G, and which is one of the main advantages of a closed-loop system.

Multi-loop Closed-loop System

Whilst our example above is of a single input, single output closed-loop system, the basic
transfer function still applies to more complex multi-loop systems. Most practical feedback
circuits have some form of multiple loop control, and for a multi-loop configuration the
transfer function between a controlled and a manipulated variable depends on whether the
other feedback control loops are open or closed.
Consider the multi-loop system below.

Any cascaded blocks such as G1 and G2 can be reduced, as well as the transfer function of the
inner loop as shown.
After further reduction of the blocks we end up with a final block diagram which resembles
that of the previous single-loop closed-loop system.

And the transfer function of this multi-loop system becomes:

Then we can see that even complex multi-block or multi-loop block diagrams can be reduced
to give one single block diagram with one common system transfer function.

Closed-loop Motor Control

So how can we use Closed-loop Systems in Electronics. Well consider our DC motor
controller from the previous open-loop tutorial. If we connected a speed measuring
transducer, such as a tachometer to the shaft of the DC motor, we could detect its speed and
send a signal proportional to the motor speed back to the amplifier. A tachometer, also known
as a tacho-generator is simply a permanent-magnet DC generator which gives a DC output
voltage proportional to the speed of the motor.
Then the position of the potentiometers slider represents the input, θi which is amplified by
the amplifier (controller) to drive the DC motor at a set speed N representing the output, θo of
the system, and the tachometer T would be the closed-loop back to the controller. The
difference between the input voltage setting and the feedback voltage level gives the error
signal as shown.

Closed-loop Motor Control

Any external disturbances to the closed-loop motor control system such as the motors load
increasing would create a difference in the actual motor speed and the potentiometer input set
point.
This difference would produce an error signal which the controller would automatically
respond too adjusting the motors speed. Then the controller works to minimize the error
signal, with zero error indicating actual speed which equals set point.
Electronically, we could implement such a simple closed-loop tachometer-feedback motor
control circuit using an operational amplifier (op-amp) for the controller as shown.

Closed-loop Motor Controller Circuit

This simple closed-loop motor controller can be represented as a block diagram as shown.

Block Diagram for the Feedback Controller

A closed-loop motor controller is a common means of maintaining a desired motor speed
under varying load conditions by changing the average voltage applied to the input from the
controller. The tachometer could be replaced by an optical encoder or Hall-effect type
positional or rotary sensor.

Closed-loop Systems Summary

We have seen that an electronic control system with one or more feedback paths is called
a Closed-loop System. Closed-loop control systems are also called “feedback control
systems” are very common in process control and electronic control systems. Feedback
systems have part of their output signal “fed back” to the input for comparison with the
desired set point condition. The type of feedback signal can result either in positive feedback
or negative feedback.
In a closed-loop system, a controller is used to compare the output of a system with the
required condition and convert the error into a control action designed to reduce the error and
bring the output of the system back to the desired response. Then closed-loop control systems
use feedback to determine the actual input to the system and can have more than one
feedback loop.
Closed-loop control systems have many advantages over open-loop systems. One advantage
is the fact that the use of feedback makes the system response relatively insensitive to
external disturbances and internal variations in system parameters such as temperature. It is
thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to obtain the accurate
control of a given process or plant.
However, system stability can be a major problem especially in badly designed closed-loop
systems as they may try to over-correct any errors which could cause the system to loss
control and oscillate.
In the next tutorial about Electronics Systems, we will look at the different ways in which we
can incorporate a summing point into the input of a system and the different ways in which
we can feed signals back to it.

Feedback Systems

In a Feedback System, all or part of the output signal either positive or negative is fed back to
the input

Feedback Systems process signals and as such are signal processors. The processing part of
a feedback system may be electrical or electronic, ranging from a very simple to a highly
complex circuits.
Simple analogue feedback control circuits can be constructed using individual or discrete
components, such as transistors, resistors and capacitors, etc, or by using microprocessor-
based and integrated circuits (IC’s) to form more complex digital feedback systems.
As we have seen, open-loop systems are just that, open ended, and no attempt is made to
compensate for changes in circuit conditions or changes in load conditions due to variations
in circuit parameters, such as gain and stability, temperature, supply voltage variations and/or
 external disturbances. But the effects of these “open-loop” variations can be eliminated or at
least considerably reduced by the introduction of Feedback.
A feedback system is one in which the output signal is sampled and then fed back to the input
to form an error signal that drives the system. In the previous tutorial about Closed-loop
Systems, we saw that in general, feedback is comprised of a sub-circuit that allows a fraction
of the output signal from a system to modify the effective input signal in such a way as to
produce a response that can differ substantially from the response produced in the absence of
such feedback.
Feedback Systems are very useful and widely used in amplifier circuits, oscillators, process
control systems as well as other types of electronic systems. But for feedback to be an
effective tool it must be controlled as an uncontrolled system will either oscillate or fail to
function. The basic model of a feedback system is given as:

