Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
The reliability analysis of aged multi-storey buildings has emerged as a significant area of
research due to the increasing prevalence of aging infrastructure and the risks they pose to
public safety, particularly in urban areas. As buildings age, their structural integrity
deteriorates due to environmental exposure, material degradation, and changes in usage
patterns. Understanding how to evaluate and improve the reliability of these structures is
essential for sustainable urban development, risk mitigation, and resource allocation. This
chapter presents a comprehensive review of the literature on structural reliability, the
degradation of building materials over time, methods for assessing reliability, and case
studies that demonstrate practical applications of these concepts.

2.2 Concept of Structural Reliability

Structural reliability is the quantitative assessment of a structure's ability to perform its
intended function under specified conditions over a designated period without failure. It is
founded on the principles of probability and statistics to account for uncertainties in loads,
resistance, geometry, material properties, and environmental effects (Melchers & Beck,
2018). Key metrics used in reliability analysis include the reliability index (β) and the
probability of failure (Pf), which represent the safety margin and likelihood of failure,
respectively. The use of reliability-based design offers a more rational approach compared
to traditional deterministic design methods by incorporating variability and uncertainty in
structural parameters (Ditlevsen & Madsen, 1996).

2.3 Aging Effects on Building Materials

**Concrete:** Over time, concrete structures experience carbonation, chloride ingress,
alkali-silica reaction, and freeze-thaw damage. These processes contribute to the corrosion
of reinforcing steel, loss of bond strength, and reduction in load-carrying capacity (Bertolini
et al., 2013).

**Steel:** Steel structures are prone to corrosion, fatigue cracking, and loss of ductility due
to prolonged exposure to atmospheric and chemical agents. The cumulative damage affects
the global stability and resistance of steel frameworks (Gardner et al., 2011).

**Timber:** Timber degrades due to biological attacks (e.g., fungi, termites), moisture
variations, and ultraviolet radiation. These factors lead to reduced stiffness, strength, and
dimensional stability (Dinwoodie, 2000).
2.4 Methods of Reliability Assessment
Various methodologies have been developed to assess the reliability of structures, each
offering different levels of complexity and accuracy.

2.4.1 Deterministic Methods

Deterministic approaches use partial safety factors and load combinations defined in design
codes such as Eurocode and ACI standards. These methods, while straightforward, do not
explicitly consider the inherent uncertainties in structural parameters (EN 1990, 2002).

2.4.2 Probabilistic Methods

**First-Order Reliability Method (FORM):** A linear approximation technique used to
estimate reliability indices.

**Second-Order Reliability Method (SORM):** Extends FORM by accounting for nonlinear

limit state functions.

**Monte Carlo Simulation (MCS):** A numerical method that uses random sampling to
estimate the probability of failure. It provides high accuracy but is computationally
intensive (Ang & Tang, 2007).

2.4.3 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

NDT techniques assess the in-situ condition of structural components without causing
physical damage. Methods such as ultrasonic pulse velocity, ground penetrating radar
(GPR), rebound hammer testing, and infrared thermography help identify internal flaws,
material degradation, and voids (Malhotra & Carino, 2004).

In Taraba State, common NDT methods available through local construction firms and
academic institutions include rebound hammer testing, ultrasonic pulse velocity, and visual
inspection techniques. These tools are accessible through departments of civil engineering
in tertiary institutions such as Taraba State University and the Federal Polytechnic, Bali,
which also serve as research hubs for assessing local structural reliability.

2.4.4 Structural Health Monitoring (SHM)

SHM employs sensors, data acquisition systems, and analytical tools to monitor the health
of structures in real time. Techniques include strain gauges, accelerometers, and fiber optic
sensors that track parameters such as deflection, vibration, and crack propagation. SHM
enhances decision-making for maintenance and safety interventions (Farrar & Worden,
2012).