Feedback System Block Diagram Model

This basic feedback loop of sensing, controlling and actuation is the main concept behind a
feedback control system and there are several good reasons why feedback is applied and used
in electronic circuits:
 Circuit characteristics such as the systems gain and response can be precisely controlled.
 Circuit characteristics can be made independent of operating conditions such as supply
voltages or temperature variations.
 Signal distortion due to the non-linear nature of the components used can be greatly
reduced.
 The Frequency Response, Gain and Bandwidth of a circuit or system can be easily
controlled to within tight limits.
Whilst there are many different types of control systems, there are just two main types of
feedback control namely: Negative Feedback and Positive Feedback.

Positive Feedback Systems

In a “positive feedback control system”, the set point and output values are added together by
the controller as the feedback is “in-phase” with the input. The effect of positive (or
regenerative) feedback is to “increase” the systems gain, i.e, the overall gain with positive
feedback applied will be greater than the gain without feedback. For example, if someone
praises you or gives you positive feedback about something, you feel happy about yourself
and are full of energy, you feel more positive.
However, in electronic and control systems to much praise and positive feedback can increase
the systems gain far too much which would give rise to oscillatory circuit responses as it
increases the magnitude of the effective input signal.
An example of a positive feedback systems could be an electronic amplifier based on an
operational amplifier, or op-amp as shown.

Positive Feedback System

Positive feedback control of the op-amp is achieved by applying a small part of the output
voltage signal at Vout back to the non-inverting ( + ) input terminal via the feedback
resistor, RF.
If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-amp amplifies this positive signal and the output
becomes more positive. Some of this output voltage is returned back to the input by the
feedback network.
Thus the input voltage becomes more positive, causing an even larger output voltage and so
on. Eventually the output becomes saturated at its positive supply rail.
Likewise, if the input voltage Vin is negative, the reverse happens and the op-amp saturates
at its negative supply rail. Then we can see that positive feedback does not allow the circuit to
function as an amplifier as the output voltage quickly saturates to one supply rail or the other,
because with positive feedback loops “more leads to more” and “less leads to less”.
Then if the loop gain is positive for any system the transfer function will
be: Av = G / (1 – GH). Note that if GH = 1 the system gain Av = infinity and the circuit will
start to self-oscillate, after which no input signal is needed to maintain oscillations, which is
useful if you want to make an oscillator.
Although often considered undesirable, this behaviour is used in electronics to obtain a very
fast switching response to a condition or signal. One example of the use of positive feedback
is hysteresis in which a logic device or system maintains a given state until some input
crosses a preset threshold. This type of behaviour is called “bi-stability” and is often
associated with logic gates and digital switching devices such as multivibrators.
We have seen that positive or regenerative feedback increases the gain and the possibility of
instability in a system which may lead to self-oscillation and as such, positive feedback is
widely used in oscillatory circuits such as Oscillators and Timing circuits.

Negative Feedback Systems

In a “negative feedback control system”, the set point and output values are subtracted from
each other as the feedback is “out-of-phase” with the original input. The effect of negative (or
degenerative) feedback is to “reduce” the gain. For example, if someone criticises you or
gives you negative feedback about something, you feel unhappy about yourself and therefore
lack energy, you feel less positive.
Because negative feedback produces stable circuit responses, improves stability and increases
the operating bandwidth of a given system, the majority of all control and feedback systems
is degenerative reducing the effects of the gain.
An example of a negative feedback system is an electronic amplifier based on an operational
amplifier as shown.

Negative Feedback System

Negative feedback control of the amplifier is achieved by applying a small part of the output
voltage signal at Vout back to the inverting ( – ) input terminal via the feedback resistor, Rf.
If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-amp amplifies this positive signal, but because its
connected to the inverting input of the amplifier, and the output becomes more negative.
Some of this output voltage is returned back to the input by the feedback network of Rf.
Thus the input voltage is reduced by the negative feedback signal, causing an even smaller
output voltage and so on. Eventually the output will settle down and become stabilised at a
value determined by the gain ratio of Rf ÷ Rin.
Likewise, if the input voltage Vin is negative, the reverse happens and the op-amps output
becomes positive (inverted) which adds to the negative input signal. Then we can see that
negative feedback allows the circuit to function as an amplifier, so long as the output is
within the saturation limits.
So we can see that the output voltage is stabilised and controlled by the feedback, because
with negative feedback loops “more leads to less” and “less leads to more”.
Then if the loop gain is positive for any system the transfer function will
be: Av = G / (1 + GH).
 The use of negative feedback in amplifier and process control systems is widespread
because as a rule negative feedback systems are more stable than positive feedback systems,
and a negative feedback system is said to be stable if it does not oscillate by itself at any
frequency except for a given circuit condition.
Another advantage is that negative feedback also makes control systems more immune to
random variations in component values and inputs. Of course nothing is for free, so it must be
used with caution as negative feedback significantly modifies the operating characteristics of
a given system.

Classification of Feedback Systems

Thus far we have seen the way in which the output signal is “fed back” to the input terminal,
and for feedback systems this can be of either, Positive Feedback or Negative Feedback.
But the manner in which the output signal is measured and introduced into the input circuit
can be very different leading to four basic classifications of feedback.
Based on the input quantity being amplified, and on the desired output condition, the input
and output variables can be modelled as either a voltage or a current. As a result, there are
four basic classifications of single-loop feedback system in which the output signal is fed
back to the input and these are:
 Series-Shunt Configuration – Voltage in and Voltage out or Voltage Controlled Voltage
Source (VCVS).
 Shunt-Shunt Configuration – Current in and Voltage out or Current Controlled Voltage
Source (CCVS).
 Series-Series Configuration – Voltage in and Current out or Voltage Controlled Current
Source (VCCS).
 Shunt-Series Configuration – Current in and Current out or Current Controlled Current
Source (CCCS).
These names come from the way that the feedback network connects between the input and
output stages as shown.

Series-Shunt Feedback Systems

Series-Shunt Feedback, also known as series voltage feedback, operates as a voltage-
voltage controlled feedback system. The error voltage fed back from the feedback network is
in series with the input. The voltage which is fed back from the output being proportional to
the output voltage, Vo as it is parallel, or shunt connected.

Series-Shunt Feedback System

For the series-shunt connection, the configuration is defined as the output voltage, Vout to the
input voltage, Vin. Most inverting and non-inverting operational amplifier circuits operate
with series-shunt feedback producing what is known as a “voltage amplifier”. As a voltage
amplifier the ideal input resistance, Rin is very large, and the ideal output resistance, Rout is
very small.
Then the “series-shunt feedback configuration” works as a true voltage amplifier as the input
signal is a voltage and the output signal is a voltage, so the transfer gain is given
as: Av = Vout ÷ Vin. Note that this quantity is dimensionless as its units are volts/volts.

Shunt-Series Feedback Systems

Shunt-Series Feedback, also known as shunt current feedback, operates as a current-current
controlled feedback system. The feedback signal is proportional to the output
current, Io flowing in the load. The feedback signal is fed back in parallel or shunt with the
input as shown.

Shunt-Series Feedback System

For the shunt-series connection, the configuration is defined as the output current, Iout to the
input current, Iin. In the shunt-series feedback configuration the signal fed back is in parallel
with the input signal and as such its the currents, not the voltages that add.
This parallel shunt feedback connection will not normally affect the voltage gain of the
system, since for a voltage output a voltage input is required. Also, the series connection at
the output increases output resistance, Rout while the shunt connection at the input decreases
the input resistance, Rin.
Then the “shunt-series feedback configuration” works as a true current amplifier as the input
signal is a current and the output signal is a current, so the transfer gain is given as: Ai = Iout
÷ Iin. Note that this quantity is dimensionless as its units are amperes/amperes.