In Taraba State, although advanced SHM systems are not widely adopted, rudimentary
forms such as manual crack monitoring, vibration logs, and periodic structural inspections
are utilized, especially for public infrastructure and institutional buildings.
2.5 Case Studies on Aged Multi-Storey Buildings
- **Reinforced Concrete Buildings in Seismic Zones:** Research by Ghobarah et al. (1999)
revealed that many RC buildings constructed before the implementation of modern seismic
codes exhibited inadequate ductility and shear resistance, necessitating retrofitting
measures.

- **Steel Frame Structures:** Studies on industrial and office buildings in coastal regions
show accelerated deterioration due to marine-induced corrosion. Reliability analysis
supported prioritization of retrofitting based on probabilistic risk assessments (Zhao et al.,
2010).

- **Heritage Timber Buildings:** Investigations into centuries-old timber structures found

significant degradation due to biological decay. NDT combined with reliability modeling
facilitated conservation and strengthening efforts (Yamaguchi & Ueda, 2006).

In Jalingo and other parts of Taraba State, old government buildings and school hostels built
in the 1980s and 1990s exhibit signs of material fatigue, especially in concrete and roofing
systems. Local engineers apply visual assessments and basic load testing to evaluate safety
levels, which informs ongoing renovation strategies.

2.6 Challenges and Research Gaps

- Accurate modeling of time-dependent material degradation remains difficult due to
variability in exposure conditions.

- Integrating SHM and NDT data into probabilistic models is still in the early stages of
development.

- Existing design codes often lack provisions for assessing residual life and post-damage
performance.

- There is limited research on the socio-economic implications of building reliability,

particularly in developing countries.

In Taraba State, limited access to advanced monitoring technology and a lack of local code
updates hinder comprehensive reliability analysis. Furthermore, there is a need for
government investment in training and tools to improve building assessment practices.

2.7 Summary
This chapter has reviewed the key concepts and methods in the reliability analysis of aged
multi-storey buildings. It examined how material degradation impacts structural
performance, described deterministic and probabilistic assessment techniques, and
presented case studies demonstrating practical applications. The inclusion of methods
available in Taraba State highlights the importance of local context in building reliability
studies. Despite advancements, significant research is still required to fully integrate
reliability-based approaches into the lifecycle management of aging infrastructure.

References
Ang, A. H.-S., & Tang, W. H. (2007). *Probability Concepts in Engineering: Emphasis on
Applications to Civil and Environmental Engineering*. Wiley.

Bertolini, L., Elsener, B., Pedeferri, P., & Polder, R. (2013). *Corrosion of Steel in Concrete:
Prevention, Diagnosis, Repair*. Wiley-VCH.

Ditlevsen, O., & Madsen, H. O. (1996). *Structural Reliability Methods*. Wiley.

Dinwoodie, J. M. (2000). *Timber: Its Nature and Behaviour*. Taylor & Francis.

EN 1990: Eurocode - Basis of Structural Design (2002). European Committee for

Standardization.

Farrar, C. R., & Worden, K. (2012). *Structural Health Monitoring: A Machine Learning
Perspective*. Wiley.

Gardner, L., Bu, Y., & Theofanous, M. (2011). "Corrosion of Steel Structures." *Journal of
Constructional Steel Research*, 67(4), 593-605.

Ghobarah, A., Biddah, A., & Pires, J. (1999). "Rehabilitation of Reinforced Concrete Buildings
in Seismic Regions." *Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials*, 1(1), 66-74.

Malhotra, V. M., & Carino, N. J. (2004). *Handbook on Nondestructive Testing of Concrete*.

CRC Press.

Melchers, R. E., & Beck, A. T. (2018). *Structural Reliability Analysis and Prediction* (3rd
ed.). Wiley.

Yamaguchi, N., & Ueda, T. (2006). "Assessment and Retrofit of Timber Heritage Structures."
*Journal of Cultural Heritage*, 7(2), 120-126.

Zhao, X., Albrecht, P., & Kang, T. H. (2010). "Reliability-Based Maintenance Strategy for Steel
Structures." *Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities*, 24(5), 487-494.