Series-Series Feedback Systems

Series-Series Feedback Systems, also known as series current feedback, operates as a
voltage-current controlled feedback system. In the series current configuration the feedback
error signal is in series with the input and is proportional to the load current, Iout. Actually,
this type of feedback converts the current signal into a voltage which is actually fed back and
it is this voltage which is subtracted from the input.
Series-Series Feedback System

For the series-series connection, the configuration is defined as the output current, Iout to the
input voltage, Vin. Because the output current, Iout of the series connection is fed back as a
voltage, this increases both the input and output impedances of the system. Therefore, the
circuit works best as a transconductance amplifier with the ideal input resistance, Rin being
very large, and the ideal output resistance, Rout is also very large.
Then the “series-series feedback configuration” functions as transconductance type amplifier
system as the input signal is a voltage and the output signal is a current. then for a series-
series feedback circuit the transfer gain is given as: Gm = Iout ÷ Vin.

Shunt-Shunt Feedback Systems

Shunt-Shunt Feedback Systems, also known as shunt voltage feedback, operates as a
current-voltage controlled feedback system. In the shunt-shunt feedback configuration the
signal fed back is in parallel with the input signal. The output voltage is sensed and the
current is subtracted from the input current in shunt, and as such its the currents, not the
voltages that subtract.

Shunt-Shunt Feedback System

For the shunt-shunt connection, the configuration is defined as the output voltage, Vout to the
input current, Iin. As the output voltage is fed back as a current to a current-driven input port,
the shunt connections at both the input and output terminals reduce the input and output
impedance. therefore the system works best as a transresistance system with the ideal input
resistance, Rin being very small, and the ideal output resistance, Rout also being very small.
Then the shunt voltage configuration works as transresistance type voltage amplifier as the
input signal is a current and the output signal is a voltage, so the transfer gain is given
as: Rm = Vout ÷ Iin.

Feedback Systems Summary

We have seen that a Feedback System is one in which the output signal is sampled and then
fed back to the input to form an error signal that drives the system, and depending on the type
of feedback used, the feedback signal which is mixed with the systems input signal, can be
either a voltage or a current.
Feedback will always change the performance of a system and feedback arrangements can be
either positive (regenerative) or negative (degenerative) type feedback systems. If the
feedback loop around the system produces a loop-gain which is negative, the feedback is said
to be negative or degenerative with the main effect of the negative feedback is in reducing the
systems gain.
If however the gain around the loop is positive, the system is said to have positive feedback
or regenerative feedback. The effect of positive feedback is to increase the gain which can
cause a system to become unstable and oscillate especially if GH = -1.
We have also seen that block-diagrams can be used to demonstrate the various types of
feedback systems. In the block diagrams above, the input and output variables can be
modelled as either a voltage or a current and as such there are four combinations of inputs
and outputs that represent the possible types of feedback, namely: Series Voltage Feedback,
Shunt Voltage Feedback, Series Current Feedback and Shunt Current Feedback.
The names for these different types of feedback systems are derived from the way that the
feedback network connects between the input and output stages either in parallel (shunt) or
series.
In the next tutorial about Feedback Systems, we will look at the effects of Negative
Feedback on a system and see how it can be used to improve a control systems stability.

Negative Feedback Systems

Negative Feedback is the most common form of feedback control configuration used in
process, micro-computer and amplification systems

Feedback is the process by which a fraction of the output signal, either a voltage or a current,
is used as an input. If this feed back fraction is opposite in value or phase (“anti-phase”) to
the input signal, then the feedback is said to be Negative Feedback, or degenerative
feedback.
Negative feedback opposes or subtracts from the input signals giving it many advantages in
the design and stabilisation of control systems. For example, if the systems output changes
for any reason, then negative feedback affects the input in such a way as to counteract the
change.
Feedback reduces the overall gain of a system with the degree of reduction being related to
the systems open-loop gain. Negative feedback also has effects of reducing distortion, noise,
sensitivity to external changes as well as improving system bandwidth and input and output
impedances.
Feedback in an electronic system, whether negative feedback or positive feedback is
unilateral in direction. Meaning that its signals flow one way only from the output to the
input of the system. This then makes the loop gain, G of the system independent of the load
and source impedances.
As feedback implies a closed-loop system it must therefore have a summing point. In a
negative feedback system this summing point or junction at its input subtracts the feedback
signal from the input signal to form an error signal, β which drives the system. If the system
has a positive gain, the feedback signal must be subtracted from the input signal in order for
the feedback to be negative as shown.

Negative Feedback Circuit

The circuit represents a system with positive gain, G and feedback, β. The summing junction
at its input subtracts the feedback signal from the input signal to form the error
signal Vin – βG, which drives the system.
Then using the basic closed-loop circuit above we can derive the general feedback equation
as being:

Negative Feedback Equation

We see that the effect of the negative feedback is to reduce the gain by the factor of: 1 + βG.
This factor is called the “feedback factor” or “amount of feedback” and is often specified in
decibels (dB) by the relationship of 20 log (1+ βG).

Effects of Negative Feedback

If the open-loop gain, G is very large, then βG will be much greater than 1, so that the overall
gain of the system is roughly equal to 1/β. If the open-loop gain decreases due to frequency
or the effects of system ageing, providing that βG is still relatively large, the overall system
gain does not change very much. So negative feedback tends to reduce the effects of gain
change giving what is generally called “gain stability”.

Negative Feedback Example No1

A system has a gain of 80dB without feedback. If the negative feedback fraction is 1/50th.
Calculate the closed-loop gain of the system in dB with the addition of negative feedback.

Then we can see that the system has a loop gain of 10,000 and a closed-loop gain of 34dB.
Negative Feedback Example No2
If after 5 years the loop gain of the system without negative feedback has fallen to 60dB and
the feedback fraction has remained constant at 1/50th. Calculate the new closed-loop gain
value of the system.

Then we can see from the two examples that without feedback, after 5 years of use the
systems gain has fallen from 80dB down to 60dB, (10,000 to 1,000) a drop in open loop gain
of about 25%.
However with the addition of negative feedback the systems gain has only fallen from 34dB
to 33.5dB, a reduction of less than 1.5%, which proves that negative feedback gives added
stability to a systems gain.
Therefore we can see that by applying negative feedback to a system greatly reduces its
overall gain compared to its gain without feedback.
The systems gain without feedback can be very large but not precise as it may change from
one system device to the next, then it is possible to design a system with sufficient open-loop
gain that, after the negative feedback has been added, the overall gain matches the desired
value.
Also, if the feedback network is constructed from passive elements having stable
characteristics, the overall gain becomes very steady and unaffected by variation in the
systems inherent open-loop gain.

Negative Feedback in Operational Amplifiers

Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are the most commonly used type of linear integrated
circuit but they have a very high gain. The open-loop voltage gain, AVOL, of a standard 741
op-amp is its voltage gain when there is no negative feedback applied and the open-loop
voltage gain of an op-amp is the ratio of its output voltage, Vout, to its differential input
voltage, Vin, ( Vout/Vin ).
The typical value of AVOL for a 741 op-amp is more than 200,000 (106dB). So an input
voltage signal of only 1mV, would result in an output voltage of over 200 volts! forcing the
output immediately into saturation. Obviously this high open-loop voltage gain needs to be
controlled in some way, and we can do just that by using negative feedback.
The use of negative feedback can significantly improve the performance of an operational
amplifier and any op-amp circuit that does not use negative feedback is considered too
unstable to be useful. But how can we use negative feedback to control an op-amp. Well
consider the circuit below of a Non-inverting Operational Amplifier.

Non-inverting Op-amp Circuit

Negative Feedback Example No3

An operational amplifier with an open-loop voltage gain, AVOL of 320,000 without feedback
is to be used as a non-inverting amplifier. Calculate the values of the feedback
resistances, R1 and R2 required to stabilise the circuit with a closed loop gain of 20.
The generalised closed-loop feedback equation we derived above is given as:

By rearranging the feedback formula we get a feedback fraction, β of:

Then putting the values of: A = 320,000 and G = 20, into the above equation we get the value
of β as:

Because in this case the open-loop gain of the op-amp is very high ( A = 320,000 ), the
feedback fraction, β will be roughly equal to the reciprocal of the closed-loop gain 1/G only
as the value of 1/A will be incredibly small. Then β (the feedback fraction) is equal
to 1/20 = 0.05.
As the resistors, R1 and R2 form a simple series-voltage potential divider network across the
non-inverting amplifier, the closed-loop voltage gain of the circuit will be determined by the
ratios of these resistances as:

If we assume resistor R2 has a value of 1,000Ω, or 1kΩ, then the value of resistor R1 will be:
Then for the non-inverting amplifier circuit about to have a closed-loop gain of 20, the values
of the negative feedback resistors required will be in this case, R1 = 19kΩ and R2 = 1kΩ,
giving us a non-inverting amplifier circuit of:

Non-inverting Op-amp Circuit

There are many advantages to using feedback within a systems design, but the main
advantages of using Negative Feedback in amplifier circuits is to greatly improve their
stability, better tolerance to component variations, stabilisation against DC drift as well as
increasing the amplifiers bandwidth.
Examples of negative feedback in common amplifier circuits include the resistor Rƒ in op-
amp circuits as we have seen above, resistor, RS in FET based amplifiers and resistor, RE in
bipolar transistor (BJT) amplifiers.
It is a basic principle of thermodynamics that the vapor emitted at the surface of a boiling
liquid will be at the same temperature as that liquid.
Furthermore, any heat lost from that vapor will cause at least some of that vapor to condense
back into liquid.
In order to ensure the vapor is “dry” (i.e. it may lose substantial heat energy without
condensing), the vapor must be heated beyond the liquid’s boiling point at some later stage in
the process.

What is Integral Wind Up

?
The PID controller plays a major role in controlling the process parameters
in process industries. It consists of Proportional term, Integral term and
Derivative term which combinedly reduces the transient error and steady
state error. In steady state condition, i.e when the error tends to zero the
output of PID is equal to the integral term of PID.
If the error = 0
then
PID = Kc * error + Ki(previous integral + error) + Kd(error – last)
= 0 + Ki (previous integral + error) + 0
= Ki (previous integral + error)
by the above analysis it is proved that the output of PID controller at the
steady state is equal to integral term which acts as reset component of the
controller. This illustrates the importance of integral controller in PID
controller. With the advantage of reset rate of controller and minimizing the
error to zero at steady state, there is major drawback in the integral term i.e
wind-up of integral component.
Integral wind-up:
Integral windup is the process of accumulating the integral component
beyond the saturation limits of final control element. The formula for integral
component in PID is
Integral component = (Ts/Ti) * error
Where Ts = time cycle
Ti = Integral time constant or reset rate
If the set point raises suddenly or the actual value drops suddenly then
there will be large error between the set-point and actual value. This error
causes the integral component to accumulate with the time period to bring
back the actual value near to the set-point. As a result the controller output
may exceeds the saturation limits of final control element. The integral
component still may accumulate beyond the saturation limits of the final
control element because of error. Whatever the integral value the final
element or actuator cannot open/close beyond its saturation value. This
concept is explained by the following example
Consider a PI control is placed for controlling the liquid level in the
controller which controls the inlet flow to the tank by adjusting the inlet
valve position. Now if the set-point is raised by the operator from control
room then the PI controller calculates the new actuator position according
to the error. The integral component of the PI controller which adds the
reset rate will accumulates according specified time cycles. If the output of
PI controller is 120 % to the adjuster which is the above saturation limit of
the actuator because actuator cannot open beyond 100 % position. In full
position of valve also still if the error is existing will further increases the
integral component value.
At this time if the set-point is lowed by the operator, the controller cannot
close the valve to reduce the flow because high accumulation of integral
value. Once the integral component reaches its normal value with negative
error accumulation than only the PI output will drive the actuator in close
direction. This integral accumulation beyond the saturation limits of the final
control element is called integral windup which gives a poor response of
controller under dynamic conditions.

Example
Consider an above example of PI controller used to control the control the
liquid level in the tank.
Initial set-point of of liquid level = 50%
output PI controller(steady state) = Promotional term + integral term
= 0 + 60
 = 60
Valve position (linear ) = 60 (0-100)
Now if the operator has raised the set-point to 90% suddenly then
according to the error the PI controller increases the output to open the
valve to allow more liquid flow.
output PI controller = Promotional term + integral term
= 20 + 80
= 100
The valve is fully opened then also if the liquid level does not reach to its
set-point which leads an input error for PI controller.
output PI controller = Promotional term + integral term
= 10 + 140
= 150
Even the output of PI controller is 150 the Valve can open up to 100 %
open only. i.e that is called the high saturation limit of valve. If the error is
still not reduced the integral component will go on accumulate to limit the
error. Let us assume the integral component has accumulated up to 180.
Now if the operator has reduced the set-point to 50% then the error of liquid
level is -40 %. Then if the proportional gain is 0.5 then
output PI controller = Promotional term + integral term
= -20 + 170
= 150
Valve position is = 100 (high saturation limit)
Again the output of PI controller will be less than 100 to close the valve
when the integral component reaches to less than 100. This results a poor
control of liquid level. To eliminate this integral accumulation beyond
saturation limits of final control element the anti-windup technique should
be used in design of controller.